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Religion, Violence Religion, Violence and Terrorism: and Terrorism:
History, Ideology, and History, Ideology, and GlobalizationGlobalization
James WellmanJames WellmanSIS 201. February 25, 2009SIS 201. February 25, 2009
Associate Professor, Associate Professor, Comparative Religion ProgramComparative Religion Program
Jackson School of International StudiesJackson School of International Studies
Jessica Stern, Jessica Stern, “Terror in the Name of God”“Terror in the Name of God”
““Writing this book has helped me to Writing this book has helped me to understand that religion is a kind of understand that religion is a kind of technology. It is terribly seductive in its technology. It is terribly seductive in its ability to sooth and explain, but it is also ability to sooth and explain, but it is also dangerous. Converts such as the one I dangerous. Converts such as the one I visited as a child (a Christian saint) make visited as a child (a Christian saint) make good people better, but they don’t good people better, but they don’t necessarily make bad people good. They necessarily make bad people good. They might even make bad people worse.” xxvii might even make bad people worse.” xxvii
Religion in the Modern World: Religion in the Modern World: Three Types of Relation to State Three Types of Relation to State
PowersPowers Religion has capacity to sustain states, legitimize Religion has capacity to sustain states, legitimize
their defense, creating forms of just war, preemptive their defense, creating forms of just war, preemptive war (crusades/jihad) (US Iraq War, Umayyad war (crusades/jihad) (US Iraq War, Umayyad Empire)Empire)
Religion has the capacity to mobilize and motivate Religion has the capacity to mobilize and motivate small groups to resist states—that is act as non-state small groups to resist states—that is act as non-state actors (secret cells) to undercut and even overthrow actors (secret cells) to undercut and even overthrow political oppression (Algeria, Iran) political oppression (Algeria, Iran)
Occasionally, religion can mobilize and motivate Occasionally, religion can mobilize and motivate nonviolent resistance in states (Gandhi’s India) or nonviolent resistance in states (Gandhi’s India) or against states, Martin Luther King’s African against states, Martin Luther King’s African American Christian liberation movement for American Christian liberation movement for American Civil Rights against the US governmentAmerican Civil Rights against the US government
My own Definition of ReligionMy own Definition of Religion
Religion is a system of symbols, Religion is a system of symbols, composed of beliefs, composed of beliefs, embodied in ritual practices, embodied in ritual practices, developed in a communal setting, developed in a communal setting, often institutionally legitimated, often institutionally legitimated, which negotiates and interacts with a power or force which negotiates and interacts with a power or force
that is experienced as within and beyond the self and that is experienced as within and beyond the self and group; group;
this power or force is most often referred to as this power or force is most often referred to as god/spirit or gods/spirits. god/spirit or gods/spirits.
The symbolic and social boundaries of religion mobilize The symbolic and social boundaries of religion mobilize group identity; create conflict and, more rarely, group identity; create conflict and, more rarely, violence within and between groups.violence within and between groups.
What are the sources of religion’s What are the sources of religion’s
power?power? Affective events/experienceAffective events/experience Plausible, though non-verifiable truth Plausible, though non-verifiable truth
claims and rewardsclaims and rewards
1. Affective Events: Internal 1. Affective Events: Internal Combustion Engine of ReligionCombustion Engine of Religion
The powerful affective events and The powerful affective events and experiences of religion, embodied in ritual experiences of religion, embodied in ritual action and mystical practice, formulated action and mystical practice, formulated through systems of belief and story. through systems of belief and story. (Creates an engine that never runs out of (Creates an engine that never runs out of fuel). fuel).
This nexus of experience and practice a This nexus of experience and practice a core of religion’s internal combustion core of religion’s internal combustion engine that fuels individual leaders and engine that fuels individual leaders and their groups—whether persecuted their groups—whether persecuted minorities or majorities. minorities or majorities.
2. Truth Claims: Pistons in the Engine2. Truth Claims: Pistons in the Engine
Truth claims are the second piston of the Truth claims are the second piston of the religious enginereligious engine
Claims to truth. What is the truth is based Claims to truth. What is the truth is based on, faith on, faith
Confidence is always the big issue for Confidence is always the big issue for religion/ spiritual experience religion/ spiritual experience
Thus, leadership must nurture confidence, Thus, leadership must nurture confidence, spiced with this worldly and other worldly spiced with this worldly and other worldly rewardsrewards
Rewards are non-empirical but cannot be Rewards are non-empirical but cannot be disconfirmeddisconfirmed
What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?
Worldview, Leadership and ContextWorldview, Leadership and Context Complex mixture of religious worldview, cultural Complex mixture of religious worldview, cultural
context and religious leadership. context and religious leadership. Religions are extraordinarily flexible and Religions are extraordinarily flexible and
plastic, depending on context and leadership; plastic, depending on context and leadership; isomorphic—shadowing/dancing with social isomorphic—shadowing/dancing with social systemssystems
David Martin: “Religion and state are David Martin: “Religion and state are isomorphic.” isomorphic.”
Religion often mimics power; partnering with Religion often mimics power; partnering with it and at times resisting it. it and at times resisting it.
Religion/state partnership, powerful Religion/state partnership, powerful aphrodisiac—both become greedy for power.aphrodisiac—both become greedy for power.
What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?WorldviewWorldview
Religious Worldview that creates violence:Religious Worldview that creates violence: Religious worldview-cosmology has Religious worldview-cosmology has
symbolic resources to create total religious symbolic resources to create total religious worldworld
Religious worldview can be this-worldly or Religious worldview can be this-worldly or other-worldlyother-worldly
The transcendental demand (hope) that the The transcendental demand (hope) that the cosmic religious vision become embodied, cosmic religious vision become embodied, politically/culturallypolitically/culturally
What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?
LeadershipLeadership Religious LeadershipReligious Leadership
Most often led by young and aggressive male Most often led by young and aggressive male leadership that is educated with access to leadership that is educated with access to material resources; second level elitesmaterial resources; second level elites
Belief that they have become agents of the Belief that they have become agents of the visionvision
Belief that the vision demands human Belief that the vision demands human initiativeinitiative
Belief that the cosmic visions rationalizes the Belief that the cosmic visions rationalizes the use of violence for a larger moral imperative; use of violence for a larger moral imperative; Soren Kierkegaard, “Teleological suspension Soren Kierkegaard, “Teleological suspension of the ethical.”of the ethical.”
What is the Source of Religious What is the Source of Religious Violence?Violence?
Cultural ContextCultural Context Cultural Context that facilitates/shapes Cultural Context that facilitates/shapes
violence violence Partnership between religious state and Partnership between religious state and
religion; suppression of any alternative religion; suppression of any alternative forms of religionforms of religion
Secular state with religious majority; Secular state with religious majority; minority other religions are suppressedminority other religions are suppressed
Secular state that enforces a majority Secular state that enforces a majority religion; minority religions are suppressed, religion; minority religions are suppressed, some religions become energized by some religions become energized by persecutionpersecution
Religion: From Tribe to Religion: From Tribe to StateState
Jared Diamond’s Jared Diamond’s Gun, Germs, and Gun, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (Norton, 2005) (Norton, 2005) In bands and tribes (small human In bands and tribes (small human
groups), no need for institutionalized groups), no need for institutionalized religionreligion
But in chiefdoms and states (groups over But in chiefdoms and states (groups over 50,000) division of labor takes over, 50,000) division of labor takes over, specialization, institutionalized religions specialization, institutionalized religions arrives—what’s its purpose?arrives—what’s its purpose?
Religion: From Tribe to Religion: From Tribe to StateState
Jared Diamond’s Jared Diamond’s Gun, Germs, and Gun, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (Norton, 2005) (Norton, 2005) States are forms of kleptocracy: centers States are forms of kleptocracy: centers
of powers that take from margins to of powers that take from margins to sustain/enrich themselvessustain/enrich themselves
This needs justification, for Diamond, This needs justification, for Diamond, institutionalized religions do the work institutionalized religions do the work of legitimationof legitimation
Religion: From Tribe to Religion: From Tribe to StateState
Jared Diamond’s Jared Diamond’s Gun, Germs, and Steel: Gun, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies The Fates of Human Societies (Norton, (Norton, 2005) 2005) Religion creates ritual, temples are built, and a Religion creates ritual, temples are built, and a
hierarchy is sacralized to support the powers hierarchy is sacralized to support the powers that bethat be
Two benefits:Two benefits: Religions provide a reason for a state populace not Religions provide a reason for a state populace not
to kill those who are unrelated by kinship to kill those who are unrelated by kinship Religious ideologies give people a reason to sacrifice Religious ideologies give people a reason to sacrifice
themselves for the sake of the groups (tribes/bands themselves for the sake of the groups (tribes/bands don’t do sacrificial patriotism) don’t do sacrificial patriotism)
Religion, Terror and Public Religion, Terror and Public Policy Policy
““Any policy that seeks to conquer Any policy that seeks to conquer Muslim societies in order, Muslim societies in order, deliberately, to transform their deliberately, to transform their culture is folly.” Robert Pape, culture is folly.” Robert Pape, Dying Dying to Winto Win, (Chicago 2005)., (Chicago 2005).
No suicide terrorism in Iraq in its No suicide terrorism in Iraq in its history;history; 03: 20; 04:50; 05:75; 06/07: hundreds?03: 20; 04:50; 05:75; 06/07: hundreds? Not ideology, but occupationNot ideology, but occupation
What is Suicide Terrorism?What is Suicide Terrorism?
SuicideSuicide EgoisticEgoistic AltruisticAltruistic
What is Suicide Terrorism?What is Suicide Terrorism?
TerrorismTerrorism Violence (verbal/physical) by Violence (verbal/physical) by
organization, other than a national organization, other than a national government to intimidate a targetgovernment to intimidate a target
Gain supporters/ coerce opponentsGain supporters/ coerce opponents DemonstrativeDemonstrative DestructiveDestructive SuicidalSuicidal
Cause of Suicide Cause of Suicide Terrorism?Terrorism?
Political Occupation: control of local Political Occupation: control of local governmentgovernment
Religious Difference:Religious Difference: Demonizing: EnemyDemonizing: Enemy Ideology of us vs. themIdeology of us vs. them Essentializes national identityEssentializes national identity
History of Suicide Terrorism: History of Suicide Terrorism: RareRare
Jewish Zealots, 66 ce – 70 Jewish Zealots, 66 ce – 70 Zealots was also Zealots was also
known in Latin known in Latin
as as sicariisicarii, ,
"daggermen“"daggermen“ Killing collaboratorsKilling collaborators Killing Romans,Killing Romans, Inciting rebellionInciting rebellion
A drawing of Herod's Temple in Jerusalem
Ismaili Assassins: 12Ismaili Assassins: 12thth Century Century
Northern Iran; Muslim order, HashshashinNorthern Iran; Muslim order, Hashshashin Offshoot of Shia orderOffshoot of Shia order Secret underground to destroy Abbasid Secret underground to destroy Abbasid
CaliphateCaliphate Killing Sunni Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-Mulk; Killing Sunni Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-Mulk;
attempts on Salidan; finally, decimated by attempts on Salidan; finally, decimated by invading Mongolsinvading Mongols Terrorize and overcome ‘felt’ occupationTerrorize and overcome ‘felt’ occupation Intimidate and create fearIntimidate and create fear De-Throne a corrupt form of religion—collaborators De-Throne a corrupt form of religion—collaborators
or what they called, “impious usurpers.”or what they called, “impious usurpers.”
Statue of Saladin at the Statue of Saladin at the Damascus citadelDamascus citadel
Northern Iran; Muslim order, Northern Iran; Muslim order, HashshashinHashshashin
Shia orderShia order Secret underground destroy Abbasid Secret underground destroy Abbasid
CaliphateCaliphate Killing Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-Killing Muslim rulers; Nizam-ul-
Mulk; attempts on SalidanMulk; attempts on Salidan
Statue of Saladin at the Statue of Saladin at the Damascus citadelDamascus citadel
Ṣaladan c. 1138 - March 4, 1193) was a Ṣaladan c. 1138 - March 4, 1193) was a Kurdish Muslim who was Sultan of Kurdish Muslim who was Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Egypt and Syria. He led the Islamic opposition to the Third Crusade. He led the Islamic opposition to the Third Crusade.
At the height of his power, the Ayyubid dynasty he At the height of his power, the Ayyubid dynasty he founded ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Hejaz, and founded ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Hejaz, and Yemen. Yemen.
He led Muslim resistance to the European He led Muslim resistance to the European Crusaders and eventually recaptured part of Crusaders and eventually recaptured part of Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.
He did not maim, kill or retaliate against those He did not maim, kill or retaliate against those whom he defeated.whom he defeated.
Japanese Kamikazi’sJapanese Kamikazi’s
1944: Fearing occupation1944: Fearing occupation 3,843 pilots3,843 pilots 375 US naval vessels375 US naval vessels 12,300 American soldier die12,300 American soldier die
Fear of occupation and attempting Fear of occupation and attempting to intimidate the enemyto intimidate the enemy
Japanese Kamikaze: Mitsubishi Japanese Kamikaze: Mitsubishi Zero about to hit the USS Zero about to hit the USS
MissouriMissouri
Are these Group Members Are these Group Members Deranged?Deranged?
Economically deprivedEconomically deprived Social deprivedSocial deprived Cognitively limitedCognitively limited Psychopathological Psychopathological
Costly but not crazyCostly but not crazy Intense but not brainwashedIntense but not brainwashed Social networks importantSocial networks important
Aren’t Suicide Bombers Aren’t Suicide Bombers Irrational/ Suicidal?Irrational/ Suicidal?
No specific type:No specific type: Most often educatedMost often educated Married and singleMarried and single Male and femaleMale and female Isolated and socially integratedIsolated and socially integrated Most don’t exhibit previous suicidal Most don’t exhibit previous suicidal
tendenciestendencies One study found in ME: mostly highly One study found in ME: mostly highly
educated, coming from better paying jobseducated, coming from better paying jobs
Suicide Bombing: Poverty?Suicide Bombing: Poverty?
Most countries associated with Most countries associated with terrorism between 1980 and 2001:terrorism between 1980 and 2001: Mid range GNP per capita:Mid range GNP per capita:
Algeria, 111Algeria, 111 Egypt, 121Egypt, 121 Saudi Arabia, 139Saudi Arabia, 139 India, 162India, 162 West Bank, 112West Bank, 112 Extreme poverty, over 200Extreme poverty, over 200
Suicide Bombings: Islamists?Suicide Bombings: Islamists?
315 attacks, between 1980 and 2003315 attacks, between 1980 and 2003 Islamists associated with halfIslamists associated with half Tamil Tigers, 76/315, Marxists and Tamil Tigers, 76/315, Marxists and
secularsecular Kurdish PKK, guided by secular MarxismKurdish PKK, guided by secular Marxism
Suicide Attacks, Less Rare, Suicide Attacks, Less Rare, more widespreadmore widespread
Less interested in individual Less interested in individual motives/ideologymotives/ideology
Conditions that create attacksConditions that create attacks Strategic logic: aims and goalsStrategic logic: aims and goals Social logic: support by communitySocial logic: support by community Individual logic: persons prepared to Individual logic: persons prepared to
die for greater gooddie for greater good
Attacks SucceedAttacks Succeed
Suicide car bombing by Hezbollah Suicide car bombing by Hezbollah on US Marines barracks, Lebanon, on US Marines barracks, Lebanon, Oct. 23, 1983; killing 241 MarinesOct. 23, 1983; killing 241 Marines
US withdrawsUS withdraws 1985/6 Hezbollah 1985/6 Hezbollah
attacks on Israel attacks on Israel in Lebanon, in Lebanon, partial withdrawalpartial withdrawal
Community Support for Community Support for BombersBombers
Most Iraqi’s/ Palestinians/Most Iraqi’s/ Palestinians/
Saudi Arabians support, Saudi Arabians support,
believe in believe in
Osama Bin Laden and his Osama Bin Laden and his
causecause
Endless supply of Bombers:Endless supply of Bombers:Paradise Now (2005)Paradise Now (2005)
Suicide Bombings: AimSuicide Bombings: Aim
Political coercionPolitical coercion Target states are primarily democratic; felt Target states are primarily democratic; felt
to be vulnerable to coercionto be vulnerable to coercion Different religionDifferent religion
Increases fear other will try to transform Increases fear other will try to transform religionreligion
Increases demonization, makes killing easier vs. Increases demonization, makes killing easier vs. civilianscivilians
Use religion to re-label suicide; overcome taboo Use religion to re-label suicide; overcome taboo against suicideagainst suicide
Creates zero-sum game, no compromiseCreates zero-sum game, no compromise
9/119/11
Hijacked 4 planesHijacked 4 planes Two hit NY Twin TowersTwo hit NY Twin Towers One into the PentagonOne into the Pentagon 44thth crashes in Somerset County, PA crashes in Somerset County, PA 2,985 deaths, including 19 hijackers2,985 deaths, including 19 hijackers Hijackers: 15, Saudi Arabia; 2 UAE; Hijackers: 15, Saudi Arabia; 2 UAE;
1 Egyptian; 1 Lebanese1 Egyptian; 1 Lebanese
1998 Al-Qaeda fatwa1998 Al-Qaeda fatwa
Plunders the resources of the Arabian Plunders the resources of the Arabian PeninsulaPeninsula
Dictates policy to the rulers of those countries. Dictates policy to the rulers of those countries. Supports abusive regimes in the Middle East Supports abusive regimes in the Middle East Has military bases upon the Arabian Peninsula, Has military bases upon the Arabian Peninsula,
which violates the Muslim holy landwhich violates the Muslim holy land Creates disunion between Muslim statesCreates disunion between Muslim states Supports Israel, and tacitly maintains the Supports Israel, and tacitly maintains the
occupation of Palestineoccupation of Palestine
Osama bin Laden and al-Osama bin Laden and al-QaedaQaeda
Ideology of IslamistsIdeology of Islamists
Protest movement against Protest movement against modernization; secularization; modernization; secularization; westernizationwesternization
Salafism, Sunni movement; no Salafism, Sunni movement; no follower of Iranian/Iraqi Shiism has follower of Iranian/Iraqi Shiism has become al-Qaeda bomberbecome al-Qaeda bomber
Salafi: Qur’an, Sunna part of HadithSalafi: Qur’an, Sunna part of Hadith Not monolithic; Wahhabism in Not monolithic; Wahhabism in
Saudi Arabia, discourages violenceSaudi Arabia, discourages violence
Ideology of IslamistsIdeology of Islamists
Egypt, Muslim Brotherhood, 1928, Egypt, Muslim Brotherhood, 1928, Salafi; distanced itself from its most Salafi; distanced itself from its most famous leader, Sayyid Qutb (d. famous leader, Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966)1966)
Ayman al-Zawahiri, joined Muslim Ayman al-Zawahiri, joined Muslim Brotherhood as youth, Egypt; Brotherhood as youth, Egypt;
he and bin Laden both he and bin Laden both
dedicated to Qutb, revolutiondedicated to Qutb, revolution
Ideology of IslamistsIdeology of Islamists
Salafi and political occupation key Salafi and political occupation key factors that create suicide bombersfactors that create suicide bombers
Salafi influenced nations, 233 million Salafi influenced nations, 233 million Salafi-oriented peoples, 48 al-Qaeda Salafi-oriented peoples, 48 al-Qaeda suicide terrorists, 1 bomber per 5 suicide terrorists, 1 bomber per 5 million Salafimillion Salafi
In non-Salafi, 205 Sunni Muslims, 18 In non-Salafi, 205 Sunni Muslims, 18 al-Qaeda bombers, 1 per 12 millional-Qaeda bombers, 1 per 12 million
Roots of Terrorism?Roots of Terrorism?
Not irrational; it has an object; it Not irrational; it has an object; it changes and learns from mistakeschanges and learns from mistakes
Religious Ideology? Pape says no; I Religious Ideology? Pape says no; I say, hm, Salafism is highly say, hm, Salafism is highly correlated with attackscorrelated with attacks
Nationalism? Occupation by Nationalism? Occupation by “Infidels” necessary variable for “Infidels” necessary variable for suicide terrorism; is religion the suicide terrorism; is religion the sufficient cause?sufficient cause?
Who is the Enemy: Who is the Enemy: Terrorism and Public PolicyTerrorism and Public Policy War on terrorism misses the context War on terrorism misses the context
and main causes of terroristsand main causes of terrorists Terrorists don’t become anti-Terrorists don’t become anti-
American because they are evilAmerican because they are evil Arab/ME nations before 2003, Arab/ME nations before 2003,
largely favorable toward US; toward largely favorable toward US; toward open markets/democracyopen markets/democracy
Who is the Enemy: Who is the Enemy: Terrorism and Public PolicyTerrorism and Public Policy After 2003, US favorability rating After 2003, US favorability rating
plummeted;plummeted;
Why? Their evil? No, occupation of IraqWhy? Their evil? No, occupation of Iraq
20002000 20032003
TurkeyTurkey 5252 1515
MoroccoMorocco7777 2727
PakistanPakistan 2323 1313
JordanJordan ?? 11
Felt or Real OccupationFelt or Real Occupation
World’s five largest Islamic World’s five largest Islamic populations w/out American military populations w/out American military presence produced al- Qaeda suicide presence produced al- Qaeda suicide terrorists, 1 per 71 millionterrorists, 1 per 71 million
Fifty Five percent of al-Qaeda’s Fifty Five percent of al-Qaeda’s bombers (39/71) come from Persian bombers (39/71) come from Persian Gulf region whose population is less Gulf region whose population is less than 30 million, but where US has than 30 million, but where US has had military troops since 1990had military troops since 1990
What causes the attacksWhat causes the attacks
Al Qaeda never attacked IsraelAl Qaeda never attacked Israel Hamas never attacked USHamas never attacked US Hezbollah only attacked US when Hezbollah only attacked US when
stationed in Lebanonstationed in Lebanon These groups don’t coordinate These groups don’t coordinate
attacks, they only attack when their attacks, they only attack when their territory is occupied or ‘felt’ to be territory is occupied or ‘felt’ to be occupiedoccupied
Muslim Views on US Muslim Views on US MotivesMotives
Pakistan, Turkey, Morocco and Pakistan, Turkey, Morocco and Jordan:Jordan: Believe, overwhelming, US wants to Believe, overwhelming, US wants to
control oil and support Israelcontrol oil and support Israel That US not in ME to stop terrorism or to That US not in ME to stop terrorism or to
promote democracypromote democracy US military, overwhelmingly, threatens US military, overwhelmingly, threatens
their country…shadow of ‘crusader’their country…shadow of ‘crusader’ Iraqi’s, Jan 05, 82 % near term US Iraqi’s, Jan 05, 82 % near term US
withdrawalwithdrawal
Scholarship, Religion and Scholarship, Religion and Public Policy Public Policy
““Any policy that seeks to conquer Any policy that seeks to conquer Muslim societies in order, Muslim societies in order, deliberately, to transform their deliberately, to transform their culture is folly.” Robert Pape, culture is folly.” Robert Pape, Dying Dying to Winto Win, (Chicago 2005)., (Chicago 2005).
Another good book:Another good book: Bruce Lincoln’s Bruce Lincoln’s Holy Terror, (Holy Terror, (Chicago, Chicago,
2004).2004).