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Chapter18Renewingthe
SectionalStruggle,1848–1854
I.ThePopularSovereigntyPanacea
• Democratsin1848:– Polkpledgedhimselftoasingleterm– NationalConventionturnedtoagingleaderGeneralLewisCass
– Platformsilentonburningissueofslavery– Cass'sviewswerewellknownbecausehewasreputedfatherofpopularsovereignty
I.ThePopularSovereigntyPanacea(cont.)
• Popularsovereignty—• doctrinestatedthesovereignpeopleofaterritory,undergeneralprincipleoftheConstitution,shouldthemselvesdeterminestatusofslavery
– Hadpersuasiveappeal:• Publiclikeditbecauseitaccordedwithdemocratictraditionofself-determination
I.PopularSovereigntyPanacea(cont.)
• Politicianslikeditbecauseitseemedacomfortablecompromisebetween:– Free-soilers'bidtobanslaveryinterritories– SoutherndemandsthatCongressprotectslaveryinterritories
• Popularsovereigntytossedslaveryproblemtopeopleinvariousterritories• Advocateshopedtodissolveslaveryfromanationalissuetoaseriesoflocalissues• Yet,popularsovereigntyhadonefataldefect:
– Mightspreadblightofslavery
II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneralTaylor
• Whigs– NominatedZacharyTaylor,“HeroofBuenaVista”– Platform:• Dodgedalltroublesomeissues• Extolledvirtuesoftheircandidate• Hewouldnotcommithimselfonissueofslavery'sextension
p382
II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)
• FreeSoilparty:– OrganizedbyardentantislaveryNortherners• CameoutforWilmotProvisoandagainstslaveryinterritories• Broadenedappealbyadvocating:
– Federalaidforinternalimprovement– Freegovernmenthomesteadsforsettlers
• AttractedindustrialistsopposedtoPolk'sreductionofprotectivetariffs
II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)
• AppealedtoDemocratsresentfulofPolk'ssettlingforpartofOregon,whileinsistingonallofTexas• HarboredmanynorthernerswhosehatredwasnotdirectedatslaveryasmuchasatAfricanAmericans:– Gaggedatprospectofsharingnewterritorieswithblacks
• Containedsome“ConscienceWhigs”whocondemnedslaveryonmoralgrounds• FreesoilerschoseVanBuren
II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)
• Free-Soilers'partyplatform:• Condemnedslaverynotsomuchforenslavingblacksbutfordestroyingchancesoffreewhitestoriseupfromwage-earningdependencetoself-employment• ArguedthatonlywithfreesoilinWestcouldAmericancommitmenttoupwardmobilitycontinuetoflourish• Firstpartyorganizedaroundissueofslaveryandconfinedtosinglesection• ForeshadowedemergenceofRepublicans
II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)
• Taylor'swartimepopularity:– 1,360,967popularand163electoralvotes
• Cass:– 1,222,342popularand127electoralvotes
• VanBuren– 291,263ballotsanddivertedDemocraticstrengthfromCassincriticalstateofNewYork
III.“CalifornyGold”
• DiscoveryofgoldnearSutter'sMill,California,earlyin1848,(seeMap18.1):–Mostreliableprofitsmadebythosewhominedtheminers:• Chargedoutrageousratesforlaundry&otherservices
– “Forty-niners”chaseddreamofgold,mostnotablytoAustraliain1851
Map 18-1 p383
p384
III.“CalifornyGold” (cont.)
• Californiagoldrush:– Attractedtensofthousandsofpeople– Highproportionofnewcomerswerelawlessmen,accompaniedorfollowedbyvirtuelesswomen
– Crimeinevitablyresulted– Robbery,claimjumping,&murdermostcommonplace
III.“CalifornyGold” (cont.)
• MajorityofCaliforniansweredecent,law-abidingcitizens;neededprotection:– Struggledtoerectadequatestategovernment• EncouragedbyPresidentTaylor,theydraftedaconstitutionin1849thatexcludedslavery• ThenappealedtoCongressforadmission,bypassingusualterritorialstage• WouldCaliforniabestrawthatbrokebackoftheUnion?
IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad
• Southin1850wasrelativelywell-off:– Nationalleadership:TaylorinWhiteHouse– HadamajorityincabinetandonSupremeCourt– Cottonfieldsexpanding– Cottonpricesprofitablyhigh– Fewbelievedslaveryseriouslythreatenedinfifteenstates
• Southdeeplyworriedbyever-tippingpoliticalbalance:15slavestates&15freestates
IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)
• AdmissionofCaliforniawoulddestroydelicateequilibriuminSenate
• PotentialslaveterritoryunderAmericanflagrunningshort
• AlreadyagitationinterritoriesofNewMexico&Utahforadmissionasnonslavestates
• Californiamightestablishaprecedent
IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)
• Texashadadditionalgrievances:– HugeareaeastofRioGrandeandnorthofforty-secondparallel
– Embracedhalfofpresent-dayNewMexico(seeMap18.2)
– FederalgovernmentproposedtodetachareafromTexas,butTexansthreatenedviolence
Map 18-2 p385
IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)
• Southerners:– AngeredbyagitationinNorthforabolitionofslaveryinDistrictofColumbia
– Alarmedbyprospectof10-mileoasisoffreesoilbetweenslaveholdingMaryland&slaveholdingVirginia
–MoredisagreeabletoSouthwaslossofrunawayslaves:• AssistedbyUndergroundRailroad• Amazingconductor:HarrietTubman
p384
p385
IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)
• 1850:southernersdemandedmorestringentfugitive-slavelaw:– 1793lawinadequatetocopewithrunaways– AbolitionistswhoranUndergroundRailroaddidnotprofitfromtheirlawlessness
– Slaveownerswerelosers– 1,000runawaysayearoutofsomefourmillionslaves
–MastersarguedConstitutionprotectedslavery
V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants
• Congressionalcatastrophein1850:– Free-soilCaliforniawantedadmission– “Fire-eaters”inSouththreatenedsecession• PlannedtomeetinNashville,Tenn.towithdrawfromUnion
– “Immortaltrio”—Clay,Calhoun,&Webster—metinCongressforlasttime
V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)
• HenryClay(73yearsold)playedcriticalrole:– “GreatCompromiser”—reprisedroleheplayedinMissouriandinnullification
– UrgedbothNorth&Southtomakeconcessions– Northpartiallyyieldbyenactingmorefeasiblefugitive-slavelaw
V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)
• SenatorJohnC.Calhoun(68yearsoldanddyingoftuberculosis):“GreatNullifier”:– ApprovedClay'sproposedconcessions– Rejectedthemasnotprovidingadequatesafe-guardsforsouthernrights• Impassionedpleatoleaveslaveryalone,returnrunawayslaves,giveSouthitsrightsasminority,andrestorepoliticalbalance• Wantedtoelecttwopresidents;onefromNorthandonefromSouth,eachwieldingaveto
V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)
• DanielWebster(68yearsold):– UpheldClay'scompromisemeasures– UrgedallreasonableconcessionstoSouth,includingnewfugitive-slavelawwithteeth
– Asforslaveryinnewterritories,heasked,whylegislatewhenareanotconducivetoplantations
– Hisconclusion:onlysolutionswerecompromise,concession,andreasonableness
V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)
• Webster'sfamedSeventhofMarchspeech(1850)washisfinest:– VisiblystrengthenedUnionsentiment– PleasedbankingandcommercialcentersofNorth—stoodtolosemillionsbysecession
– Free-Soilersandabolitionistscalledhimatraitor,worthyofbracketingwithBenedictArnold
– Reproachesmostunfair;Websterregardedslaveryasevil,butdisunionasworse
VI.DeadlockandDangeronCapitolHill
• Stormycongressionaldebate(1850)notover:– North'snewYoungGuard
• WilliamH.Seward:– Strongantislaveryite– Unequivocallyagainstconcession– ArguedChristianlegislatorsmustobeyGod'smorallawaswellasman'smundanelaw
VI.DeadlockandDangeronCapitolHill(cont.)
– Appealedtoexcludeslaveryinterritorieswithreferencetoeven“higherlaw”thanConstitution
– Appealmayhavecosthimpresidentialnominationandpresidencyin1860
– PresidentTaylorbentonvetoinganycompromise.– IrearousedbythreatsofTexastoseizeSantaFe
VII.BreakingtheCongressionalLogjam
• Taylorunknowinglyhelpedcauseofconcessionbydyingsuddenly.
• Vice-PresidentMillardFillmoretookreins:– AspresidingofficerofSenate,hewasimpressedwithargumentsforconciliation
– Gladlysignedseriesofcompromisemeasures– BalancingofinterestsinCompromiseof1850wasextremelydelicate(seeTable18.1).
Table 18-1 p387
VII.BreakingtheCongressional Logjam(cont.)
• HeatinCongress:– “Unionsavers”—Clay,Webster,Douglas—oratedacrossNorthonbehalfofcompromise
– Southern“fire-eaters”opposedconcession– June1850,southernextremistsmetinNashville:• Tookstrongpositioninfavorofslavery• Condemnedcompromisemeasure
VII.BreakingtheCongressional Logjam(cont.)
– SecondEraofGoodFeelingsdawned:• Talkofsecessionsubsided
– Peace-lovingpeople,bothNorthandSouth,determinedthat:• Compromisesshouldbe“finality”• Explosiveissueofslaveryshouldbeburied
p388
VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales
• Whogotbetterdealfrom1850Compromise?• North(seeMap18.3):– California(freestate)tippedbalancepermanentlyagainstSouth
– TerritoriesofNewMexico&Utahopentoslavery—basisofpopularsovereignty
– Nature—“highestlaw”—notfavorslaverythere
Map 18-3 p389
VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)
• South:– Urgentlyneededmoreslaveterritorytorestore“sacredbalance”
– IfnotfromrecentconquestsfromMexico,thenCaribbeanwasoneanswer
– HalteddrivetowardabolitioninDistrictofColumbiatemporarily
– HadtoacceptoutlawingslavetradeinD.C.
VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)
• FugitiveSlaveLaw(1850):– StirredupstormofoppositioninNorth– Fleeingslaves:• Couldnottestifyontheirown• Deniedjurytrial
– Federalcommissionerwhohandledcaseofafugitive:• Ifrunawaywasfreed,earned$5• Ifnot,earned$10
VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)
– Northernerswhohelpedaslaveescapewereliabletoheavyfinesandjailtime
– “Man-Stealing”Lawwasabhorrent:• TouchedoffexplosivechainreactioninNorth• UndergroundRailroadsteppedupitstimetable• Mass.madeitapenaloffenseforanystateofficialtoenforcenewfederalstatute• Otherstatespassed“personallibertylaws”• Abolitionistsprotestedvehementlyagainstlaw
VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)
• Beyondquestion,FugitiveSlaveLawablunderbySouth• Slavecatchersredoubledefforts• Withdelayoffightingduring1850s:
– Northforgedaheadinpopulationandwealth—incrops,factories,foundries,ships,&railroads
– DelayaddedimmenselytomoralstrengthofNorth– 1850sdidmuchtobolsterYankeewilltoresistsecession,whateverthecost
• ThusCompromiseof1850wonCivilWarforUnion(seeMap18.4)
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IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs
• 1852DemocraticnominatingconventioninBaltimore:– Nominated“darkhorse”—FranklinPierce,fromNewHampshire• Weakandindecisivefigure• Warinjuriescausedhimtobeknownas“FaintingGeneral”• Enemylessbecausehewasinconspicuous• Aprosouthernnortherner,hewasacceptabletoslaverywingofDemocraticParty
Map 18-4 p391
IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs(cont.)
• PlatformrevivedcommitmenttoterritorialexpansionaspursuedbyPresidentPolk• EmphaticallyendorsedCompromiseof1850,incl.FugitiveSlaveLaw
–WhigsconvenedinBaltimore:• Havingwoninpastwithwarheroes,theyturnedto“OldFussandFeathers”WinfieldScott– AblestAmericangeneralofhisgeneration
IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs(cont.)
–WhigplatformpraisedCompromiseof1850– Campaigndegeneratedintopersonalattacks–Whigpartyhopelesslysplit:• AntislaveryWhigsinNorthacceptedScottasnomineebutdeploredhisplatform—whichendorsedFugitiveSlaveLaw• SouthernWhigsdoubtedScott'sloyaltytoCompromiseof1850andFugitiveSlaveLaw—acceptedhisplatformbutrejectedcandidate
IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs(cont.)
– GeneralScott,victoriousonbattlefield,metdefeatatballotbox.
– Free-soilJohnHaletooknorthernWhigvotesfromScott– Haletook5%ofpopularvote
• Piercewonwith254electoralvoteto42;– Popularcountwascloser:1,601,117to1,385,453
• Electionof1852'sfrighteningsignificance:–MarkedeffectiveendofWhigparty
IX.DefeatandDoomforthe Whigs(cont.)
• Whigs'completedeath:– Auguredeclipseofnationalpartiesandriseofpurelysectionalpoliticalalignments
–Wontwopresidentialelections(1840,1848)withwarheroes
• GreatestcontributionwastohelpupholdidealofUnionthrough:– ElectoralstrengthinSouth– EloquenceofleadersClay&Webster
X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder
• SpiritofManifestDestinyrevived:• AcontinuousAtlantic-to-PacifictransportationroutewouldeffectivelysevertwoAmericas(seeMap18.5)• BritishencroachmentinareadrovegovernmentsofUnitedStates&NewGranadatoconcludetreatyin1848• GuaranteedAmericanrightoftransitacrossisthmusinreturnforWashington'spledgetomaintain“perfectneutrality”onroute—“freetransitoftrafficmightnotbeinterrupted”
Map 18-5 p392
X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)
• Agreementledto:• TheodoreRoosevelt'sassertionofAmericancontrolofPanamaCanalin1903• Constructionoffirst“transcontinental”railroad
– Clayton-BulwerTreaty(1850)stipulatedneitherU.S.A.norBritainwouldfortifyorseekexecutivecontroloveranyfutureisthmianwaterway• (laterrescindedbyHay-PauncefoteTreatyof1910;seeChap27).
X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)
• Southern“slavocrats”lookedtoCentralAmerica:– Adventurer,WilliamWalker,triedrepeatedlytograbcontrolofNicaragua• InstalledhimselfpresidentinJuly1856andpromptlylegalizedslavery• CoalitionofCentralAmericannationsformedalliancetooverthrowhim• PresidentPiercewithdrewdiplomaticrecognition• WalkerdiedbeforeHonduranfiringsquadin1860
X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)
• Sugar-richCuba:• Enticingprospectforannexation• Alreadyhadlargepopulationofenslavedblacks• Mightbecarvedintoseveralstates,restoringpoliticalbalanceinSenate• PresidentPolkoffered$100milliontoSpainforCuba,butSpainrefused• SpanishofficialsinCubalaterseizedAmericansteamerBlackWarrior• OpportunityforPresidenttoprovokewarwithSpainandseizeCuba
X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)
• SecretaryofstateinstructedAmericanministersinSpain,England,&FrancetopreparerecommendationsforacquisitionofCuba• Thethree,meetinginOstend,Belgium,drewuptop-secretdispatch:• OstendManifesto—urgedadministrationtooffer$120millionforCuba• Ifrebuffed,thenwarjustified• Secretmanifestoleakedout• Northernfree-soilersroseupinwrathagainst“manifestoofbrigands”
X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)
• Red-facedPierceadministrationdroppedrecklessschemeforCuba
– Slaveryissuecheckedterritorialexpansionin1850s
XI.TheAllureofAsia
• CouldAmericanstapmoredeeplythesupposedlyrichmarketsofAsia?– OpiumWar—foughtbyBritainforrighttopeddleopiuminChina:• Britaingainedfreeaccesstofiveso-calledtreatyports• ControlofislandofHongKong• PresidentTylerdispatchedCalebCushingtosecurecomparableconcessionforUnitedStates• CushingarrivedatMacaoinearly1844
XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)
• TreatyofWanghia:firstformaldiplomaticagreementbetweenU.S.andChinaonJuly3,1844:– CushingsecuredvitalcommercialrightsandprivilegesfromChinese
– “Mostfavorablerights”grantedtoU.S.A.– “Extraterritoriality”—providedAmericans,accusedofcrimesinChina,atrialbeforeAmericanofficials,notinChinesecourts
XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)
– AmericantradewithChinaincreased– TreatyalsoencouragedarrivalofAmericanmissionaries;thousandscame
– SuccessinChinapromptedU.S.goalsforJapan:• Japanhadearlierwithdrawnintococoonofisolationismforover200years• TokugawaShogunateprotectedJapan'sinsularity• By1853,Japanreadytoemergefromself-imposedquarantine
XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)
• PresidentFillmoredispatchedCommodoreMatthewPerryin1852forJapan• Hisfoursmoke-belching“blackships”steamedintoEdo(laterTokyoBay)onJuly8,1853• Onceonshore,Perryrequestedfreetrade&friendlyrelations,thenleftpromisingtoreturnnextyeartoreceiveJapan'sreply• PerryreturnedinFebruary1854;persuadedJapantosignTreatyofKanagawaonMarch31,1854
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XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)
– PerrycrackedopenJapan'stwo-centuryshellofisolation
– Lessthanadecadelater,“MeijiRestoration”would:• EndShogunate• PropelJapanheadlongintomodernworld• EventuallyintomilitarycrashwithUnitedStates
XII.PacificRailroadPromotersandtheGadsdenPurchase
• AcutetransportationproblemsanotherlegacyofMexicanWar– California&Oregon:8,000mileswestofnation'scapital
– Searoutestoolong– Travelbywagonslowanddangerous– Feasiblelandtransportationimperative– Transcontinentalrailroadonlyrealsolution
XII.PacificRailroadPromotersandtheGadsdenPurchase(cont.)
• Wheretobuildrailroad:northorsouth?• JamesGadsden,ministertoMexico:– SantaAnnastillinpowerandneededmoney– GadsdennegotiatedGadsdenPurchasein1853– CededmoreterritorytoU.S.A.for$10million– Bestrouteforasouthernrailroad(seeMap18.6)
• Inresponse,NorthernerswantedNebraskaorganized
Map 18-6 p395
XIII.Douglas'sKansas-NebraskaScheme
– SenatorStephenDouglasin1854soughttooffsetGadsden'sexpansiontosouthwest• LongedtobreakNorth-Southdeadlockoverwestwardexpansion• InvestedheavilyinChicagorealestate&railwaystock• WantedChicagotobeeasternterminusforproposedrailroad• WantedtogetSouthtosupporthisscheme
XIII.Douglas'sKansas-NebraskaScheme(cont.)
• ProposedterritoryofNebraskabedividedintotwoterritories,KansasandNebraska(seeMap18.7)• Slaverythendecidedbypopularsovereignty• Kansas,westofslaveholdingMissouri,presumablywouldchoosetobecomeaslavestate• Nebraska,westoffree-soilIowa,presumablywouldbecomeafreestate• Douglas'sschemecontradictedMissouriCompromiseof1820(forbadeslaveryinNebraskaTerritorynorthof36°30'line)
Map 18-7 p396
XIII.Douglas'sKansas-Nebraska Scheme(cont.)
–OnlywaytoopenregiontopopularsovereigntywastorepealMissouriCompromise– Tosouthernersherewaschanceforanotherslavestate– PresidentPiercethrewsupporttoKansas-NebraskaBill– DouglasrammedbillthroughCongress,withstrongsupportfrommanysoutherners– Douglasactedimpulsivelyandrecklessly– PredictedoppositioninNorth,butgrosslyunderestimatedit
p397
XIV.CongressLegislatesaCivilWar
• Kansas-NebraskaAct:– OneofmostmomentousmeasurestopassCongress
– GreasedslipperyslopetoCivilWar:• Infuriatedantislaverynortherners• Futurecompromisewouldbemuchmoredifficult• FugitiveSlaveLawof1850becamedeadletter• Actwreckedtwocompromises—of1820andof1850
XIV.CongressLegislatesaCivilWar(cont.)
• Northernabolitionistsandsouthern“fire-eaters”sawlessandlesstheycouldlivewith• Ranksofantislaveryitesgainednumerousrecruits• DemocraticPartyshatteredbyKansas-NebraskaAct• MostdurableoffspringofKansas-NebraskablunderwasnewRepublicanParty
XIV.CongressLegislatesaCivilWar(cont.)
– RepublicanParty:• SprangupinMiddleWest—Wisconsin&Michigan• Gathereddissatisfiedelements,includingWhigs,Democrats,Free-Soilers,Know-Nothings,andotherfoesofKansas-NebraskaAct• AlsoincludedAbrahamLincoln• Grewrapidly,butasectionalparty• NotacceptedSouthofMason-Dixonline
– Unionindireperil
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