Remembering the War

8/2/2019 Remembering the War

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Seton Hall University

From the SelectedWorks of Yinan He

January 2007

Remembering and Forgetting the War: EliteMythmaking, Mass Reaction, and Sino-JapaneseRelations, 1950-2006

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Rememberig ad Forgeig he War

Rememberig ad Forgeighe War

Elite Mythmaking, Mass Reaction,

and Sino-Japanese Relations, 19502006

Yinan He

Rlig elies oe make pericios aioal myhs or isrmeal prposes,

creaig diverge hisorical memories o he same eves i diere cories.

B hey ed o exploi ieraioal hisory dispes oly whe hey eel isecre

domesically. Socieal reacios o elie myhmakig, reeced i radicalized pblic

opiio, ca reiorce hisory dispes. Drig he 1950s1970s, Chia avoided

hisory dispes wih Japa o ocs o geosraegic ieress. Oly rom he early

1980s did domesic poliical iceives moivae Beijig o aack Japaese hisorical

memory ad promoe asserive aioalism hrogh parioic hisory propagada,

which radicalized Chiese poplar views abo Japa. Media highlighig o

Japas hisorical revisioism exacerbaed socieal demads o sele war accos

wih Japa, while acioal poliics wihi he Chiese Commis Pary made i

difcl or he op leaders o compromise o he bilaeral hisory isse.

IntRODuCtIOn

O 13 Ags 2001 Japas ew prime miiser, Koizmi Jichiro, paid

homage a he Shiois Yaski Shrie i tokyo, dedicaed o he spir-

is o hose who died fghig o behal o he Emperor o Japa, ad a

log-ime symbol o Japaese imperialis aggressio i he eyes o Chia.

While he claimed ha his visi o he shrie was ieded o covey o allvicims o he war my hearel repeace ad codoleces ad pledge
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Yinan He

as a erroeous ac ha has damaged he poliical oudaio o Sio-

Japaese relaios as well as he eeligs o he Chiese people ad oher

Asia vicims.1 noeheless, Koizumi coiued his aual visis o he

shrie uil shorly beore seppig dow i Sepember 2006. Wih muchager, he Chiese leaders reused o hold summi meeigs wih Koizumi,

ad Chiese mass proess agais Japa repeaedly eruped, frs hrough

Iere peiios ad laer culmiaig i large-scale ai-Japaese dem-

osraios i 2005. Durig he Koizumi years, bilaeral relaios reached

heir lowes poi sice diplomaic ormalizaio i 1972.2

the Yasukui icides were oly a rece idicaio o he sharp

clash bewee Chiese ad Japaese ierpreaios o heir war hisory.

Begiig rom he frs Sio-Japaese exbook coroversy i 1982,bilaeral poliical dispues over hisory, or he hisory issue, have severely

escalaed. the role o hisorical memory i coemporary Sio-Japaese

relaios has log puzzled sudes o Eas Asia poliics because i defes

wo coveioal wisdoms: frs, ha ime ca heal all wouds; ad sec-

od, ha growig bilaeral coacs should miigae hisorical grievaces.

Chia ad Japa ough a raumaic war durig 193745, bu hey did

o sar o quarrel abou hisory uil more ha hree decades laer, he

early 1980s, whe he majoriy o he populaio o loger had direc

experiece o he war ad he wo couries had developed close ecoomic

ad social ies. Sice he, heir poliical dispues over he memory o he

war have coiued uabaed, becomig a major cocer i bilaeral rela-

ios ad overshadowig he prospec o regioal sabiliy ad prosperiy

i Eas Asia.3

Why do couries oday sill bicker abou eves decades or eve

ceuries old? Why cao he govermes resrai such seemigly

irraioal quarrels ha may jeopardize more agible aioal ieress?

I argue ha he udameal cause o ieraioal poliical coic over

hisory lies i he ieioal maipulaio o hisory by rulig elies, or

aioal myhmakig, or isrumeal purposes. naioal myhs, which

are aciul sories abou he origis, ideiy ad purposes o a aio,

cosiue a iegral par o he ideological oudaio or aioal

ideiy ad aioalism.4 though oe disorig hisorical acs, myhs

prese a picure o he shared pas ha ca evoke he deepes emoioalresoace rom he populace. Elies use hese highly symbolic myhs o

j i i l i li dd d i li i l h
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as regime legiimacy, social mobilizaio eeds, ad acioal ad orgaiza-

ioal ieress.5 these myhs ed o lead diere couries o ierpre

he same hisorical eves wih grea discrepacy. Elies may shelve heir

hisoriographical diereces wih aoher coury or ear o damagigimmediae ecoomic ad poliical ieress bu ed o exploi he polii-

cal beef o hese diereces whe hey eel a srog sese o isecuriy

i domesic poliics.

no all aioal myhs are elie-drive or alsifable. Ahoy Smihs

eho-culuralis heory claims ha sice aioal myhs are radiioal

sories abou he ehic origis o a aio, hey should be value-eural

ad o really alsifable.6 However, aioalism scholars i he school o

iveed radiios emphasize he alsiy i cerai myhical represe-aios o aioal hisory.7 I order o udersad ieraioal hisory

dispues, I ocus here o aioal myhs ha blaaly disor hisory,

especially hree ypes o pericious myhs creaed by rulig elies ha serve

o icie ieraioal coic: (a) sel-gloriyig myhs, which explicily

icorporae iaed or alse claims o aioal virue ad compeece; hese

iclude myhs o vicimizaio ha orm a cul o aioal maryrdom,

edowig a aio wih moral superioriy;8 (b) sel-whiewashig myhs,

which dey or raioalize a aios pas wrogdoig agais ohers; ad

(c) oher-maligig myhs, which deigrae oher aios as ierior,

evil or culpable.9 I paricular, such myhs oser disagreeme bewee

ormer eemy couries over wha happeed durig heir pas coic

ad geerae dramaically diere aswers o he quesio o who bears

wha kid o resposibiliy o whom or havig doe wha.10 Myhs ha

gloriy heir ow couries beefcece ad virues, dey guil or crimes

ad blame ohers or ragedies will harde he perperaor sides claim o

heir ow iocece ad he vicim sides demad or reribuio.

Meawhile, i is impora o udersad ha aioal myhmakig

is rarely implemeed i a sricly op-dow, cohere ashio because

aioal memory is cosruced hrough a complex process o coesaio.

Ieral memory coesaio ca escalae ad perpeuae ieraioal

hisory dispues: ira-elie esio may compel he op leaders o mai-

ai a hard-lie posiio exerally, ad elie myhmakig may radicalize

public opiio abou aoher coury. thereore, eve i he govermeswould raher de-escalae hisory dispues whe heir cos, such as damage o

bil l i i d h b f i l d i l
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Yinan He

orces may pree hem rom compromisi o he hisory isse. I

order o illsrae hese armes, his aricle examies, as a case sdy,

he caios i poswar Sio-Japaese poliical dispes oer hisory,

rom he silece i he frs hree decades aer he war o he ocierosclashes oer memory rom 1982.

AvOIDIng tHE HIStORY ISSuE, 19501981

Aer Japas caasrophic deea i World War II, he Japaese cosera-

ie elies osered hree major aioal myhs whose mai prpose was

o clease he repaio o he coseraie rop arished by is iex-

ricable ies o he warime oerme ad leiimae is rli power.Firs, he myh o he miliary cliqe blamed a small rop o miliary

leaders or lachi he war ad assered ha he Japaese people were

peace-loi, ioce icims o he war. this myh whiewashed he com-

pliciy o a wide rae o warime poliical acors, icldi he emperor

ad cor ofcials, zaibatsu, or bsiess colomeraes, ciilia poliicias

ad hih-raki breacras, who reroped i he coseraie par-

ies i poswar Japaese poliics. I also iored he ehsiasic sppor

ha meros ordiary Japaese had ie o he war policy. Secod,

he Weser-ceric myh held Japa resposible or opei hosiliies

aais he Weser Allies b eaded is aressio ad arociies i Asia.

the coseraies perpeaed his myh becase ackowledi ad

horohly iesiai war crimes wold hae icrimiaed may people

oside he miliary cliqe.third, he heroic sacrifce myh ae imperialsoldiers special hoor or hai sacrifced hemseles or he aio. By

exolli he miliarys imae, coseraie hisorioraphy circmeed

he dameal misakes i he war policy ad he horredos arociies

commied by he miliary rak ad fle.11

Elie myhmaki was also preale i Chia, larely moiaed

by aioal secriy ieress. Aer 1949, he ceral heme o Chiese

rad sraey was o coerbalace he hrea o America imperial-

ism becase o is coaime policy aais Commis Chia ad

commime o sppor he Komia (KMt)-led reime i taiwa

aer he obreak o he Korea War. I lie wih his sraey, Chiesecommis ideoloes soh o achor aioal ideiy i he defi

d l f b h Chi C i d h C i l
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Remembering and Forgeing he War

iss, inclding he KMt and is American ally.12 the ofcial hisory o he

Sino-Japanese War made every eor o magniy he role o he Chinese

Commnis Pary (CCP) in he naional resisance campaign and condemn

he KMt and he uS.Relaed o he srggle agains he uS was Chinas policy oward is

Wesern allies, inclding Japan. the CCP leaders saw a world no merely

dominaed by wo sperpowers b also ridden by conradicions beween

sperpowers and smaller powers; i Beijing cold bild a revolionary

unied Fron wih boh socialis conries and smaller Wesern powers,

i wold erode inernaional sppor or he uS-led conainmen agains

China.13 From he 1950s, Beijing praciced peoples diplomacy oward

Japan, a semi-ofcial diplomaic campaign aimed a changing tokyospolicy o non-recogniion o Beijing and ndercing is secriy alliance

wih Washingon.14 In he arena o hisorical memory, he Chinese ofcial

narraive rerained rom demonizing he enire Japanese naion b drew

a clear line beween he small handl o Japanese miliariss and ordi-

nary Japanese people, who were reaed as he Chinese peoples ellow

vicims o he miliariss. Clearly overlapping wih he Japanese myh o

he miliary cliqe, sch a moderae one on Japanese war responsibiliy

was designed o promoe a avorable impression o Commnis China

in Japanese sociey and aciliae peoples diplomacy. Moreover, he

disincion beween he many good Japanese and he ew bad Japanese

sppored he class-based commnis ideology, he primary ondaion

o he Beijing regimes legiimacy.

the ineres calcls behind naional myhmaking does no sgges

ha he process o elie maniplaion o hisory is linear becase conesa-

ion over memory consrcion almos always exiss beween rling elies

and socieal orces, and even beween dieren elie acions. Wheher

myhs creaed by cerain rling elies can become he hegemonic national

memoryand shape he core ideas o naional ideniy has mch o do wih

he larger poliical opporniy srcre, inclding he balance o power

beween elie grops, and limaely heir abiliy o conrol he insiional

ools o memory consrcion, inclding school exbooks, msems and

commemoraive rials, and pos-conic resolion measres, inclding

war compensaion programs. Whichever poliical grop enjoys domina-ion o hese insiional ools will scceed in insaing is own version

hi i h h i
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Yinan He

the above Japaese ad Chiese aioal myhs became he ofcial

memory maily due o he domia sae corol over memory producio

ha coerced socieal voices io silece or marial iuece. I Japa, he

coservaives ieres i maipulai hisory coicided wih he Americasraey o suppori a sable coservaive overme i tokyo boh

o achieve occupaio objecives ad o make Japa a impora ai-

commuis bulwark i Asia.15 Japas proressive elies, oe associaed

wih he Japaese Socialis Pary (JSP), Japaese Commuis Pary (JCP)

ad oher le-wi oraizaios, held a more orhrih perspecive o

war uil, ad hey ideed praciced hisory as opposiio o compee

wih he ruli coservaive elies or power ad iuece.16 Bu he

iuece o he proressive orces o he heemoic aioal memorydimiished as he JSP ad JCP repeaedly los i he power srule aais

he America-suppored Liberal Democraic Pary (LDP). As a resul,

he coservaives were able o dissemiae aioal myhs hrouh such

isiuioal ools as he tokyo War Crimes trial, exbook auhorizaio

sysem, poswar compesaio policies, ad war commemoraio riuals

such as hose a he Yasukui Shrie ad he peace museums i Hiroshima

ad naasaki.17

Moreover, Japaese coservaive elies successully spread hese

aioal myhs because hey were i accordace wih he broad rame o

public aiudes. Cosuelo Cruz suess ha whe cosruci rheoric

sysems or aioal ideiy, poliical acors mus operae wihi he limi

o imaiable possibiliies.18 I order o appear ruhul or persuasive

o he public, aioal myhs usually build o cerai embedded percep-

ios ad euie emoios ha already exis i amily memories ad

olk culure, raher ha abricai somehi eirely ew. Japaese

myhs o sel-lorifcaio ad whiewashi wo wide public resoace

precisely because hey capured he imaiaio o he eeral public i

he aermah o he war, whe he aio was preoccupied wih is ow

sueris ad i o mood o ace up o Japas war uil vis--vis oher

Asia aios.

Wih is oaliaria corol o sae power ad horouh peeraio

o socieal lie, he CCP easily isiuioalized war myhs as he heemoic

aioal memory. Chiese school exbooks i he 1950s ad 1960s praisedhe CCP as he sole leader o he grea Chiese War o Resisace aais

J A i 19 I h d h KMt k i
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o and acively collaboraing wih he Japanese aggressors, and blamed

he uS or conniving wih he Japanese and helping he KMt sppress

Chinese commnism. they omied hose signifcan, someimes valoros

bales ogh by he KMt roops, and negleced o menion Americanmiliary aid o China and he larger picre o he Pacifc War. Compared

o he vivid descripions o he warime roles o he CCP and KMt,

exbook reamen o Japanese acions was raher c-and-dried, rarely

providing deails, and never condemning he enire Japanese naion, b

only he ridi(Japanese imperialism), rijun(Japanese miliary), or rikou

(Japanese bandis) the sae-conrolled media also claimed ha ordinary

Japanese people waned peace, and rged hem o join hands wih he

Chinese people o oppose he uSJapan alliance ha wold drag Japanino anoher disasros war.20

Alhogh echoing Japans myh o he miliary cliqe, Chinese

ofcial hisory coniced wih he oher wo Japanese myhs ha glori-

fed he imperial army and denied Japans vicimizaion o Asia. However,

Beijing deliberaely se aside hese dierences les he Chinese people

conse Japan wih heir re archenemies, he KMt and America. Domes-

ically, he governmen sppressed hisorical invesigaion o Japanese war

crimes.21 War movies avoided elaboraing on his opic becase oherwise

hey wold be disseminaing senimenalism and capialis hmaniarianism

ha wold dile or hared o imperialism and lower or morale.22

the governmen also blocked inormaion on Japanese exbook disorion

and oher domesic programs ha assered he oher wo Japanese myhs.

Exernally, Beijing handled bilaeral hisorical legacies wih excepional

generosiy. Shorly beore he 1956 war-crimes rials, he CCP Cenral

Commiee defned wo principles wih regard o Japanese war criminals:

none shold be execed or senenced o lie in jail, and verdics o impris-

onmen shold be limied o a very small nmber o people. thereore,

o approximaely 1,000 Japanese war criminals deained in China a he

ime, only 45 were senenced o prison, he res pardoned and qickly

repariaed.23 Moreover, Beijing never made war reparaions a precondi-

ion or bargaining chip in is diplomacy oward Japan, and in he 1960s

even decided wihin he pary ha he governmen wold orgo reparaion

claims in he re.

24

toward he end o he 1960s, proond inernaional srcral

h i l di h Si S i i d Si A i
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9/34

Yinan He

prochemen, compelled Beijin o collaborae wih more Wesern powers,

a caeory ha included Japan, o conron Sovie heemonism. Shorly

beore Sino-Japanese normalizaion, he CCP Cenral Commiee issued

o is members Maos policy insrucion ha cooperaion wih Japan wouldconribue o he srule aains American and Sovie heemonism,

especially Sovie revisionism and was useul or opposin a Japanese

miliaris revival, liberain taiwan and miiain ensions in Asia.25

given he sraeic sinifcance o bilaeral solidariy in he ace o

he common Sovie hrea, Beijin reached a compromise wih tokyo

on issues considered secondary, such as war memory. When sinin he

join communiqu o diplomaic normalizaion in Beijin in Sepember

1972, Prime Miniser tanaka Kakuei spoke o he unorunae periodin bilaeral hisory, or which he expressed deep reecion, bu no

apoloy.26 Beijin quickly acceped his ambiuous esure o conriion

in exchane or speedy diplomaic reconiion. A he beinnin o he

preparaory meeins neoiain he join communiqu, Premier Zhou

Enlai oered o renounce claims or war reparaions.27 Zhou also old

tanaka ha he ew miliariss mus be sricly separaed rom he vas

majoriy o he Japanese people, and ha boh he Chinese and Japanese

naions had been raumaized in he war.28 By reierain is concurrence

wih Japans mainsream war hisory, Beijin avoided poliical dispues

over hisory and made way or he wo counries immediae sraeic

cooperaion.

thus, propaanda o naional myhs prevened riorous invesia-

ion o hisorical acs, and poliical esures were subsiued or sincere,

concree resiuion. In China, he sae reained ih conrol o memory

insiuions in he 1970s, so privae memories o he war, houh sill

alive, could no ener he public space o discourse. Mos youn Chinese

had minimal knowlede abou Japanese war arociies. Meanwhile, Maos

charismaic leadership and dicaorial rip on cenral power larely pre-

cluded inra-pary challenes o he propaaion o myhs ha downplayed

Japanese war crimes.29 thereore, hrouh he 1970s neiher ofcial

ineres nor popular pressure exised in China o incie hisory dispues

wih Japan.
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10/34

Rememberi ad Forei he War

tHE ERuPtIOn OF tHE HIStORY ISSuE:

tHE JAPAnESE tExtBOOK COntROvERSY OF 1982

Whe are elies willi o epose ad hihlih memory coic wih ohercories, ee o he ee o riski damae o diplomaic relaios?

Oe circmsace is whe hey eel a sro sese o isecriy becase o

cocers abo heir power sas or aioal cohesio. Liah greeeld ad

Daiel Chiro describe i heir sdy o he early aio-bildi sae i

Rssia, germay ad cerai Arab cories how prod, parioic, deeply

shamed ad isecre elies were cosaly dissaisfed wih heir domes-

ic power sas ad el hmiliaed or heir cories lai behid

adaced Weser cories. these eelis propelled heir aioalisicpropaada ad belliere orei policy.30 Aoher possible moiaio

is he aemp o se ieraioal dispes oer hisory i order o resore

domesic cosess ad harmoy. Omer Baro pois o ha germa

myhs abo Jewish eemies ad germa icimhood were isiioal-

ized aer World War I whe germa aioaliss perceied a series o

hreas o aioal iy ad priy rom wihi ad wiho.31

I he case o Sio-Japaese relaios, sari rom he 1982 Japa-

ese ebook coroersy, Beiji eaed i acrimoios srie wih

tokyo oer he arraio ad commemoraio o war hisory. Sch a

dramaic deparre rom earlier policy ca be dersood i lih o he

posClral Reolio socioecoomic difclies ad breoi

democracy moeme, as well as he poliical cleaaes wihi he CCP.

Beijis moe i he ebook icide was eidely based o a raioal

calclaio ha he asks o ehaci ieral cohesio ad boosi

reime leiimacy were more pressi ha maiaii harmoios rela-

ios wih he Wes.

Aer he deah o Mao ad he ed o he Clral Reolio, he

CCPs policy ocs shied rom class srle o ecoomic moderiza-

io. the immediae poliical oals o he ew leader, De xiaopi,

were o resore he peoples rs i he pary aer he disasros Clral

Reolio, ad o weed o Maos leacy ad cosolidae his ow power

base wihi he pary, boh crcial o implemei his oerall sraey o

ecoomic reorm ad ope-door policy. B hese oals me challeesrom elemes wihi boh Chiese sociey ad he CCP. From lae 1978

D W ll i l h d i B iji i hi h h h
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11/34


12/34

Rememberin and Forein he War

the aoremenioned democracy movemen, social disorder and worsenin

economic siuaion all ave he conservaives ammuniion or aackin

he reorm proram. In February 1982 a conservaive ideoloue, Wan

Renzhon, even proposed o declare war on boureois inuences spreadby he open-door policy.36

In order o build a broad reorm coaliion, Den had o inerly

walk a fne line beween he wo rival acions.37 Aer all, he needed sup-

por rom he conservaives, includin rom Chen Yun or he economic

proram, general Ye Jianyin or removin Hua and reirin old miliary

commanders, as well as he old uards olerance o he open-door policy.

thereore, while adherin o economic reorm, Den conceded consider-

able round o he conservaives on poliical and ideoloical rons, such aspropaain a moderae evaluaion o he Culural Revoluion and Maos

leacy, and sancionin several ideoloical campains combain boureois

liberalism rom he early o mid-1980s. Dens ambiuiy was manies a

he 12h Pary Conress held in Sepember 1982, when he called or he

urher openin-up o China o he ouside world bu warned o corrosion

by decaden ideas rom abroad, and placed equal emphasis on economic

consrucion, and poliical and ideoloical educaion.38

Such was Chinas domesic poliical backround when he Japanese

exbook conroversy eruped. the inciden was he resul o he inensi-

yin srule beween he proressive and conservaive views o hisory

in Japan. One o he mos imporan areas o memory conesaion is

mass educaion. In he so-called Biased texbooks Campain (Henk

Kykasho Kyanpein) ha sared around 1980, Japanese conservaive

elies inensely aacked he moderae increase in exbook coverae o

he Asian peoples war suerin, which had been brouh abou since he

1970s by leis inuence, and souh o ihen conrol over he exbook

auhorizaion process. In January 1982 he LDP issued a saemen ha

school educaion should culivae he Japanese spiri and oser naional

pride. Educaion Miniser tanaka tasuo even explicily old exbook

wriers and publishers who were preparin exbooks or he 198386

riennium o soen heir approach o Japans excesses durin World War

II and place more sress on parioism.39 Wary o overnmen aemps

o disor hisory, Japanese liberal inellecuals closely moniored he ex-book screenin process in 1982. A he end o June he Japanese media

d h M b h ( h J Mi i Ed i ) h d i d
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13/34

Yinan He

insrucions or hisorical whiewashing in exbooks, such as replacing

he erm shinryaku(invasion) byshinshutsu(advance) in relaion o he

Sino-Japanese war.40 the news sparked a poliical sorm in Japan, which

was quickly picked up by he inernaional media. In response, he Chineseand Souh Korean governmens lodged ormal proess wih tokyo in lae

July and early Augus.

Beijings reacion o he inciden was no impulsive; he Chinese

media waied nearly one monh aer he iniial oubreak o he conroversy

o sar aacking Japan. As noed above, in 1982 Deng was under grea

pressure as a resul o he mouning social crisis and domesic poliical

disuniy. Moreover, his occurred shorly beore he 12h Pary Congress,

when Deng would make a compromise wih he conservaives in exchangeor heir endorsemen o reorm and he open-door policy. to show so-

ness in relaion o Japan, a counry in he caegory o Wesern counries,

in he exbook conroversy would lay him open o even more vigorous

aacks rom he conservaives and endanger his reorm agenda.

Despie he dearh o inormaion on Beijings policy deliberaions in

July, one can logically iner rom he domesic siuaion and he reacion

in he Chinese media ha Deng very likely saw he exbook inciden as

a good opporuniy o shore up his own and he parys presige and also

prepare or he upcoming Pary Congress. A ough sance on Japan could

show his deerminaion o end o inimical oreign inuence, as well as

o check he pro-Wes wing o he reormis acion, represened by Hu

Yaobang, who was also sympaheic o he liberal inellecuals ques or

poliical reedom.41 this could grealy appease pary hard-liners who were

alarmed by he srenghening o he democraic movemen as a resul o

economic reorm. Beijings diplomacy oward Japan over he hisory issue

can hereore be seen as a produc o he power sruggle beween dier-

en pary acions, since Deng did no enjoy Maos dicaorial charisma

and relied more on he suppor o veeran poliical and miliary leaders.

Besides, by lashing ou a Japans amnesia abou is pas aggression oward

China, Beijing could depic Japan as an immoral oher and hus resore

he inernal cohesion o he sel, he Chinese naion, and assuage public

resenmen oward he governmen.

the inernaional conex ha enabled Beijing o reap poliical profrom he hisory issue was he decline, rom he 1980s, o he pressure

Chi i i i i l i hi i h h W l


14/34


he Cold War. A he 12h Pary Cogress, Beijig ormally adoped a

idepede oreig policy bewee he wo sperpowers. Alhogh he

coiig Sovie hrea preveed Chia rom becomig rly idepe-

de o America sraegic sppor, a leas rheorically Beijig bega opll back rom he Wes.42 I he 1990s, aer he Sovie uio collapsed,

he geosraegic iceives or Beijig o resrai aioalis diplomacy

aded eve more rapidly.

Aer he exbook icide, Chias ieral esio oly wors-

eed. no oly did he ira-pary acioal poliics coie, b also

he reorm policy drew complais rom a large par o he poplaio

ha was adversely aeced. the CCPs presige rher mbled aer he

viole crackdow o he 1989 democraic moveme ad he exacerba-io o social ieqaliy ad cadre corrpio rom he 1990s. Poplar

reseme agais wha hey saw as he air, corrp ad icompee

sae was so iese ha i sparked meros mass demosraios ad

eve viole rios.43

Wih he iexorable declie o commism, he goverme resored

o a ew ideological ramework, aioalism, o aciliae ira-pary co-

solidaio ad sreghe he regimes legiimacy. As discssed earlier, elie

myhmakig gais wider pblic accepace i i ivokes belies ad vales

shared by he pblic. Oe commoly sed acic is o wrap aioal myhs

i he abric o parioic rheoric, claimig ha pride i oes ow aio

ad hosiliy o ohers are i he aioal ieres. As Joh Bodar arges,

parioic ideas appeal o he pblic becase hey are perceived as -

dameally re raher ha as isrmes o elie exploiaio.44 ths,

rom he mid-1980s, Beijig bega o oser a mixre o wha Michel

Okseberg calls cofde aioalism ad asserive aioalism. I

was moderae i he ecoomic sphere, ackowledgig he imporace

o Weser echology ad ivesme, b rigid ad msclar i he

ideological ad clral spheres, oe sig he oherig o he Wes-

er o-grop o gloriy he Chiese i-grop.45 the dal are o he

ofcial aioalism was aimed a raisig he aioal spiri while reaiig

he beefs o he ecoomic ope-door policy.

A cory ha had ivaded ad hmiliaed Chia i he pas, ad

whose hisorical amesia was oorios, Japa became a easy argeo Chias asserive aioalism. By adopig a harsh posiio o he

J hi i B iji d h bli h i ld


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Yinan He

o compromise wih Weser cories o hr aioal ieress. ths,

i a secod ebook coroversy i 1986, Beiji pressred nakasoe

Yashiros overme o revise a aioalisic hisory ebook ad fre

Miiser o Edcaio Fjio Masayki who had opposed he revisio.46Icides o Japaese leaders worship a he Yaski Shrie, icldi

hose ivolvi Prime Miisers nakasoe i 1985, Hashimoo Ryar

i 1996, ad Koizmi sice 2001, also ivariably provoked Beijis

harsh criicism.

PROMOtIng OFFICIAL nAtIOnALISM: CHInAS PAtRIOtIC

EDuCAtIOn CAMPAIgn

to be sre, Chias ofcial aioalism was o ieded o provoke

ai-Wes eophobia ha wold have damaed is ecoomy, which

was so ierdepede wih he Wes. Ecessive pblic aimosiy aais

oreiers also carries he risk o dermii poliical sabiliy, which

had bee he case i boh he May Forh Moveme o 1919 ad he

xia Icide o 1936, whe ai-Japaese mass demosraios rapidly

red io ai-overme movemes. to sial he domesic orie-

aio o he aioalis propaada, he ofcial discorse preerred he

erm aiguo zhuyi (parioism) o minzu zhuyi (aioalism), sice he

laer had ai-orei, parochial cooaios. usi parioic laae

cold also mediae divere ieress ad cocers i sociey or o oe

wold dispe love or he moherlad, o eve he liberal dissides.

the overme ehored he people o ideiy wih ad rally arod

he commis sae ha was alleedly he paramo parioic orce ad

ardia o aioal pride ad, i he ame o parioism, persaded he

pblic o sppor he reorm policies.47

thereore, i addiio o poliicizi hisory dispes wih Japa,

aoher mai isrme ha he Chiese overme employed o

promoe ofcial aioalism was parioic school edcaio. I 1985, he

overme resmed Five-Love Edcaio (wuai jiaoyu), a parioic

edcaio proram dai back o he 1950s. the Sae Edcaio Com-

missio (SEC) isrced schools i 1990 o ierae he eachi oparioism ad aioal codiio (guoqin) wih he edcaio o love or

i li d h CCP I 1994 l id li d h h di
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Oulie or he Implemeaio o Parioic Educaio were pub-

lished.48 I order o simulae aioal pride ad cohesio, his campaig

placed paricular emphasis o eachig Chias hisory o resisig oreig

aggressio as a collecive experiece o suerig, sruggle ad glory. I1989 he SEC isruced schools o use hisory classes o make sudes

remember hisorical lessos, ad o o orge he imperialis ivasio

ad he Chiese peoples heroic resisace.49

this program o parioic hisory educaio highlighed he 193745

Sio-Japaese war, which had previously bee reaed as merely oe o

may episodes i Chias early oe hudred years o aioal sruggle

or liberaio. now he war was sigled ou as he mos impora mili-

ary ad poliical coic i Chiese hisory because i his war Chiacould claim is frs complee vicory agais oreig ivaders.50 I 1995,

akig advaage o he fieh aiversary o Chias war vicory, Beijig

lauched a vigorous commemoraive campaig desiged o brig parioic

educaio o a climax. the ofcial media published umerous hisorical

documes, ierviews ad ediorials regardig he war, ad secodary

schools aiowide carried ou he Six Hudred Projec o popularize

a log lis o parioic books, movies ad elevisio dramas, ad sogs

ad poems.51

While highlighig he heme o aioal resisace, he ew his-

oriography redefed he KMts role i he war. Sice he parioic

propagada prepared he aio or he grad cause o overcomig

oreig humiliaio ad resorig aioal glory, he uifcaio wih

taiwa, a provice ceded o Japa by a uequal reay i 1895, became

a sigifca issue o aioal pride. Beijig jeisoed he old arraive

o he CCPKMt class sruggle, as he KMt, which ow represeed

he ai-idepedece cosiuecy i taiwa, was Beijigs poeial

ally. I isead claimed ha he wo paries had shared he commo goal

o deeaig Japaese aggressio. texbooks published i he lae 1980s

or he frs ime icluded he KMt-led miliary campaigs agais Japa.

new war movies also porrayed he KMt i a more posiive ligh, such as

Xuezhan Taierzhuang(the bloody bale o taierzhuag) made i 1986,

which porrayed a major vicory o he naioalis army i 1938.52

those who ow replaced he KMt as he wors villai i he hisoryo he war were he vicious Japaese imperialis aggressors. tex-

b k id d h i J i i h
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Yinan He

fgres o aaliies, gresome picres, ad ee ames o illages ad

idiidals ha had alle icim o he aggressio.53 War moies made

sice he 1980s graphically depiced Japaese acs o braliy, sch as

he najig Massacre ad he germ warare codced by Japaese ui

731. Meawhile, war commemoraio brogh Japaese arociies o

he ceer o aioal memory. the memorial o he najig Massacre,

he ico o Chiese war icimhood, which was compleed i Ags

1985, iclded a display o meros phoographs, wrie docmes,

eyewiess esimoies, ad ee hma skeleos. the iscripio o is

ro wall declared vICtIMS 300,000 (Beijigs ofcial esimae o

he massacres aaliies), while he iscripio o he ier wall isrced

isiors neer orge aioal hmiliaio (wuwang guochi) (see fgres

1 ad 2). Similar msems were bil a oher sies o Japaese arociies

hrogho he cory ad desigaed as ceers or parioic edcaio.

Chiese scholars were also ecoraged o codc deeper iesigaio

o Japaese arociies ad pblish heir research.54

Myhmakig was eide i he parioic edcaio campaig. While

reersig he preios coer-p o Japaese arociies, he ew arraie

we o he oher exreme o arosig a sese o Chiese icimhood ad

demoizig Japa. I ailed o srike a balace bewee he relaiely peace-

l Si J i i i h i li hi h i l i

Fig. 1. the najig Massacre Memorial, ro wall. Phoo by ahor.
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ad pos-ormalizaio cooperaio. Besides, warime hisory was ar more

complicaed ha black-ad-whie srles bewee Japaese ivaders ad

Chiese parios; secre diplomacy, pppe overmes ad meros

pey Chiese collaboraors had exised der he Japaese occpaio.

By placi he lios share o he blame or Chias pas seri, lo-

sadi backwardess ad crre socioecoomic difclies o Japa,

he ew arraive evaded may sesiive isses ha mih hr aioal

sel-respec or he parys presie.

PuBLIC OPInIOn RADICALIZAtIOn AnD BEIJIngS PREDICAMEnt

these sel-loriyi ad oher-malii myhs promoed by he parioic

edcaio campai elicied vocieros pblic respose i Chia. these

myhs were hihly imaiable ad credible o a capive adiece whose

privae memories o he war aressio ad eie reseme oward

Japa had previosly bee masked by class hared. Compared o oher

imperialis powers, Japaese aressio was he mos rece, he bloodi-

es ad he mos pail.55 I he eyes o may Chiese, Japa was he

limae eemy, ad o comba ayhi relaed o Japa was qies-

i l i i

Fi. 2. Deail rom he naji Massacre Memorial showi he iscripionever ore aioal hmiliaio. Phoo by ahor.
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Yinan He

Elie myhmaki, o course, ioles he selecie use o hisorical

memories accordi o heir poliical coeiece. this explais why

some memories ade wih he passae o ime, while ohers are played up

uder paricular circumsaces. While appi io he deeply embeddedChiese culural imaes o Japa, he Chiese ruli elies souh o ba-

ish o obliio he hisory o oher exeral coics ha did o f heir

eeds. For example, rom he 1990s he Chiese oerme sysemaically

deleed he 1980s war aais vieam rom public memory. texbooks

omied he war, war heroes disappeared rom public iew, ariss sopped

depici he war, ad ee relea library maerials were remoed.56

the parioic campai ceered o Japa iiially scored rea

success i simulai public resoace. the Chiese were recepie oiormaio o Japaese war arociies, o which hey had some kowlede

bu which had eer bee ofcially documeed. For example, a book

produced by a Peoples Liberaio Army (PLA) publisher i 1987, The

Great Nanjing Massacre, sold 150,000 copies i he frs moh ad was

repried ime ad aai o mee he marke demad.57 Sice he, umer-

ous such books hae appeared, oe o he iiiaie o local oermes

or idiidual publishers. no oly he sae bu also he o-ofcial mass

media ehusiasically ook up he subjec o parioism. As geremie Barm

obsered: Parioic seime is o loer he sole proice o he Pary

ad is propaadiss aioalism is ucioi as a orm o cosesus

beyod he bouds o ofcial culure.58

While he appeal o parioism ca make i easier o promoe aioal

myhs, placi oo rea a emphasis o parioic emoios may eeder a

mass ideoloy o exreme sel-lorifcaio ad ai-oreiism. Accordi

o he sel-caeorizaio heory, roup ieracio causes exreme opiios

o preail because members o he roup compee amo hemseles o

ac ou socially desirable alues ad ideas.59 I he case o Chia, whe

parioism became he buzzword i public discourse, eeryoe waed

o be a arde pario i order o wi social saus ad respec, so ha

more people bea o adocae exreme iews o boh pas ees ad

curre policies, proclaimi ucriical loe or Chia ad heir desire o

deed i rom aressie oreiers. the idealizaio o parioic war-

riors eeraed isceral ai-Weser seimes, o which Japa was hemai are. the ofcial hisory sill maiaied ha Japaese miliariss

h ld b di i d h di J b h bli
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oo preoccupied wih Chinese suering o recognize such fne disinc-

ions. Bes-selling books, Inerne cha rooms and oher priae discussion

orums on Japan and war hisory commonly condemn he enire Japanese

naion as eil.the exreme ani-Japanese popular naionalism in China was reeced

in he recen phenomenon on he Inerne o fenqing(indignan young

people) culure. Fenqinguse cyberspace o make unbridled insuls agains

he Japanese people, culure and goernmen, accusing hose Chinese who

hae connecions wih Japan o being hanjian(Chinese raiors).60Fenqing

culure has many anaical ollowers among young urbanies. For insance,

in 2001 a amous Chinese acress was aacked on he Inerne or wearing

a dress resembling he Japanese miliary ag in a ashion magazine phoo.Soon aer she apologized on naional tv, an angry member o he audi-

ence splashed human wase on her during a sage perormance. Alhough

he was immediaely arresed by he police, he was hailed as a warm-heared

pario on he Inerne and in he abloid magazines.61Fenqingdo no, o

course, represen he whole Chinese populaion, bu he ac ha hey are

ar more ocal han moderae ciizens and se he one or policy debae

on he Inerne, he mos open and dynamic public space o discourse

in China, makes hem a paricularly powerul consiuency in suppor o

ani-Japanese policies een in an auhoriarian China.

Chinese public senimen agains Japan would no hae escalaed so

rapidly wihou he considerable liberalizaion o he mass media. From he

1990s he Chinese publishing indusry ourished, launching housands o

new papers, magazines and journals, many o which depended on income

rom aderisemens or oreign money raher han sae unds.62 the non-

ofcial media were hereore oen drien by commercial prof o pursue

sensaionalism. While diersiying inormaion sources and expanding he

public space o discourse, he media liberalizaion also brough abou a

worrisome rend, he rapid spread o malicious rumors abou Japan, which

incied he Chinese public agains ha counry.

Public opinion may become especially radicalized i sociey gains more

inuence oer he insiuional carriers o naional memory a a ime when

he sae is sill capable o repressing undesirable public debae. Because

parioic discourse almos always alls wihin he limis o olerable reespeech, hose seeking o adance heir social presige, commercial iner-

li i l d d j h i i b d
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Yinan He

Chiese iellecals, hereore, also edorsed parioism as he cosesal

aioal ideology, o oly becase i was he social ashio, b also de

o he harsh sae repressio o liberal discorse aer 1989. Casig heir

ideas i parioic erms was a sae, eecive way o advacig heir owpoliical agedas. For example, he poplar-civic aioaliss ivoked

aioalism o ecorage greaer mass paricipaio ad oser Chiese

civil sociey ad democracy. Aoher grop, cosisig o sel-proclaimed

aivis academics ad abloid aioalis wriers, eve adoped a xeo-

phobic ad isolaiois perspecive i order o icie a mass moveme o

comba Weser imperialis domiaio.63 these aioalis iellecals

spoke i pariclarly harsh ad passioae erms agais Japa, disregard-

ig acs ad logic.64 Depiced as represeig Chiese pblic opiioad deedig Chias bes ieress, hese aioalis views became so

powerl ha hey pshed more moderae views o o he maisream

o poplar discorse.65 A ellig example is he new thikig debae

o Japa arod 20022003, where moderaes who spoke o agais

he growig ai-Japaese aioalism i Chia were srogly criicized

i iellecal circles ad shoed dow o he Iere by radicalfenq-

ing, who called hem raiors.66 Coseqely, members o he Chiese

elies are relca o express moderae views o Japa.67

Becomig icreasigly icied agais Japa, Chiese pblic opiio

demaded selig hisorical accos wih ha cory. the frs obrs

o poplar repgace occrred i he mid-1980s whe Chiese iversiy

sdes opely proesed agais nakasoes visi o he Yaski Shrie

ad disorios i Japaese hisory exbooks. Sice he ai-Japaese

mass demosraios have become a roie cocer i bilaeral rela-

ios. ulike beore whe people were largely islaed rom he oside

world, rom he 1990s may ollowed ieraioal ews closely ad

egaged i policy debaes, especially o Iere Bllei Boards. these

aeive, vocal, mosly rba Chiese also eded o be he same radical

aioaliss who eagerly sogh ay piece o egaive iormaio abo

Japa. Wheever somehig coroversial happeed i Japa, hey cold

immediaely lear abo i ad voice proess.

Agais his backdrop o srgig Chiese poplar aioalism, media

repors o Japaese domesic srggles over he memory o he war grealygalvaized hisory acivism i Chiese sociey. uder moig domesic

d i i l i h 1980 h J h d
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o cocede some roud o war hisory, such as o icrease coverae o

Asia vicimizaio i hisory exbooks ad respod o he ieraioal

ciizes moveme or redress o war vicims by compesai cerai

roups such as he comor wome.68 Bu he ew red provoked aeo-aioalis backlash i Japa aais wha was see as he overmes

capiulaio o orei pressure, ad aais proressive hisorias, accused

o spreadi masochisic views amo you people. the rih-wiers

advaced a sel-loriyi view o hisory by oraizi symposiums, pub-

lishi caroos ad popular readis, ad eve compili exbooks o

heir ow, icludi he coroversial new Hisory texbook ha a rihis

oraizaio produced ad pushed hrouh he exbook auhorizaio

process i 2001.69 the rihis aacks compelled he Japaese over-me o rerea rom earlier cocessios o he proressive oesive. As

a resul, exbooks approved i 2000 markedly deleed or waered dow

descripios o miliary arociies.70 May o hese chaes seemed o have

arise rom he so-called voluary resrai o exbook publishers, bu

hey were acually he resul o poliical coercio by Mombusho ad he

Ofce o he Prime Miiser.71

the iese coesaio over war memory bewee various poliical

orces i Japa, especially he voices o he more vocal ad well-uded

rih-wiers, immediaely cauh he aeio o he Chiese public

who ow ejoyed more ope access o exeral iormaio. Icides

like he Japaese overmes approval o revisiois hisory exbooks

ad rih-wi poliicias slips o he oue o loss over aressio

brouh he ap bewee he wo aios memory o he war io sharp

relie ad easily icied he already iamed Chiese public opiio. Chi-

ese aioaliss were also provoked by Koizumis visis o he Yasukui

Shrie i 20012006, which were primarily aimed a oseri Japaese

aioal pride ad ormal sae mealiy, as well as esuri a power

base or his overace.72 no oly has Yasukui eshried Class-A

Japaese war crimials sice 1978, bu also he ewly redesied ad

expaded miliary hisory museum associaed wih he shrie, Yushuka,

ermed Japas aressio i he 1930s1940s he greaer Eas Asia

War ad lorifed he elevaed houhs o he oble souls who had

ouh i ha war o behal o Japa.

73

As Japas op leader, Koizumisworship a he shrie sialed ofcial accommodaio ad eve promoio

i l l i i i i i hi th Chi i
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Yinan He

direc isul, or hey believed hemselves o have suered he mos rom

Japaese aggressio durig he war. Hece, geuie idigaio, a vicim

mealiy ad biases agais Japa all ieraced o produce a iese ad

requely desrucive ai-Japaese mass campaig i April 2005.the public agiaio placed he goverme i a difcul dilemma.

O he oe had, he objecive o ofcial aioalism was primarily

domesic.74 Beijig sough o resrai ai-Japaese seimes whe hey

jeopardized impora aioal ieress such as ecoomic cooperaio

wih Japa. Especially aer he harsh criicism expressed by Preside

Jiag Zemi durig his 1998 sae visi o Japa backfred, Beijig bega

o soe is rheoric o Japas reame o is war hisory.75 O he

oher had, a crude clampig dow o popular aioalism would icurcriicism agais so-keed goverme diplomacy ad weake is

parioic credeials.

Such a predicame was behid Beijigs decisio o suspedexchages o leaders visis wih Prime Miiser Koizumi rom 2002. Sice

he 1998 diplomaic debacle, Beijig had evidely el he imperaive o

modiy is policy oward Japa. Compared o Koizumi, Jiag preerred

o maiai he saus quo o he hisory issue, hopig o resrai urher

polemics ad repair he damaged relaios. noeheless, earig aacks

rom he aioalis public ad leis pary elies should he make ay

compromise, he demaded ha Koizumi sop visiig Yasukui. Whe

he ourh-geeraio leader Hu Jiao ook power i 2002, he ad he

moderae Foreig Miisry were eager o seek a breakhrough i Sio-

Japaese relaios. However, rejecio o he cociliaory new thikig

o Japa by boh he Chiese public ad he elies orced Hu o pu he

pla o he backburer.76 Because he was sill cosolidaig his power

wihi he pary, or which suppor rom Jiags remaiig power base was

esseial, Hu had o uphold he explici likage ha Jiag had esablished

bewee a hal o Koizumis visis o he Yasukui Shrie ad resumpio

o sae visis bewee he wo couries. Poliically i was oo cosly or

him o back dow rom his predecessors harsh sace o Yasukui.77

today, i is widely believed i Chia ha Japa owes he Chiese

people a apology or is war crimes. Alhough Beijig ideed wished o

oe dow hisory-relaed dispues i he hope o repairig Sio-Japaeserelaios aer Jiags couer-producive visi, whe high-profle eves

h ki dl d h i h h d h


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as he Japaese prime miisers worship a he Yaski Shrie, Beijig

had o adop a frm posiio i order o assage pblic rage. ths, he

growig boom-p impes or addressig he bilaeral hisorical legacy,

combied wih ira-pary challeges o leadership sabiliy ad aioalisprovocaio rom Japa, all orced he Chiese leaders o coro Japa

o he hisory isse eve whe hey wold have probably preerred o

compromise.

COnCLuSIOn

Rememberig he pas is o a simple ac o recordig hisorical eves,b a process o cosa recosrcio o hese eves i ligh o prese

social ad poliical chages. Alhogh elie myhmakig has bee a ceral

acor i casig Sio-Japaese poliical dispes over heir war hisory i

he 1930s1940s, his pracice also appears o be prese i Chias ofcial

ierpreaio o he aioal resisace agais oher oreig imperialis

oppressio i is hisory. Pal Cohe has poied o ha myhologizers

ed o porray hisory as a oe-dimesioal picre, imposig a sbjec-

ively predeermied, oe simplisic heme o he oherwise complex ad

mliaceed hisorical process.78 Chiese exbooks gloriy dramaic clashes

bewee Chiese aioals ad oreigers sch as he Boxer prisig as

spoaeos, ai-imperialis mass movemes, while ailig o criically

examie he backwardess ad xeophobia i Chiese sociey a he ime

ha were reeced i hese movemes. I Jaary 2006, a preemie

Chiese academic Ya Weishi aacked he exbook acco o he Boxers

i a aricle pblished i Bingdian, a weekly magazie associaed wih he

ofcial Chia Yoh Daily.79 the goverme respoded o Yas aricle

by shig dow he magazie ad replacig he edior-i-chie ad his

depy. Whe he magazie was allowed o reappear wo mohs laer,

i immediaely pblished a leghy rebal o Ya ha deeded he

Boxers as parioic heroes who had preveed Chia rom beig carved

p by oreig imperialism. While ackowledgig some o he Boxers

arociies agais oreigers, he ahor aribed hem o he limiaios

o he peasa class (b exclpaed he laer sice hey were he vicims ooreig oppressio), oig ha limaely he Chiese people had od

i M i d h i hi h h d h
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Yinan He

naional independence, prosperiy and digniy.80 Evidenly, his debae

over he one-hundred-year hisory o he Boxer uprising wen ar beyond

an academic discussion o involve poliical conesaion over power and

legiimacy in odays China.the Chinese ruling elies no only myhologize he naions iner-

acion wih oreign counries bu also ighly conrol he inerpreaion

o inernal hisory. One example in poin is he heavily poliicized rea-

men o CCP hisory. For he Chinese governmen, pary hisory is one

o he mos criical ideological ools or legiimaing he parys rule and,

as a required universiy course, plays a major role in he poliical raining

o uure members o he bureaucracy, o boh he governmen and he

pary.81 Insead o basing isel on rigorous academic research o hisoricalacs, Chinese pary hisoriography is sricly limied by poliical heories

esablished by pary uncionaries holding leading posiions wihin he

CCP. One such heoreical guideline is he Resolution on Some Questions of

History, a documen passed a a CCP Cenral Commiee plenary in 1945

and he parys frs aemp o give an overall inerpreaion o is hisory.

the second major documen is he Resolution on Some Questions Concern-

ing the History of the Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of

China, adoped by he pary in 1981. While some pary hisorians since

he reorm years have ried o reconsruc he pas in a more scholarly

way, less oriened o propagandisic goals, overall he sudy o pary his-

ory is highly insiuionalized, and he conen remains sereoyped and

monoonous o he presen day.82

the case o he Sino-Japanese conic over he memory o he war

indicaes ha elie manipulaion o hisory can pi he memories o ormer

enemy counries agains one anoher. this does no always give rise o

a salien hisory issue in inernaional relaions because o he ruling

elies relucance o undermine heir immediae sraegic or economic

goals by inciing poliical conics over hisory. Bu when elies eel ha

heir power may be hreaened by domesic opposiion orces, hey may

be emped o resor o polemics over sensiive hisorical issues in he

inernaional arena.

this case also demonsraes ha he poliically moivaed naional

myhmaking process is no he sole province o a monolihic rulingelie capable o designing a coheren sraegy on hisorical memory and

i l i i ill M i i h l h h h


26/34


excepio, precisely becase he poliical moiaios behid hisorical

ierpreaio dier across social rops ad oer ime. the rli elies

are oe diided oer how o deal wih hisory, ad hey ca be challeed

Documents

Remembering the War