RENATA BADINHANI MOTA MARCONDES

THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING LEARNING STYLES

TEACHING TECHNIQUES AND BARRIERS IN THE LEARNING

PROCESS

Monografia apresentada para obtencaodo titulo de especialista no curso de p6s-gradualtao Especializaltao em LinguaInglesa setor PROPPE - Pr6-Reitoria deP6s-Gradualtao Pesquisa e Extensao daUniversidade Tuiuti do Parana sob aorienta~o da Prof Mestra Marrigje KoolVerburg

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION bull 4

CHAPTER 1 5

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW bull 5

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES 6

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES 11

CHAPTER 2 18

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THE LEARNING

PROCESS 18

21 DATA ANALYSIS 20

CHAPTER 3 26

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING 26

CONCLUSION 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

APPENDIX 33

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to discuss the learning process and the complex

aspects that surround it bearing in mind that the learning is deeply influenced by a

diversity of elements

The general objective of this paper is to verify to what extent teaching

techniques enhance the learning process The specific objectives are to identify

factors that may interfere in the learning process and suggest some techniques to

maintain a high level of interest in the language

In the first chapter theoretical aspects will be considered which provide some

sources of information to form the basis for this study A theoretical background is

presented introducing the authors terminology to establish the concepts and to offer

an overview of the topiC

The second chapter focuses on the learning process and the analysis of the

influence of external factors where the learner confronts outside problems that

interfere in the learning process Besides the external factors internal factors will also

be studied such as learning styles self-esteem and general abilities

In the third chapter willingness and motivation will be discussed as the keys to

successful learning and the development of the process To achieve this a field

research with some students will be carried out to support the issues raised

CHAPTER 1

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

~Itis a miracle that curiosity survives formal educationAlbert Einstein

1 Introduction

The learning process is an intriguing subject that has led many educators to

study and research its mechanism Therefore a wide range of different theories is

available to be discussed and applied in an attempt to accelerate andor maximize

the learning process

The vast majority of educators firmly believes that the learning process is

closely connected to the learning strategies or learning styles Ellis (1985) described

a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a person perceives

conceptualizes organizes and recalls information Tarone (in OMalley 1990)

compares learning strategies with communication strategies learning strategies

have learning as a goal and communication strategies are directed towards

maintaining communication In his article Reynolds (1993) affirms Rogers

emphasized that trust enabled individual learners to develop their learning potential

and he encouraged learners to choose both the way and direction for their own

learning Trying to define learning style Parrot (1993) states a learning style is an

individual predisposition to learn in a particular way

The theorists have been describing and dividing styles into categories The

classification systems that researchers have developed may vary in names and

concepts Reynolds (1993) affirms that most experts would agree that the concept of

learning style should be viewed as multidimensional On the other hand all of them

agree that students without a specific strategy are learners without direction to

accomplish effective learning without an opportunity to plan their learning or review

their progress

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES

A broad understanding of each learning style enables educators to provide

tailored teaching to facilitate the learning process and to develop learners ability to

develop in their own way and style McCarthy (1980) described students as

innovative learners analytic learners common sense learners or dynamic learners

o Innovative learners are the ones who

look for personal meaning while learning

draw on their values lNhile learning

enjoy social interaction

are cooperative

want to make the world a better place

o Analytic learners are the ones who

want to develop intellectually while learning

draw on facts while learning

are patient and reflective

want to know important things and to add to the worlds

knowledge

o Common sense learners are the ones who

want to find solutions

value things if they are useful

are kinesthetic

are practical and straightforward

want to make things happen

o Dynamic learners are the ones who

look for hidden possibilities

judge things by gut reactions

synthesize information from different sources

are enthusiastic and adventurous

Parrot (1993) divides learning strategies into four categories

Metacognitive where learners use complex structures to understand the

meaning of particular aspects

- Cognitive they focus on contextual clues to understand the meaning of

unfamiliar language

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION bull 4

CHAPTER 1 5

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW bull 5

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES 6

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES 11

CHAPTER 2 18

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THE LEARNING

PROCESS 18

21 DATA ANALYSIS 20

CHAPTER 3 26

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING 26

CONCLUSION 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

APPENDIX 33

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to discuss the learning process and the complex

aspects that surround it bearing in mind that the learning is deeply influenced by a

diversity of elements

The general objective of this paper is to verify to what extent teaching

techniques enhance the learning process The specific objectives are to identify

factors that may interfere in the learning process and suggest some techniques to

maintain a high level of interest in the language

In the first chapter theoretical aspects will be considered which provide some

sources of information to form the basis for this study A theoretical background is

presented introducing the authors terminology to establish the concepts and to offer

an overview of the topiC

The second chapter focuses on the learning process and the analysis of the

influence of external factors where the learner confronts outside problems that

interfere in the learning process Besides the external factors internal factors will also

be studied such as learning styles self-esteem and general abilities

In the third chapter willingness and motivation will be discussed as the keys to

successful learning and the development of the process To achieve this a field

research with some students will be carried out to support the issues raised

CHAPTER 1

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

~Itis a miracle that curiosity survives formal educationAlbert Einstein

1 Introduction

The learning process is an intriguing subject that has led many educators to

study and research its mechanism Therefore a wide range of different theories is

available to be discussed and applied in an attempt to accelerate andor maximize

the learning process

The vast majority of educators firmly believes that the learning process is

closely connected to the learning strategies or learning styles Ellis (1985) described

a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a person perceives

conceptualizes organizes and recalls information Tarone (in OMalley 1990)

compares learning strategies with communication strategies learning strategies

have learning as a goal and communication strategies are directed towards

maintaining communication In his article Reynolds (1993) affirms Rogers

emphasized that trust enabled individual learners to develop their learning potential

and he encouraged learners to choose both the way and direction for their own

learning Trying to define learning style Parrot (1993) states a learning style is an

individual predisposition to learn in a particular way

The theorists have been describing and dividing styles into categories The

classification systems that researchers have developed may vary in names and

concepts Reynolds (1993) affirms that most experts would agree that the concept of

learning style should be viewed as multidimensional On the other hand all of them

agree that students without a specific strategy are learners without direction to

accomplish effective learning without an opportunity to plan their learning or review

their progress

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES

A broad understanding of each learning style enables educators to provide

tailored teaching to facilitate the learning process and to develop learners ability to

develop in their own way and style McCarthy (1980) described students as

innovative learners analytic learners common sense learners or dynamic learners

o Innovative learners are the ones who

look for personal meaning while learning

draw on their values lNhile learning

enjoy social interaction

are cooperative

want to make the world a better place

o Analytic learners are the ones who

want to develop intellectually while learning

draw on facts while learning

are patient and reflective

want to know important things and to add to the worlds

knowledge

o Common sense learners are the ones who

want to find solutions

value things if they are useful

are kinesthetic

are practical and straightforward

want to make things happen

o Dynamic learners are the ones who

look for hidden possibilities

judge things by gut reactions

synthesize information from different sources

are enthusiastic and adventurous

Parrot (1993) divides learning strategies into four categories

Metacognitive where learners use complex structures to understand the

meaning of particular aspects

- Cognitive they focus on contextual clues to understand the meaning of

unfamiliar language

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to discuss the learning process and the complex

aspects that surround it bearing in mind that the learning is deeply influenced by a

diversity of elements

The general objective of this paper is to verify to what extent teaching

techniques enhance the learning process The specific objectives are to identify

factors that may interfere in the learning process and suggest some techniques to

maintain a high level of interest in the language

In the first chapter theoretical aspects will be considered which provide some

sources of information to form the basis for this study A theoretical background is

presented introducing the authors terminology to establish the concepts and to offer

an overview of the topiC

The second chapter focuses on the learning process and the analysis of the

influence of external factors where the learner confronts outside problems that

interfere in the learning process Besides the external factors internal factors will also

be studied such as learning styles self-esteem and general abilities

In the third chapter willingness and motivation will be discussed as the keys to

successful learning and the development of the process To achieve this a field

research with some students will be carried out to support the issues raised

CHAPTER 1

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

~Itis a miracle that curiosity survives formal educationAlbert Einstein

1 Introduction

The learning process is an intriguing subject that has led many educators to

study and research its mechanism Therefore a wide range of different theories is

available to be discussed and applied in an attempt to accelerate andor maximize

the learning process

The vast majority of educators firmly believes that the learning process is

closely connected to the learning strategies or learning styles Ellis (1985) described

a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a person perceives

conceptualizes organizes and recalls information Tarone (in OMalley 1990)

compares learning strategies with communication strategies learning strategies

have learning as a goal and communication strategies are directed towards

maintaining communication In his article Reynolds (1993) affirms Rogers

emphasized that trust enabled individual learners to develop their learning potential

and he encouraged learners to choose both the way and direction for their own

learning Trying to define learning style Parrot (1993) states a learning style is an

individual predisposition to learn in a particular way

The theorists have been describing and dividing styles into categories The

classification systems that researchers have developed may vary in names and

concepts Reynolds (1993) affirms that most experts would agree that the concept of

learning style should be viewed as multidimensional On the other hand all of them

agree that students without a specific strategy are learners without direction to

accomplish effective learning without an opportunity to plan their learning or review

their progress

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES

A broad understanding of each learning style enables educators to provide

tailored teaching to facilitate the learning process and to develop learners ability to

develop in their own way and style McCarthy (1980) described students as

innovative learners analytic learners common sense learners or dynamic learners

o Innovative learners are the ones who

look for personal meaning while learning

draw on their values lNhile learning

enjoy social interaction

are cooperative

want to make the world a better place

o Analytic learners are the ones who

want to develop intellectually while learning

draw on facts while learning

are patient and reflective

want to know important things and to add to the worlds

knowledge

o Common sense learners are the ones who

want to find solutions

value things if they are useful

are kinesthetic

are practical and straightforward

want to make things happen

o Dynamic learners are the ones who

look for hidden possibilities

judge things by gut reactions

synthesize information from different sources

are enthusiastic and adventurous

Parrot (1993) divides learning strategies into four categories

Metacognitive where learners use complex structures to understand the

meaning of particular aspects

- Cognitive they focus on contextual clues to understand the meaning of

unfamiliar language

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

CHAPTER 1

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

~Itis a miracle that curiosity survives formal educationAlbert Einstein

1 Introduction

The learning process is an intriguing subject that has led many educators to

study and research its mechanism Therefore a wide range of different theories is

available to be discussed and applied in an attempt to accelerate andor maximize

the learning process

The vast majority of educators firmly believes that the learning process is

closely connected to the learning strategies or learning styles Ellis (1985) described

a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a person perceives

conceptualizes organizes and recalls information Tarone (in OMalley 1990)

compares learning strategies with communication strategies learning strategies

have learning as a goal and communication strategies are directed towards

maintaining communication In his article Reynolds (1993) affirms Rogers

emphasized that trust enabled individual learners to develop their learning potential

and he encouraged learners to choose both the way and direction for their own

learning Trying to define learning style Parrot (1993) states a learning style is an

individual predisposition to learn in a particular way

The theorists have been describing and dividing styles into categories The

classification systems that researchers have developed may vary in names and

concepts Reynolds (1993) affirms that most experts would agree that the concept of

learning style should be viewed as multidimensional On the other hand all of them

agree that students without a specific strategy are learners without direction to

accomplish effective learning without an opportunity to plan their learning or review

their progress

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES

A broad understanding of each learning style enables educators to provide

tailored teaching to facilitate the learning process and to develop learners ability to

develop in their own way and style McCarthy (1980) described students as

innovative learners analytic learners common sense learners or dynamic learners

o Innovative learners are the ones who

look for personal meaning while learning

draw on their values lNhile learning

enjoy social interaction

are cooperative

want to make the world a better place

o Analytic learners are the ones who

want to develop intellectually while learning

draw on facts while learning

are patient and reflective

want to know important things and to add to the worlds

knowledge

o Common sense learners are the ones who

want to find solutions

value things if they are useful

are kinesthetic

are practical and straightforward

want to make things happen

o Dynamic learners are the ones who

look for hidden possibilities

judge things by gut reactions

synthesize information from different sources

are enthusiastic and adventurous

Parrot (1993) divides learning strategies into four categories

Metacognitive where learners use complex structures to understand the

meaning of particular aspects

- Cognitive they focus on contextual clues to understand the meaning of

unfamiliar language

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

learning Trying to define learning style Parrot (1993) states a learning style is an

individual predisposition to learn in a particular way

The theorists have been describing and dividing styles into categories The

classification systems that researchers have developed may vary in names and

concepts Reynolds (1993) affirms that most experts would agree that the concept of

learning style should be viewed as multidimensional On the other hand all of them

agree that students without a specific strategy are learners without direction to

accomplish effective learning without an opportunity to plan their learning or review

their progress

11 AN OVERVIEW OF LEARNING STYLES

A broad understanding of each learning style enables educators to provide

tailored teaching to facilitate the learning process and to develop learners ability to

develop in their own way and style McCarthy (1980) described students as

innovative learners analytic learners common sense learners or dynamic learners

o Innovative learners are the ones who

look for personal meaning while learning

draw on their values lNhile learning

enjoy social interaction

are cooperative

want to make the world a better place

o Analytic learners are the ones who

want to develop intellectually while learning

draw on facts while learning

are patient and reflective

want to know important things and to add to the worlds

knowledge

o Common sense learners are the ones who

want to find solutions

value things if they are useful

are kinesthetic

are practical and straightforward

want to make things happen

o Dynamic learners are the ones who

look for hidden possibilities

judge things by gut reactions

synthesize information from different sources

are enthusiastic and adventurous

Parrot (1993) divides learning strategies into four categories

Metacognitive where learners use complex structures to understand the

meaning of particular aspects

- Cognitive they focus on contextual clues to understand the meaning of

unfamiliar language

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

o Analytic learners are the ones who

want to develop intellectually while learning

draw on facts while learning

are patient and reflective

want to know important things and to add to the worlds

knowledge

o Common sense learners are the ones who

want to find solutions

value things if they are useful

are kinesthetic

are practical and straightforward

want to make things happen

o Dynamic learners are the ones who

look for hidden possibilities

judge things by gut reactions

synthesize information from different sources

are enthusiastic and adventurous

Parrot (1993) divides learning strategies into four categories

Metacognitive where learners use complex structures to understand the

meaning of particular aspects

- Cognitive they focus on contextual clues to understand the meaning of

unfamiliar language

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

- Communicative these involve achieving communication often when

there is a need to use or understand language which is unknown

Howard Gardner separated human ability into seven groups based on a

cognitive-contextual intelligence theory The abilities are collectively referred to as the

Seven Intelligences

1 Physical Controlling the body and handling objects Activities sports

car maintenance do-it-yourself projects woodworking crafts cooking

2 Linguistic Being sensitive to words and sounds and the use of

language Activities verbal arguments crossword puzzles riddles research poetry

writing giving instructions

3 Mathematicallogical Seeing number patterns and following an

argument Activities budgeting planning calculations estimating quantities time

management math sciences

4 VisualSpatial Understanding the visual world and responding well to it

Activities map readingnavigation using diagramsplans driving art dressmaking

model layouts

5 Musical Hearing and making sounds and rhythm in music Activities

playing music repeating songs rhythm recognizing tunes moving in time to music

remembering slogans and verses

6 Inter-Personal Being sensitive to feelings of others and responding

well to them Activities listening committee work supervising others parenting

teaching consoling training others

7 Intra-Personal Understanding our own feelings and controlling our

own behavior Activities keeping a diaryjournal time management planning and

organization understanding your emotions goal setting

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

Litzinger amp Osif (1992 73) describe learning styles as the differenl ways in

which children and adults think and learn They noticed that each of us develops a

preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning In order to belter

understand the learning process they break it down into several processes

1 cognition how one acquires knowledge

2 conceptualization how one processes information There are those who are

always looking for connections among unrelated events while for others each

event triggers a multitude of new ideas

3 affective peoples motivation decision making styles values and emotional

preferences will also help to define their learning styles

Another very important theorist is Kolb who presented learning styles as

follows

1 concrete experience being involved in a new experience

2 reflective observation watching others or developing observations about

own experience

3 abstract conceptualization creating theories to explain observations

4 active experimentation using theories to solve problems make decisions

Hartman (in Litzinger amp Osif 1992) took Kolbs learning styles and gave

examples of how one might teach each of them

1 for the concrete experiencer offer laboratories field work observations or

films

2 for the reflective observer use logs journals or brainstorming

3 for the abstract conceptualizer lectures papers and analogies work well

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

10

4 for the active experimenter offer simulations case studies and homework

The diagram bellow demonstrates Kolbs styles

Concrete Experience

ActiveExperimentation

ReflectiveObservation

Abstract Conceptualization

(Diagram from Lilzinger and Osif 1992 79)

Cheron Verster a teacher trainer and materials developer presents other

models such as

Field-independent versus Field-ltlependent

Field-independent

They can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing

background They tend to rely on themselves and their own thought-system when

solving problems They are not so skilled in interpersonal relationships

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

II

Field-dependent

They find it more difficult to see the parts in a complex whole They rely on

other people for ideas when solving problems and are good at interpersonal

relationships

Left-brain dominated versus right-brain dominated

Students who are left-brain dominated are intellectual and process information

in a linear way They tend to be objective and prefer factual information They also

rely on language in thinking and remembering

While those who are right-brain dominated are intuitive and process

information in a holistic way They tend to be subjective and they prefer elusive

uncertain information Finally they rely on drawing and manipulating to help them

think and learn

By having these main aspects demonstrated educators can develop a positive

attitude towards learning styles considering they are more aware of the importance of

using each particular style to enhance students performances

12 AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Teaching techniques provide educators with multiple ways to present the

information to be learned they are tools to hold students attention and involve them

in the learning process

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

12

Teaching techniques vary in terms of the medium (textbook video computer

etc) structure of the program how the teacher operates and how progress is

monitored and tested

In order to select a teaching technique some issues should be considered

Does the technique allow adjustment according to the needs of different

students

Does it encourage the students to become actively involved in the learning

Does it adequately cover the material so that it is learned by all the students

Does it adequately monitor the students progress

Does it permit extra assistance to students who require it

Does it allow an adequate amount of time to practice and integrate the skills

Teaching techniques help teachers to approach matters in different ways in

order to provide interesting learning Teachers must find the best techniques to teach

the students using the resources available to them Sometimes the best is not always

feasible for instance the latest technology the size of the groups the available

structure However creativity can soften the imbalance between the ideal and the

possible

Some of the available techniques to be used in the classroom will be

described

1 Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is the most common and economical technique of transmitting

knovvedge but it does not necessarily hold the students attention or permit active

participation It still presents the teacher as the controller the giver of the knovvedge

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

13

In recent years new emphasis has been given to learner-centered teaching where

the learners play the central role and the teacher is the facilitator However Harmer

(1996 p57) affirms that teachers find learner-centered classrooms quite difficult to

come to terms with and many students feel uncomfortable with it as well One can

conclude that lectures become interesting when allied to varied techniques such as

visual material and dynamic participation through questions and answers for

instance

Discussion sessions are more effective in stimulating the students interests

and assessing theif understanding of the material Discussion not only helps teach

material but it also develops the thinking process promotes a positive attitude

towards learning and develops interpersonal skills (wwwthinkquestorg) A well-

known example of discussion is the debate in which students discuss specific topics

The topics should vary according to learners level and age (intermediate and above)

because it demands previous knowledge of the language Controversial issues

require due care and daily news is interesting as well Exemplifying the teacher can

split students into two groups to talk about Women Workforce where one group is

pro and the other is against it It is ideal for speaking classes

Due attention is required to balance students participation It is a great

opportunity to assess learners vocabulary and communication skills once it

generates a genuine communicative approach creating conditions to take initiatives

in communicating and responding to initiatives of others

2 Grouping

Grouping allows teachers to place students of the same or different abilities

together and these groupings are often effective in promoting students achievement

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

14

hard-ta-teach and fast-learning students The teacher can work in several ways

presenting detailed instructions to be followed either presenting a theme to be

worked on freely or each group developing a different procedure

The teacher can establish a fixed group to work together during a period of

time (to develop a project or help each other during the activities) It is ideal for

writing reading and speaking classes

3Tutoring

Tutoring is one-ta-one instruction The need for tutoring tends to arise when

other teaching methods have failed or students need extra instruction about a

particular topic or subject in which they are having difficulty It is a useful option for

preparing students for exams or during a limited period of time Tutoring by

nonprofessionals classmates and older students have shown to be effective in

providing extra support to students outside the traditional classroom setting

According to some educators learners feel more comfortable being corrected by their

peers In my personal experience this modality of class is preferred by adults who

either are afraid of exposing themselves or do not feel comfortable in a group

4 Games and Simulations

Because games and simulations are fun teachers have sought to use them as

an effective way to foster learning Card and board games are popular to help

teaching vocabulary verbs structures while simulations create conditions nearly

identical to real life situation Games are a remarkable tool to enhance students

interest and participation at the same time enabling them to apply different skills It is

ideal to memorize vocabulary reinforce structures of the language and review issues

previously studied

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

15

Having the opportunity to ~rehearse situations in an attempt to simulate real

life students develop the necessary confidence to use the language in real events

For instance exercises where students pretend to buy and sell things ask for

directions or information even doing presentations make the transition process from

fictitious to real easier What makes simulations so effective is that they teach

problem-solving and decision-making strategies in addition to the facts and principles

that define the game

5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Teaching using a computer has many virtues it is patient positive does not

forget and can keep track of each students progress (wwthinkquestorg) However

the long-term benefits of computer assisted instruction are still unclear and

computers are not feasible to many schools Though for the ones they are available

to they have become an incredible tool for both teachers and students Computers

equip teachers with information and resources at the same time that they foster

students autonomous education However according to Little (in Swarbrick 1984

p85) learners are resistant to autonomy but always it will be the autonomous

learners who most easily make the transition from learner to learneruser of the target

language Therefore computers can facilitate learners response to autonomous

learning disguising this autonomy

6 Media

The media can help supplement the lecture technique by allowing the students

to become actively involved in the material being covered It has the advantage of

being modern visual and pliable

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

16

One type of speaking-listening media are the tape recorders that allow

students to hear model pronunciation of foreign languages to record and playback

their own voices as they engage in practice drills

Authentic material such as programs from cable TV and films help learners to

improve their learning process Prist (1999) in her book presents training exercises

to achieve this improvement The exercises emphasize the listening for the context

and rhythm sounds and sensations more than detailed comprehension She

describes seven exercises

1 A lot of input you must listen exhaustively to English prior to trying to talk

Use all media available

2 First the forest look at the forest not only the tree focus on the broader

context than on the detail

3 The rhythm give the rhythm its due value concentrate on sounds and

intonation

4 Body language observe the face scenery and the movement of lips when

someone is speaking it softens your accent and teaches you through the

gestures and facial expressions

5 Maximize what you know highlighting your knowledge and encourage

yourself to learn more Do not worry about what you do not know

6 Be more receptive accept the sounds that seem weird

7 Relax enjoy learning Tension and anxiety create real barriers for the

learning (Print 1999 p 68-75)

A movie in English can be a pleasant journey move your attention from the meaning tofocus on the visual Relax Dont be anxious and hasty to understand A study from StanfordUniversity School of Medicine demonstrates that people who practice relaxation before a 3hour course involving memory present 25 better results (Print 1999 p 89)

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

17

Many students especially visual learners benefit from materials such as

pictures diagrams charts graphs cartoons posters slides and videos

Demonstrations and experiments also help reinforce visual learning When combined

with careful classroom explanation and discussion visual aids can help students

interpret infer and understand the concepts being presented to them

Having presented some of the theories most relevant the next chapter will

deal with the external and internal factors that may influence the learning process

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

CHAPTER 2

INTELLECT EMOTION AND OTHER INFLUENCES IN THELEARNING PROCESS

Educators are sculptors of emotionAugusto Cury

In order to analyze factors that influence the learning process it is necessary to

limit our group of study The paper focuses on adult learners of a foreign language

They are grown ups who have jobs and all responsibilities required from their

professions living the momentum towards technology and reengineering They are

students from Baltimore English School and Phil Young English School (Agua Verde

branch) also some private students from Kraft Foods (Curitiba Head Office) During

the interview all of them stated that they suffer a huge pressure to learn the

language in order to respond to their companies expectations

Adults present a peculiarity which is they bring into the classroom their own

expectations about the language the teacher and about themselves Such

expectations are deeply influenced by past experiences and cultural background

It may be that many adults have already made several attempts to learn a foreign languagebut each time have given up - pemaps because of an apparent lack of progress ordissatisfaction with the classes material or teacher Although they have specific needs theyoften set themselves unrealistic aims This combined with their false expectations aboutmethodology and their own progress can lead to frustration demotivalion and ineffectivelearning (Ellis amp Sinclair 1989 p 8)

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

19

Cross (in Kelly 2005) presents the model Characteristics of Adults as

Learners (CAL) in the context of her analysis of the learning process for lifelong

learning She looks at interactions between personal and situational parameters The

model seeks to integrate other theoretical structures of adult learning such as

andragogy (Knowles) experimental learning (Rogers) and lifespan psychology Her

model presents three barriers 2 external (institutional situational) and 1 internal

(dispositional) that interfere in the learning process which will support the arguments

of this paper

Crosss model CAL - Characteristics of Adults as Learners can be shortly

described as follows

Adults as LearnersHave a wealth of life experience Treat me as an adultn

Are unsure of their learning ability I dont think I can do thisn- Are time conscious Dont waste my time- Are focused on specific goals I know what I want to learn Are highly motivated (when its relevant) Give me something I can useBarriers to participating in higher education

Situational barriers outside responsibilities limited time costsInstitutional barriers admission and registration procedures scheduling course offeringsDispositional barriers fear of going to college low self-esteem low motivation (in Kelly

2005)

Another internal barrier to be discussed along with the ones cited above is

memory Memory is a crucial ability for studying languages and the main complaint

among adult students is the difficulty in memorizing vocabulary Frost (2004) upholds

this complaint affirming as teachers we need to take this [difficulty in memorizing

vocabulary] into account and find ways of helping students to combat the effects of

memory decay and give them the tools to improve their retrieval ability He still

suggests that teachers performance must be memorable by contextualizing

vocabulary in a personalized and meaningful way

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

20

This idea of a pragmatic knowledge is allied to Stevicks theory (in Swarbrick

1994 p 103) that human memory stores data together in a sensory way For

instance the power of odours to give vivid recollections of certain places or people

a whiff of coal smoke will always carry me back to Nashville in the mid-1950middots and

lavender to the street corner in Yugoslavia where I once bought a vial of it

To Augusto Cury (2003 p 112) a Brazilian psychiatrist memory is emotional

and involuntary thus the level of emotion sets the quality of the register Not only

emotion determines whether a memory register will be fragile or privileged but also

the degree of openness of memory files in a specific moment Stress fear and

anxiety can interrere in the openness of memory windows jamming the files and

blocking the thoughts Human memory is not available whenever we desire Files of

memory are opened by the emotional energy that we experience each moment

When there is no emotion involved in the transmission of information dispersion is

generated in the students instead of pleasure and concentration Cury (2003 p 121)

also states that if there is music in the classroom preferably mood music the dry

logical knowledge transmitted by mathematics physics chemistry and language

teachers will obtain an emotional dimension and will be stored in a privileged way

21 DATA ANALYSIS

Crosss interviews and questionnaire investigative methods reveal that high

costs (53 of learners) unavailability of time (46) and too many other

responsibilities (32) are the learners most significant situational barriers The

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

21

greatest institutional barriers reported are avoiding full time school (35) and the

length of a course (21) The most widely reported dispositional barriers were lower

than either the situational or institutional barriers The most significant dispositional

barriers are fear of being too old at 17 and lack of confidence at 12 (LeJeune

2000)

Cross points out that those persons who lack confidence in their abilities as

learners are unlikely to volunteer in learning situations that might present a threat to

their self-esteem One of the most interesting outcomes regarding such barriers is

that vvhen participants are asked to indicate which is most important or significant

situational and institutional barriers are cited more frequently than dispositional

barriers This pattern repeats itself in the questionnaire applied to support our

research Although dispositional barriers appear in higher percentages situational

barriers are cited as significant obstacles to a continued learning

Dispositional barriers are present in 588 of students that feel very

disappointed by being unable to express their opinions and feelings in words and

176 when they can not understand a message The reaction of 823 is to get

angry with themselves when they cannot communicate Moreover 47 of them

answered that the thing they would change in their English lessons in order to

improve their learning is their own motivation and interest 235 of students think

that it would be helpful having the number of hours increased whereas only 06

said they would change the book The answers to our questionnaire illustrate how

frustrating a broken communication can be The reflection of communication failure is

visible in students self-esteem

Dispositional barriers are displayed in the graph below

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

Graph 1 -Dispositional Barriers

Dispositional Barriers

100-----------------------------------------------90 1---------0823-----middot---------------------------------180+---------~l_--------------------------------~70 58~8bull--------j60 -r---50 --40~ _____ ----~17~6~~-----2~----

10-I---L--I--------l-------~O-------1- --CJ6-

______________ ---47---- -----1

cannot e)[press get angry with not understand more hours be -+- motivated change book

themselves themselves message

Odissapointments o would change ISource Field research

Analyzing Situational Barriers the research inquired about what reasons

influenced students decision to stop studying English in case they had quit A

percentage of 294 has never stopped since they have started their courses Among

the options for the ones who had quit were time money lack of progress course

book and teaching techniques The management of time was the one most cited in

the research (75) as an obstacle along with 166 who quit English to study

another language and 08 because of the book andor method It is interesting to

mention that although they have demonstrated frustration in their ability to express

themselves (previously mentioned) they do not see it as lack of progress

Considering the reasons for studying English the major reason is professional

career (88) together with to help in the studies (08) and to communicate with

people (12) It is easy to conclude that students suffer tremendous pressure from

the work environment where English is crucial to their career development They

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

23

have to handle issues such as time job responsibilities besides other internal barriers

to overcome all these obstacles in order to learn

Time stood out as a major situational barrier The scenery is painted with the

two main barriers - external which is time and internal which is disapPointment with

performances In order to tackle the problem of time it is common knowledge that

one gives priority to what is important or pleasant The CAL model highlights that

learners are time conscious and avoid wasting their time Hence efficient teaching

techniques are fundamental to maintain motivation The computer can be a practical

tool to save time and develop autonomous learning

Graph 2 - Situational Barriers

time to study other language

~~book amp techniques

Situational Barriers for quitting

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

- - - - -- 1_---25

~_r--

I-- --I--

r-- -~II-I--- 166 I

r---l II- I IO-goo---------

Source Field Research

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

The field research focused on methodology (course book and method) and

resources (teacher and student) in order to identify Institutional Barriers 352 of

students believe that book and 412 that method influence the learning at a

percentage of 50 to 70 while they themselves have an influence on their learning

of 70 to 100 in the opinion of the majority (764) According to 47 of the

students teachers influence the learning process at percentages of 70 to 100

Graph 3 - Institutional Barriers

Institutional Barriers

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

764-

47

S lt -- -- - -

itH Frlj - - 1=- J J -

10 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 70 70 to 100

10 Yourself CJbook 0 teacher 0 method ISource Field research

Unfortunately a vicious cycle is installed when learners cannot see their

progress Their self-esteem is reduced and they lack motivation Once willingness is

missing consequently emotional memory is blocked Unable to memorize learners

imagine that studying is a waste of time and the cycle is installed When a situational

barrier appears they automatically quit

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

25

Considering the learning theories analytical students (McCarthy) and the ones

who have intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner) may present more dispositional

barriers once their learning is more subjective and abstract On the other hand

dynamic students are naturally enthusiastic and look for hidden possibilities By

grouping them one can motivate the other and supply each others necessities

According to the research learners rely on themselves for learning but also on

the teacher and the method The teacher should then use this reliance as a filter to

sieve the pressure created by external and internal barriers

Considering the results it is possible to affirm that there is a tendency toward

seeing the learning process in a learner-centered way where students play an

important role How intriguing is the fact that students acknowledge the importance of

their involvement in the learning process a marked contrast to their lack of

motivation Therefore the interference of the teacher is essential to the learners

progress and their interest

Thus motivation is the topic for the next chapter

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

CHAPTER 3

MOTIVATION TO PROMOTE SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Treat people as if they were what they ought tobe and you help them become what they are capable of

beingGoethe

Motivation is willingness and it is the key to achieve success and nourish the

process of learning Learners are not passive on the contrary they playa crucial

role It is widely agreed that motivation has a great effect on the students capacity to

learn Learners motivation can be broken down into extrinsic and intrinsic forms

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the learner who wants to learn for the

sake of learning However it can be increased from the outside boosted by the

teacher

It is much more likely that teenage students will be extrinsically motivated

meaning that their motivation comes from external sources such as wanting to pass

an exam or please their parents Adults learn what they consider to be important

Mature students are usually motivated to learn because of the need to acquire a new

skill or make a decision Our research demonstrates that 98 of the adults are

studying English owing to the need of boosting their careers Kelly (2005) states that

~Adutt life cycles and developmental stages influence how individuals approach learning aswell as what they want or need to learn When they feel the need to learn something adultswill work very hard toward that goal The influence of others is greater for students with

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

27

extrinsic motivation High expectations of lecturers peers co-workers and family membersmay have a major positive impact on student motivation and achievement Negative orpositive feedback from others will also have a major impact Peer pressure to conform will begreater for these studentsmiddot

Unfortunately adults often doubt their capacity to learn new things - they think

they are too old Nevertheless three aspects should be considered because they can

change this attitude towards learning relevance understanding and involvement

Adults are concerned about wasting their time so they are selective of what

they want to learn they expect to learn issues that come in handy when they are

working The importance or relevance of an issue is directly connected to what is

being either discussed or experienced in the learners lives

Although Cross affirms (in Kelly 2005) that understanding leads to relevance

- if students say its boring they often mean I dont understand this when students

do not understand they cannot see the relevance of what they are learning - Cury

(2003) states that emotion prints information deeper in memory Hence if one

considers that emotion involves motivation and interest then the opposite would take

place relevance would lead to understanding not the contrary as Cross states The

motivation to learn is often related to the individuals developmental changes and life

tasks For example a young couple receiving the pleasant news that they will have a

baby typically leads to their both learning more about parenting and how to handle

newborn babies Again the learning vvll occur in a privileged way when it

encompasses emotions

Relevance also leads to involvement in learning Students may not become

involved in their learning if there is no perceived benefit or relevance to vvhat they are

learning (Cross 1991)

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

28

high level of involvement and motivation Low level of interest halts the

understanding and provokes boredom

Teachers can motivate students via several means

Set a feeling or tone for the lesson Instructors should try to establish a friendlyopen atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them JearnSet an appropriate level of concern The level of tension must be adjusted to meetthe level of importance of the objective If the material has a high level of importancea higher level of tensionstress should be established in the class However peoplelearn best under low to moderate stress if the stress is 100 high it becomes a barrierto learningSet an appropriate level of difficulty The degree of difficulty should be set highenough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated byinformation overload The instruction should predict and reward participationculminating in success (Lieb 1991)

Motivation is easier achieved Vgtihenrapport is established that is if students

like understand and respect the teacher it will reflect on their approach to the

language Our research shows that 43 of students inquired believe that teachers

influence their learning at rates of 50 to 70 When teachers are channels of

communication they can increase students interest by giving them feedback

Feedback must be specific not general By rewarding students teachers boost their

self-esteemand keep a high level of interestTeachersmust bewareof their role as

facilitators as well as instigators

To concludeaccordingto Lieb (1991)

~Particjpants must also see a reward for learning The reward does not necessarily have to bemonetary it can be Simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning thematerial Finally the participant must be interested in the subject Interest is directly related toreward Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn thesubject

Teachers role as facilitators is to organize techniques appropriately and

present learning strategies to students in order to create a positive social

methodological and affective environment and consequently to achieve successful

learning

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

CONCLUSION

Although learning theories are sometimes controversial the process is

definitely interesting A wide understanding of each learning style enables educators

to provide tailored teaching thus different teaching techniques and learning styles

were studied and described offering teachers some options to be applied in the

classroom in order to promote learning boosting the learners interest in the lessons

Bearing in mind that the process is fragile and can be easily influenced in a

harmful or a profitable way the specific objectives were to identify factors that might

interfere in the learning process and to what extent and suggest some techniques

Nevertheless the study discovered that these factors are not originated in flaws in

the usage of techniques or in misleading strategies The strongest influences come

from external circumstances such as institutional and situational barriers and internal

conditions known as dispositional barriers

These barriers can create such an unbearable pressure that disruption in the

learning process may occur interfering directly in the ability of memorization andlor

understanding lack of interest or even the abandoning of a sinking ship On the

other hand there is a positive pressure made up of emotion and motivation able to

enhance the learning process by developing interest in the learners and their

involvement in the process

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

30

The field research evidenced that motivation and emotion are intrinsically

bound but surprisingly a situational barrier can make students give up studying

However the teachers role is to uphold the learning by allying the knowledge of

strategies and techniques to fight against barriers which hamper the learning

process Any barrier can be handled when teachers are engaged in providing

memorable teaching and students are emotionally involved in the learning process

because they perceive what they have been studying is relevant practical and

applicable

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Article available at wwwteachingenglishorgukltryothertryone Access28102003 11 OOh

2 Cross KP Adults as Learners San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1981 Articleavailable at wwwplanetaeducacaocombrAccess05070411 OOh

3 Cury A Pais brilhantes Professores fascinantes Rio de Janeiro Sextante2003

4 Data available at hUplllibrarythinkquestorgC005704content teaching ittechniquesphp3 Access 051103 1645h

5 Diana K K Ph D Adult Learners Characteristics TheOries MotivationsLearning Environment Head of Ufelong Learning Dublin Institute ofTechnology wwwditieIDITlifelongaduIUadlearn_charspdf Access020105 1800h

6 Effective learning environments Article available atwwwgseuciedumrielwhitepaperlearn2htmIAccess051103 1646h

7 Ellis G Sinclair B Learning to Learn English - A Course in Learner TrainingCambridge University Press 1989

8 Frost R Remembering Vocabulary British Council Article available atwwwbbccoukAccess041120031134h

9 Lejeune N Review and Critique of Adults as Learners by K Patricia Cross1981 May 25 2000 Available athUpllouraycudenveredu-nflejeundoctoralwebCoursesEPSY5220_Adult_Learningreview_adults_asJearnershtm Access 150205 1534h

10 Lieb S Adults and Adulthood South Mountain Community CollegeFall 1991 Available athUpllhonoluluhawaiieduintraneUcommitteesFacDevComguidebklteachtipadults-2htm Access 150205 1534h

11 Litzinger amp Os if (1992 73) Pedagogy Learning Styles Preferences Availableat hUpllwwwcygneU-jblackmodiglibstyl-dhtml File updated Aug 3 1996Access 04112003 11 34h

12 OMalley JM Chamot AU Learning Strategies in Second LanguageAcquisition CUP 1990

13 Parrott M Tasks for Language Teachers CUP 1993

14 Prist L Os 7 trunfos para falar Ingles Sao Paulo DPL 6ed 1998

15 Reynolds J An Alternative Paradigm for College Reading and Study SkillCourses Article available at httpwwwnvcceduhomenvreynj Access04112003 11 34h

16 Swarbrick A Teaching Modern Languages The Open University 1994

17 Verster C Learning styles and teaching Article available atwwwteachingenglishorguklthinkimethodologyAccess05110311 30h

32

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

1 Sexmale female

2 Age_ less than 15 years _ more than 15 more than 20 __ more than 30

3 How long have you been studying English_ less than 2 years __ more than 2 years __ less than 4 years _ more than 4 years

4 Which level are you in_ beginner __ intermediate __ upper intermediate _ advanced

5 Have you ever quit studying English_ yes __ no - If YES how many times did you quit and start again_ 1 __ 2 __ 3 _ 4 __ more than 4

6 What factors influenced your decision to quit_ money __ lack of progress __ course book _ time __ teaching techniques_ other (please mention) _

7 What is your reason for studying English_ interest in the language __ professional career __ iving abroad __ other

8 In which area willdo you use English the most_ to work __ to study __ to travel _ to communicate with foreigners (exinternet)

9 What are your expectations in relation to your English course_ basic knowledge (make myself understood)_ average knowledge (express myself and understand others)_ maximum knowledge (be fluent and accurate)

10 What disappoints you mostMWhen you_ do not understand a message_ can not express yourself

are misunderstood

11How do you react to the situations described above_ get angry with yourself_ get angry about the language_ get upset with your interlocutor

5Check the percentage of influence that you believe each of the topics has in your learning processYourself book teacher method

~

10t030 ~10t030 ~10t030 ~10t03030 to 50 30 to 50 30 to 50 30 to 5050 to 70 50 to 70 50 to 70 50 to 7070 to 100 70 to 100 70 to 100 70 to 100

QUESTIONNAIRE

1 Sexmale female

2 Age_ less than 15 years _ more than 15 more than 20 __ more than 30

3 How long have you been studying English_ less than 2 years __ more than 2 years __ less than 4 years _ more than 4 years

4 Which level are you in_ beginner __ intermediate __ upper intermediate _ advanced

5 Have you ever quit studying English_ yes __ no - If YES how many times did you quit and start again_ 1 __ 2 __ 3 _ 4 __ more than 4

6 What factors influenced your decision to quit_ money __ lack of progress __ course book _ time __ teaching techniques_ other (please mention) _

7 What is your reason for studying English_ interest in the language __ professional career __ iving abroad __ other

8 In which area willdo you use English the most_ to work __ to study __ to travel _ to communicate with foreigners (exinternet)

9 What are your expectations in relation to your English course_ basic knowledge (make myself understood)_ average knowledge (express myself and understand others)_ maximum knowledge (be fluent and accurate)

10 What disappoints you mostMWhen you_ do not understand a message_ can not express yourself

are misunderstood

11How do you react to the situations described above_ get angry with yourself_ get angry about the language_ get upset with your interlocutor

5Check the percentage of influence that you believe each of the topics has in your learning processYourself book teacher method

~

10t030 ~10t030 ~10t030 ~10t03030 to 50 30 to 50 30 to 50 30 to 5050 to 70 50 to 70 50 to 70 50 to 7070 to 100 70 to 100 70 to 100 70 to 100