Religious Specialists• Small-scale societies:

– These men/women usually have other roles/jobs within the society. Their skills are called upon when necessary.

– Generally no distinction between secular/religious activities, so from an emic perspective, the term “Religious Specialist” would not exist.

• Large-scale societies:– Society may be able to support (in terms of food, clothing, etc.) “full-

time” Religious Specialists.– May gain most of their income for performing religious

duties/ceremonies. May attain important political and economic positions.

– Examples in the United States?

Shamans vs. Priests• Shaman: An individual who receives his or her

power directly from the spirit world. • Priest: Full-time religious specialist associated with

formalized religious institutions.– Given their Status by kinship groups, political units,

communities or by a formal religious organization.– Tend to be found in more complex food-producing

societies.

“Shaman” OriginsTungus language of Central SiberiaCentral Siberia. Originally denoting a religious specialist who heals the sick, divines the future and secures success in the hunt with help of spirits and a drumSami today

.

A Shaman of the Sami people (Noaidi) with his drum. Woodcut, 1767.

:

Becoming a Shaman• Chosen by supernatural entity

through dreams/vision/sickness/by another Shaman, or by the behavior of a child with regard to sacred objects.– Ex: Dalai Lama

• Each Dalai Lama is said to be the reincarnation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, beginning with Gendon Drup (1391-1474). The Dalai Lama is seen as the patron deity of Tibet, is the embodiment of ideal values and a cornerstone of identity and culture.

• The Dalai Lama is chosen based on familiarity with possessions/values of the previous Dalai Lama.

• Ex: Inuit Shaman life story (14:27). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kxdqjn1sFM8– Excerpt originally taken from www.isuma.tv a great free

website for indigenous film makers.

The Shamanic Role and Rituals• Public rituals– A way for the observer to participate in the experience of

the Shaman as he/she contacts the spirit realm or enters an Altered State of Consciousness.

– May include “tricks” or props in order to further bring the observer into the world of the Shaman. • Ex: http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=tW6pVFOpE6Q&feature=related• Axis Mundi

– The “World Axis” which links the 3 realms (upper, lower and ours).• The Shaman is able to pass through the realms via the Axis Mundi. A

ladder, pole or tree is often used in Shamanic rituals to represent this axis.• Shamans may be feared for their powers over the

supernatural, especially as those powers have the potential to be used for harm.

Ethnographic Examples• Siberian Shamanism

– Yakut (Shka) Shamanism (northeastern Siberia). 1931 Soviet government began a program to wipe out native religions. Ethnic Russians moved in, Christianity spread, traditional people were integrated, Shamanism was persecuted. After break-up of Soviet Union, the ban on Shamanism was lifted and native religion was once again taught in schools.• But how much had changed? Are there any true Shamans left?

• Akimel O’odham (Pima) Shamanism– Healers From southern Arizona and northern Mexico. Chosen by animal spirits that

appear in their dreams. Cure mostly “staying sickness” that is caused when an individual fails to obey cultural laws set down at the time of creation (such as killing an eagle or using firewood from a tree that has been struck by lightning).

• Korean Shamanism– Today, most are women. Called upon to guide the dead to the underworld, to cure

illness, for divination and to ensure good fortune. Shamans are chosen by spirits who are attracted to those whose maǔm or soul has been hurt by some sort of illness. The individual will become possessed until she accepts the call of the spirits and becomes a Shaman. Shamans in Korean society are sometimes seen as social deviants, so this may be a role not willingly taken.

Neoshamanism• Revival of shamanistic beliefs and

systems– Focuses on the individual, shamanism as a form of self-

help to improve one’s life. Traditional shamanism focuses on helping the community.

– Generally does not recognize dangers of traditional shamanism (i.e. Terrifying trance experiences, painful Rite of Passage ceremonies).

– Thought to be brought on by a variety of factors including…• Hippie culture of the ’60s, an interest in non-Western religions,

environmentalism, New Age thought, self-help and self-realization movements and popular anthropology works…

Neoshamanism• Carlos Castandeda, Don

Juan Matus and Tensegrity– At first, used mind-altering drugs to

experience another reality.– Then developed Tensegrity (tensional

integrity): Aim is to increase awareness of the energy fields that, according to Castaneda, humans are made of.

– Done via body movements and breathing, not unlike Martial Arts, Yoga.

– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e07107HTiVc&feature=related

Neoshamanism• Michael Harner, The Way of

the Shaman and Core Shamanism– Mainly studied the Jivaro in the Upper

Amazon and the Saami/Sami in northern Europe.

– Based upon his experiences, believed that there are near universal methods of shamanism without a specific cultural perspective he dubs Core Shamanism.

– Trains more than 5,000 people a year in self-help techniques related to Core Shamanism.

• A Commodification of indigenous identity, beliefs and practices?

Priests• Full-time religious specialists associated with formalized religious

institutions– Ex: Buddhist monks in Luang Pra Bong (Laos):

http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/places/regions-places/asia-southern/laos_luangprobang.html

• A link between the community and a deity/deities.• Responsible for performing Rites of Passage, Prescribed, Periodic and

Crisis rituals.• Priest’s skill comes from his/her ability to recite sacred narratives, learning

of ritual knowledge and performing rituals for the community.• Are “ideal people” in the eyes of a society. Held to higher moral

standards. Why is this? • Like Shamans, a priest may get a “call” in the form of a

dream/vision/trance, or as the result of an illness. Also, may have no choice in the matter if entering the Priesthood is a matter of inheritance or necessity.– Ex: Some agricultural societies, third son was destined for a life of devotion.– Ex: 19th century Europe: if not upper class, only way to a good education was

through the Priesthood.

Ethnographic Examples• Aztec Priests

– High rank in society. Main role was to ensure the survival of the sun by offering human sacrifices.• Priests would fast and make food, cloth and incense offerings before the ritual.• Ritual “sacrificees” called in ixiptla in teteo or deity impersonators. Upon sacrifice, it

was believed the deceased was to transform into a god. The heart was offered to the sun as nourishment.

• Can read about all the fun gory details in the book. Anybody see Apocalypto?• Zuni Priests

– Pueblo Native Americans (American SW culture area). • Kiva: Unlike the Tewa Pueblo group we met in Ch. 3, the Zuni kiva is above ground and

forms a ceremonial group into which young priests are inducted.• Main role of the priests is the correct performance of rituals, including ritual objects

and the recitation of prayers.• Okinawan Priestesses

– World is occupied by supernatural beings called kami. Pleasing the kami through rituals avoids misfortune and encourages blessings.

– The Yuta communicates with the kami while the kaminchu are supposed to be the kami.