(i)

Regional Seminar

on

Horticulture Development

with

Plasticulture Interventions

in Cold Arid Region

September 17-18, 2012

Proceedings

National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture

DAC, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India

New Delhi

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Regional Seminar on

“Horticulture Development with Plasticulture Interventions in Cold Arid Region”

Jointly Organized by:

1. National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture,

DAC, Ministry of Agriculture,

Govt. of India, New Delhi

2. Precision Farming Development Centre,

High Mountain Arid Agriculture Research Institute,

Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &

Technology of Kashmir (SKUAST – K)

P.O. Box No, 146, Leh

Ladakh - 194101 (J&K)

3. Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council (LAHDC), Leh

Editorial Team

Krish S Iyengar

Ashok Gahrotra

Alok Mishra

Krishna Kumar Kaushal

Mohit Dutt

Neelam Patel

Disclaimer:

Opinions in this publication are of authors and not necessarily of the organizers.

Printed at:

Venus Printers and Publishers

B-62/8, Phase-II, Naraina Industrial Area, New Delhi - 110 028

Phone: 45576780, 9810089097; E-mail: pawannanda@gmail.com

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Foreword

Agriculture continues as the mainstay of the developing countries world over, which provides

food and raw material to the industry and avenues for employment. Water and land are

essential inputs for sustaining agriculture in a populated country. Still majority of the people

in the rural area directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.

Leh & Ladakh region of J&K represents unique & distinct climatic and geographical

factors which provides conducive environment for adoption of precision farming & use of

related plasticulture applications to promote horticulture development in the State.

Nearly 80% of available fresh water is used in agriculture alone, but with urbanization

and industrialization coupled with effect of climate change, its availability in coming years

is further going to decline. Similarly the available avg. operating land holding is likely come

down to about 0.44ha as against national avg. of 0.92 ha by 2025 in the State. Sources of

livelihood is limited in the rural areas thus scope of horticulture development can augment

both nutrition and food sustainability in the cold arid region of the State.

Severity of short growing seasons and limited irrigation in this region does not allow

maturity of agricultural crops and affects production levels.

I am happy to learn that two day Seminar cum workshop on “Horticulture Development

with Plasticulture Interventions in Cold Arid Region” is being organized jointly by the Precision

Farming Development Centre (PFDC), SKUAST, Kashmir, National Committee on

Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH), New Delhi, Ladakh Autonomous

Hill Development Council, HMAARI, Leh along with other local Govt. Department &

NGOs.

The seminar would bring all the stakeholders on a common platform for vertical

expansion of plasticulture applications such as Micro Irrigation, Plastic Mulching, Poly

Tunnel, Farm Pond lining, Greenhouse, Plant protection nets etc. for enhancing productivity

and cropping intensity of both agri / horti crops in the region.

Sanjeev ChopraMission Director (NHM) &

Joint Secretary

Ministry of AgricultureGovernment of India

(Department of Agriculture & Cooperation)Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi - 110 001

5 September, 2012

la;qDr lfpoHkkjr ljdkjÑf"k ea=ky;

¼Ñf"k ,oa lgdkfjrk foHkkx½Ñf"k Hkou] ubZ fnYyh & 110 001

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Protected farming is more relevant and economically rewarding in production of high

value, low volume crops, raising healthy planting materials in nurseries and growing off-

season fruits & vegetables in this region.

The Ministry of Agriculture, GoI implemented both Horticulture Mission for North

East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) and National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI)

to create capacity development of end users’ for adoption of these technologies for

horticultural development in the State.

I hope the deliberations made will evolve a forward path and strategies for horticulture

development in the cold arid region of the State.

I wish the seminar a grand success.

(Sanjeev Chopra)

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Preface

Leh Ladakh region of J & K State represents distinct and unique climatic and geographical

conditions. The unique climatic and environmental factors in combination with specialized

scientific technological interventions can go a long way in exploiting the potential for

sustaining the farming population of the region and plasticulture interventions can mitigate

the barriers imposed by the environment. The region has a good scope for production of

economically viable cropswith the help of protected cultivation technologies, micro irrigation,

plastic mulching, and water harvesting in plastic lined ponds.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India has established a Precision Farming

Development Centre (PFDC) at Leh with the objective of horticulture development through

plasticulture interventions. The Centre, since its establishment in the year 2009,has been

working on evaluation of site specific plasticulture technologies for horticultural crops and

simultaneously popularizing them through demonstration and awareness programmes

among the masses for their adoption in the region.

Thus, the time is ripe to bring all the stakeholders on a common platform for effective

adoption of technologies, which are suitable for the region for improving the productivity

of crops, extending the cultivation period and uplifting the economy of the hill farmers.

This 2-DaySeminar-cum-workshop on Horticulture Development with Plasticulture

Interventions in Cold Arid Region is being jointly organized by Precision Farming

Development Centre, SKUAST, Kashmir, HMAARI, Leh, National Committee on

Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture, Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council,

Leh, along with other local Government Department and NGOs with the financial support

by Ministry of Agriculture.

Sher-e-Kashmir University ofAgricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir

Shalimar Srinagar-191121, J&K, India. P.O. Box No. 262, GPO Srinagar-190 001, J&K

Phone: (O) 0194-2462159, 2464028 Fax: 0194-2462160 (R) 0194-2461543, 2463655 Fax: 0194-2461543

E-mail: vc@skuastkashmir.ac.in, skuastkvc@gmail.com

www.skuastkashmir.ac.in

DR. TEJ PARTAP

Vice-Chancellor

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I hope the seminar will provide a common platform for all stake holders to discuss the

current scenario, issues and strategies for the promotion of relevant technologies for

horticulture development of the region. It will also provide an opportunity to discuss the

technological interventions, design and production technology for various crops under

protected cultivation, micro irrigation, mulching and water harvesting etc.

This publication attempts to bring out a consolidated presentation of the work carried

out by different speakers from various institutions, Government officials etc.

On behalf of the organizers, I take this opportunity to thank speakers, sponsors, and

exhibiters for their help and support in organization of the Seminar. My sincere gratitude

and thanks to the unstinted help provided by the scientific, administrative and supportive

staff of various organizations who has been responsible for the successful conduct of the

seminar and they need special mention.

It is hoped that all those who are concerned with plasticulture technologies in the country

will find this publication informative and useful in furthering their pursuit.

(Tej Partap)

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Contents

Sl. No. Topics Page No.

1. Protected Cultivation Technologies and Types of Greenhouse 1

Suitable for Ladakh Region

M.S. Mir and M.S. Kanwar

2. Use of Plastic Mulching in Horticultural Crops in High 8

Mountains - Potential and Prospects

Neelam Patel, TBS Rajput and Ashok Gahrotra

3. Micro-Irrigation for Enhancing the Productivity of 20

Horticultural Crops

TBS Rajput and Neelam Patel

4. Design and Construction of Water Harvesting Structure/ 29

Farm Pond for Irrigation

R.S. Spehia

5. Policies & Initiatives for Plasticulture Development under 36

Centrally Sponsored Schemes for Cold Arid Region

Ashok Gahrotra

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1

Protected Cultivation Technologies and Types of

Greenhouse Suitable for Ladakh Region

M.S. Mir and M.S. Kanwar

Precision Farming Development Centre

High Mountain Arid Agriculture Research Institute, SKUAST-K

Leh - 194 101 (J&K)

Introduction

Protected cultivation can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro-climate

surrounding the plant body is manipulated partially/fully by various means to create an

environment that allows the plant to grow in a situation that is not conducive for growth of

the specie. It is an intervention for the production of high value crops or off-season production

of crops; imparting earliness as well as making it available later in the season. The technique

thus extends the period of availability of horticultural crops. It is a remunerative technique

as it makes product available in a season, when it is not possible in the open.

A greenhouse is a structure with different types of covering materials, such as a glass or

plastic roof and frequently glass or plastic or other material walls. The enclosed area heats

up because of incoming solar radiation (for which the glazed surface is transparent/

translucent) from the sun which is absorbed by plants, soil, and other surfaces inside the

structure. Air warmed by the heat from hot interior surfaces is retained in the structure. In

addition, the warmed structures and plants inside the greenhouse re-radiate some of their

thermal energy in the infrared spectrum, to which glaze is partly opaque, so some of this

energy is also trapped inside the glasshouse. However, this latter process is a minor player

compared with the former (convective) process. Thus, the primary heating mechanism of a

greenhouse is ‘convection’. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the

roof of a greenhouse: the temperature drops considerably. Thus, the glaze used for a

greenhouse works as a barrier to air flow, and its effect is to trap energy within the greenhouse.

The air that is warmed near the ground is prevented from rising indefinitely and flowing

away. Although heat loss due to thermal conduction through the glass and other building

materials does occurs, net energy increases (and therefore temperature) inside the greenhouse.

Greenhouses can be divided into glass greenhouses and plastic greenhouses depending

upon the material used.

The technology is more than 200 year old and Europeans are considered to be the

pioneers. With the advent of plastic during the World War II a new phase in the greenhouse

technology emerged. At present majority of greenhouses are being constructed by utilizing

ultra violet (UV) stabilized polythene sheets as the glazing material replacing the costly

non-flexible glaze. At the end of 20th century, area under greenhouse cultivation in India

was reported to be about 110 hectare. Compared to the world total of 275,000 hectare.

2

The cropping period in Ladakh region extends from three to six months only (Sharma

& Mir, 2001). Many vegetable crops like capsicum, cucumber, brinjal etc. do not perform in

the open conditions and those surviving produce poor yields; because of diurnal fluctuation

in temperature particularly in areas like Changthang, Zanskar, and Drass. In order to meet

the demand, vegetables and fruits are being imported from various parts of the country

during most parts of the year. Open cultivation in the cold arid region is not possible during

most part of the year (Late autumn to mid spring) because of the prevailing freezing

temperature (around – 40 °C). However the situation is being slowly mitigated with protected

production technology.

Different types of greenhouse have been tried in the region by various agencies.

Types of Protected Structures for Cold Arid Region

The earliest structure introduced in Ladakh region were made of wood and glass frame

with insulation. The price being banal, it did not cross the thresh hold of government

agencies. Despite this, it marks the beginning of an era of vegetable production during

winter months, un-thought of till date.

Precision Farming Development Centre, Leh; Since its inception in 2009 is evaluating

various structures for year round vegetable production. Details of these structures are

presented hereunder.

Naturally Ventilated Poly-house and Walk in Tunnels

These are fabricated structures, with the main frame in steel and covered with UV film on

all sides. The internal dimension of a Naturally Ventilated Poly-house is 14 m x 8 m. having

a central height of 4.5 m. Walk-in-Tunnels on the other hand have an internal dimension of

15 m X 5 m, with a central height of 2.4 m. The main drawback of these structures is the

drop in temperature during winter months. Though these can help in raising an early nursery,

extending period of production allowing an early crop and allowing reasonable growth late

in the season, when it is not possible outside. The main drawback of these structures is the

drop in temperature during winter months,

as it is exposed on all sides, with no surface

that would absorb heat and release after

sunset. These structures are better suited for

raising fruit plant nurseries, as fruit plants

of the temperate regions are mostly dormant

in the later part of the season. These provide

suitable environment for operations like

grafting early in the season, when the mother

plant in the field is dormant and can have

abundant supply of bud wood. Horticultural

3

operations in these structures are easier as these have suitable heights on all sides, providing

reasonable head space for tree growth.

It has been the general observation that the productivity and quality of cucurbits and

solanaceous crops in open field conditions of cold arid region is generally low, except in limited

areas in the lower Indus belt and along the confluence of Suru and Drass rivers because of the

biotic and abiotic stresses faced by crops in

open field cultivation. Production of these

crops in these structures has been found to be

remunerative, as these structures eliminate the

stress, especially diurnal fluctuation of

temperature. In a cold arid climate, tomato

crop can be grown for duration of about six

months with production of superior quality

fruits under naturally ventilated greenhouses,

which is not possible under open field

cultivation. The demand of fresh salad

varieties of such crops in increasing and

growing these crops under protected conditions is becoming profitable proposition. A grower

with a well-managed system, having sufficient capacity can also aim for export markets. The

temperature recorded in this Walk-in Tunnel was – 8.8 °C and 23.5 °C during peak winter.

Production technology of large fruited tomato has been developed for naturally ventilated

greenhouse conditions. This technology eliminates stresses due to biotic and abiotic factors

and the use of pesticides in both the vegetable crops can be minimized. Besides, cucumber

and bottle-guard cultivation under walk in tunnels is being standardized. The technology is

highly remunerative for the growers close to the city and towns; who can access and target

niche markets. Both these structures are suitable for faster fruit plant nursery production.

Since it involves fabrication, it is not being taken up by the farmers fast. These structures are

not suitable for vegetable production, during peak low temperature period (winters).

Local Type Poly-house

Local poly houses structures are found in almost every village of the Ladakh region.

Basically most of the new models introduced in Ladakh by various organizations are the

modifications from the local type. The size of the structure is usually 8 m x 5 m feet. It is a

structure made of kachabricks made locally and built in mud rubble. The roofing material

used is poplar poles and willow sticks; which are abundantly available locally. The back

wall thickness is 30 cm and the side walls are 60 cm thick. The external length and breadth

of the structure are 10 m and 4.8 m respectively, while internal crop growing area is around

37 m2

. It is the most popular model, because of its simplicity of construction. The maximum

temperature in this structure ranged from 3.2 °C to 34.8 °C and the minimum –1.3 °C to

– 7.9 °C during January, as recorded at the PFDC, Leh.

4

Usually Beet Spinach (in winters) and some cucurbits and tomato (Summer) are raised

by the villagers in these structure, mainly for domestic consumption. The main advantage

of this structure is that it provides some green vegetables for the family during winter month,

which was hitherto unknown. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture have played

pivotal role in its popularisation, backed by government subsidy.

LEHO Type Poly-house

LEHO poly-house was designed by a local NGO the ‘Ladakh Environmental and Health

Organization. Its main structure is double walled, with insulation in between. Made from

kachabricks, it has an overall wall thickness of 60 cm. The outer wall is 30 cm thick and the

inner wall being 15 cm with a 15 cm insulating material in between. The outer bricks are

placed breadth wise in the outer wall and length wise in the inner wall. Being double walled

with insulation, better temperature is maintained in this poly-house. It costs more than the

local greenhouse. The structure has been found effective in the production of spinach during

winter months. Besides cabbage heads of 500-800 gram weight are also produced in winter

starting from end of February. During summer the poly house is good for timely production

of capsicum, tomatoes and such other summer crops. The maximum and minimum

temperature touched in this structure was 42.8 °C and – 6.9 °C during peak winter.

Commercial version of this poly house are also available.

Mud Walled Type Poly-house

This structure uses the age old technique of rammed mud mortar wall as the main building

structure, with a UV film glazed front. The structure evaluated during the past two years

was found at par in performance with the LEHO type. Mud walled poly-house is suitable

for the kitchen gardens. It is an easy to construct low cost technology for the small farmers

of the region. It makes use of soil, gravel and even left over fodder, as the construction

material. It is a low cost technique, with little or no specialized labour involvement. The

walls are 50 cm thick on all sides having an internal production area of 8 m x 5.5 m. The

temperature range was -6.4 °C to39.1 °C during winter. The production area can be increased

as per land availability and requirement.

Chinese Type Poly-house

It is a larger structure than the conventional

ones. The dimension of Chinese type poly-

house is 30 m x 9 m. Built with kachabricks,

its back wall is 90 cm thick, while the walls on

the two sides are 1.2 m in thickness. Though

costly it is most effective during winters. This

poly-structure was found most remunerative

as found during two years study. It is best suited

5

for the production of vegetables during winter months. During winter season, around 16

cuttings of spinach were harvested starting from December to April. In this structure cabbage

heads of 800-1200 gram are ready for harvest from end of February, when the stored vegetable

stocks are drying up, and the airlifted vegetables are being sold at very high prices.

Among the green houses LEHO Poly house followed by Chinese Type Poly house are

the best performers. The vegetables that grow best during winter are ‘Beet Spinach’, ‘Chinese

Cabage’, ‘lettuce’ while in summers the green houses are appropriate structures for the

production of ‘Capsicum’, ‘Cucurbits’, ‘Brinjal’ and ‘Tomato’.

Trench Technology

Trench is one of the oldest & cheap protected cultivation technologies in operation in the

cold arid region. A trench unit consists of four underground chambers; each chamber being

6 m x 3 m x 0.45 m. A 60 cm deep trench is dug in the beginning and then refilled upto

15cm with soil and well decomposed manure, leaving a net depth of 45 cm. Polythene is

installed over it to provide protection to the crops during low temperature period. Ease of

handling makes it a commendable structure for early season and off-season vegetable

production, early nursery raising, ease of hardening of nursery material and reduction of

nursery period for fruit plant nursery raising. The temperature ranged between – 9.9 °C

(min.) and 16.6 °C (max.) during January, 2012.

This structure does not require much skill in its construction and management. Its cost

is lowest among all the built up protected structures other than Low Tunnel. Being an

underground structure, heat loss is minimal. Strong winds do not damage polythene cover

much in this case and hence the UV film has a longer life, effecting economy of production.

This structure was thus recommended as most suitable for the region by DIHAR. However

this is a cumbersome option for areas that observe heavy snowfall.

This structure has been put to multiple uses by researchers. It has been observed that in

this structure strawberries are ready for harvest in the last week of April, which is much

earlier than the harvest in Kashmir valley conditions. In case of fruit plant nursery raising

it extends the growth period by almost two months (through manipulation), thereby

producing thicker whips during first year, producing material suitable for vegetative

propagation during first year itself, providing suitable environment for grafting early in the

season and multiple budding options later in the season.

Low Tunnel Technology

Low tunnels provide a cheap and better way for off season vegetable production as well as

mitigating the problems created by diurnal fluctuations during main season in the production

of less hardy vegetables like tomatoes, cucurbits and capsicum. Low tunnels also offer

several advantages like protection of the crop from adverse climate along with crop

6

advancement from 2025 days over their normal season of

cultivation. This technology is gaining popularity in several

northern states, where low temperature during winter season

is a severe constraint for vegetable production. This also helps

in early nursery raising. Multiple crops of cabbage have been

raised at Kargil resulting in net earnings of Rs. 80/- per square

meter. It is most suited for raising early nursery of vegetable

crops. Hardening of nursery material before disposal is much

easier in Low Tunnels than many structures.

Protected Cultivation under Ladakh Conditions

Under Ladakh conditions, where artificial energy is a crisis, Protected Cultivation refers to

cultivation of crops under structures working on the principle of Greenhouse Effect and

utilizing passive energy source i.e. Sun. Ladakh is endowed with abundant and intensive

sunny days that can congenially be tapped for off season crop production, production of

summer vegetables and extension of growing season.

Table 1: Performance of Capsicum varieties and different structures during summers

Protected Variety yield (q.ha-1

)

Structure Bharath US-181 SH-1 SH-2 S.Gold Navratna Spinx Mean Return

(Rs/m2

)

Chinese 343.0 318.5 366.3 201.3 282.9 369.4 308.8 312.9 125.16

Mudwall 518.9 424.0 413.5 375.0 453.4 425.1 399.2 429.9 171.96

LEHO 362.7 221.3 265.7 218.5 249.1 332.7 401.2 293.0 117.20

Local 131.0 240.7 245.0 105.1 59.09 139.4 128.6 149.8 59.92

Trench 123.0 294.0 232.8 95.31 142.3 115.6 140.5 163.4 65.36

NV 155.1 221.5 90.16 155.6 197.0 151.6 135.0 158.0 63.20

CD-P0.05

177.65

CD-V0.05

66.09

(sold @Rs40/=per kg)

PFDC Leh has been experimenting for the last three years on feasibility of different

structures under Ladakh conditions. The different Structures studied so far are: Chinese

type, LEHO type, Local type, Mud Walled type and NV (naturally ventilated type). So far

during the harsh winter, LEHO type greenhouse followed by Chinese type has performed

best for spinach cultivation. Leho type is affordable while Chinese Type can be recommended

for commercial purpose. LEHO, Mudwall and Chinese Polyhouse performed best for the

yield and were statistically at par (Table 1). Largest cabbage heads were produced in Chinese

Polyhouse (Table 2) and smallest in Local Polyhouse.

7

Table 2: Performance of Cabbage varieties in different Poly Houses during winters at Leh

Types of Gross Plant weight (g) Net head weight (g)

Poly-houses Golden Pride of KGMR-1 Mean Golden Pride of KGMR-1 Mean

Acre India Acre India

Chinese Type 0.859 0.854 0.852 0.855 365 295.5 345.01 335.17

Mud WallType 0.696 0.747 0.563 0.669 130.36 206.8 202.66 179.94

LEHO Type 0.742 0.894 0.957 0.864 183.79 293.24 294.49 257.17

LocalType 0.472 0.551 0.459 0.494 74.15 135.21 80.84 96.73

Mean 0.692 0.762 0.708 0.721 188.33 232.69 230.75 217.25

CD0.05(P) 0.084 0.052

Trenches are suitable for small scale fruit plant nursery raising and strawberry production

and propagation. Protected cultivation has been a boon for the region. Not only has this

technology made cultivation possible during the very harsh winter but round the year

production been its greatest gift.

References

● Mishra; G. P, Singh; N. Kumar; H. and Singh; S. B. (2010) Protected Cultivation for Food and

Nutritional Security at Ladakh. Defense Science Journal, Vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 219-225

● PFDC Annual Report (2010-11)

● Singh, b and Dhaulakhandi, A. B. (1998). Application of solar greenhouse for vegetable

production in cold deserts. Renewable energy: energy efficiency, policy and the environment.

Proceedings of the world renewable energy congress, V, 20-25 Sept. 1998, Florance Italy

2311-2314.

● Singh, B. Dwivedi, S. K. and Paljor, Eli (1998). Studies on suitability of various structures for

winter vegetable production at sub-zero temperatures. Paper presented in 25th

IHC- Belgium,

2-7 Aug. 1998. Abst, pp. 290.

● Singh, N.; Singh, R.; Kumar, H.; Bhoyar, M. & Singh, S.B. Sustainable vegetable research for

nutritional security and socio-economic upliftment of tribal’s in Indian cold deserts. In; Advances

in Agriculture, Environment and Health, edited by S.B. Singh, et al. SSPH Publication,

New Delhi, 2008.

● Singh; B. Dwivedi; S.K., Singh; N. and Paljor; E. 2008. Sustainable horticulture practices for

cold desert areas. Sustainable hill Agriculture, Emerging threat and possible solution. HPKVV,

Palampur, pp 29-31.

● Wani; K. P. Singh; P K, Narayan; N. Khan; S. H. and Amin; A. (2011) prospects of vegetable

production in cold arid region of Ladakh, Achievement and future strategies. International Journal

of Current ResearchVol. 33, Issue, 6, pp.010-017, June, 2011

8

Use of Plastic Mulching in Horticultural Crops in

High Mountains- Potential and Prospects

Neelam Patel1, T.B.S. Rajput

1 and Ashok Gahrotra

2

1

Water Technology Centre, IARI and 2

NCPAH, MoA

New Delhi - 110 012

Introduction

Plastic mulches are used in the cultivation of horticultural crops to modify the soil

temperature and moisture regimes, control weeds, deter the immigration of insects, and

possibly alter the photobiology of the plant. Plastic mulches primarily affect the field

microclimate by modifying the radiation budget of the surface and suppressing soil water

evaporation (Liakatas et. al., 1986). These microclimate factors strongly affect the soil

temperature and soil moisture in the root zone, which, in turn, may influence plant growth

and productivity. Many studies have shown that the phenology, yield, and quality of certain

crops can be enhanced by the temperature and moisture aspects of mulching (Bhella, 1988;

Maiero et. al., 1987; Wien and Minotti, 1988). Others have demonstrated that the quality

of radiation reflected from certain mulches can have a direct effect on aboveground plant

growth (Decoteau et.al., 1988, 1989) or deter the immigration of disease-carrying insects

(Greenough et.al., 1990). Commonly black films, used for mulching to reduce weeding,

limit evaporation and increase soil temperature. Transparent films have greater effect on

soil temperature as compared to white and other light-reflecting films (Decoteau et al. 1990).

Furthermore, film and fabric mulches decrease the degree of soil kneading, keeping it in

good structure throughout the whole vegetation period (Siwek, 2002). Mulching also

increases the water and nutrients use efficiency.

The effect of a plastic mulch on soil temperature, surface temperature, and the radiation

balance is determined primarily by the optical properties of the material. Mulches may

transmit, absorb, or reflect a portion of the incident radiation at each wavelength. For

example, plastic mulch may transmit almost all the radiation at one wavelength, while

strongly absorbing or reflecting radiation at another (Loy et. al., 1989). Additionally, one

must consider shortwave radiation originating from the sun (0.2 to1.2 μm) and long wave

radiation originating from terrestrial sources (2 to 50 m). Thus, predicting how a given

plastic will influence the field environment requires a complete spectral characterization of

the material in the shortwave and long wave bands (Kluitenberg et. al., 1991). Spectral

properties of plastic mulches and their relationship to the field temperature regime have not

been documented much.

9

Previous experiments conducted with several mulches showed that differences in optical

properties between plastics resulted in large dissimilarities in the apparent temperature of

the mulchsurface (Hametal.,1991). These data suggested that subsurface soil and near-surface

air temperatures also may be affected by the optical properties of the mulchand indicated

the need for a more detailed evaluation of the materials and their effects on the plant

environment. Understanding of the relationships between mulchoptical properties and the

extent of soil, air, and surface heating, and allow researchers to gauge the potential impact

of different mulches on the crop environment.

Mulch Optical Properties

Eight plastic mulches were tested by using spectro radio meter; it was observed that the

plastics represented a wide range of optical properties. Short wave absorptance, a, ranged

from near unity for the black plastics to 0.05 for the clear mulch. Reflectance ranged from

0.48 for white mulch tonear zero for the black plastics. Transmittance was less than 0.25 for

most mulches,the exceptions being reflective mulch and sun film, with moderate

transmittance, and clear transparent mulch with a transmittance of 0.84. Thus, almost any

combination of short wave optical properties is available in modern plastics. High reflectance

(r>0.48) appeared to be the only optical property that was not represented by atleast one of

the selected mulches (Ham et. al., 1993). Given the potential level of radiante mission from

the soil (>600W m-2

), long wave optical properties have a profound effect on the soil

temperature regime. Emissivities of the mulched surfaces were also influenced by

mulchoptical properties. Because most of the plastics transmitted a large fraction of long

wave radiation, for the mulched surfaces were aboute qualto that of bare soil. However, the

low transmittance of silver resulted in alow (0.28). This value indicates that the mulched

surface would absorb only 28% of incident long wave radiation and also emitonly 28% of

the radiation that would be produced by a black body at the same temperature. The short

wave reflectance (albedo) of the baredry soil was in the middle of the range observed for the

plastics.

Types of Mulch Film

A wide range of plastic films based on different types of poly mershaveall been evaluated

formulching of vegetables and fruit crops. LDPE, HDPE and flexible PVC have all been

used and although there were some technical performance differences between them.

Presently vast majority of plastic mulch is based on LLDPE because it is more economic in

use.

Selection of Mulch

The selection of mulches depends upon the agro climatic situations and crops types. However

the general guidelines are given in the Table 1.

10

Table 1: Selection of Mulch

Scenario Mulch suitability

Protection from rain Per forated mulch

Orchard and plantation Thicker mulch

Soil solarization Thin transparent mulch

Weed control through solarization Transparent film

Weed control Black mulch

Increase in soil temperature Black mulch

Sandy soil Black mulch

Summer cropped land White mulch

Insect repellent Silver colour mulch

Methods of Mulching

i) Fruits

● Mulching are a should preferably be equivalent to the canopy of the plant.

● Required size of mulch film is cut from the main roll.

● Clean the required are a by removing the stones, pebbles, weeds etc.

● Till the soil well and apply a little quantity of water be fore mulching

● Small trench could be made around the periphery of the mulching area to facilitate

anchoring of the mulch film.

● Cover the film to the entirearea around the tree and the end should be buried in the

ground.

● Semi circular holes could be made at four corners of the film in order to facilitate

water movement.

● The position of the slit/opening should be parallel to the wind direction.

● Cover the corners of the film with 4-6 inches of soil on all sides to keep the film in

position.

ii) Vegetables

● Thin film is used for short duration crops like vegetables.

● Required length of film for one row of crop is taken and folded in ‘thaan’ format

every one meter along the length of the film.

● Round holes are made at the center of the fil musinga punch orabigger diameter

pipe and ahammer or aheated pipeend could beused.

● One end of the mulch film (along width) is an choredin the soil and the fil mis

unrolled along the length of the row of planting.

● Tilt the soil well and apply the required quantity of FYM and fertilizer be fore

mulching.

● Mulch film is then inserted (4-6”) into the soil on all sides to keep it intact

● Seeds are sown directly through the holes made on the mulch film.

● In case of transplanted crops, the seed lings could be planted directly into the hole.

11

Precautions for Mulch Laying

● Do not stretch the film very tightly. It should be loose enough to over come the expansion

and shrinkage conditions caused by temperature and the impacts of cultural operation.

● The slackness for black film should be more as the expansion; shrinkage phenomen on

is maximum in this colour (Fig. 1).

The film should not be laid on the hot test time of the day, when the film will be in

expanded condition.

Fig. 1: Coloured mulches in vegetables

Irrigation Practices under Mulching

● In drip irrigation the lateral pipelines are laid under the mulch film

● In case inter-cultivation need to be carried out, it is better to keep the laterals and drip

person top of the mulch filmand regulate the flow of water through a small pipe or

through the holes madeon the mulch film (Fig. 2).

In flooding the irrigation water passes through the semicircular holes on the mulch sheet.

Fig. 2: Irrigation system layout in field with mulch

Areas of Application of Mulching

Mulching is mainly used for

a. Moisture conservation

b. Reduction of irrigation frequency and water saving in irrigated areas

c. Soil temperature moderation in cold region

d. Soil solorisation for control of soil borned is eases

e. Reduce the rain impact, prevent soil erosion and maintain soil structure

f. In places where high value crops only to be cultivated

12

Potential of Mulching

i. Existing Climatic Conditions

Leh with an area of 45110 Sq.Km; which probably makes it largest district in the country in

term so fare a is one of the coldest and most elevated in habited region of the world.

Ladakh lies on the rain shadow side of the Himalayan, where dry monsoon winds reaches

Leh after being robbed of its moisture inplains and the Himalayas mountain the district

combines the condition of both arcticand desert climate Leh has a cold, arid climate with

long, harsh winters from October to early March, with minimum temperatures well below

freezing for most of the winter. It has widediurnal and seasonal fluctuation in temperature

with –14 °C in winter and +25 °C in summer. Precipitation is very low with annual

precipitation vary from 7.5 mm to 851.0 mm.

Irrigation is mainly done using canal water. Rainfall patterns have been changing and

rise in temperature and humidity inducing favorable conditions for the invasion of insects

and pest aggression. Data obtained from the meteorological department (Air Force Station,

Leh) clearly indicates that there is rising trend of min temp at Leh by nearly 1 °C for all the

winter months and nearly 0.5 °C for summer months in last 35 years (Fig. 2). There is clear

declining trend in precipitation from November to March. Climatic conditions of the regions

having enormous opportunity for large scale adoption of plastic mulching for protection of

crops as well as for water conservation (Table 2 and 3).

Table 2: Climatic data of PFDC, Leh

Month Average Average Period when Average Period

Temperature Relative temperature rain fall of

(0

C) Humidity (%) is more than 20 (mm) Snow fall

Max. Min.

Jan. -3.3 -20.2 74.90

Feb. -2.79 -20.39 47.93

March 9.43 -10.24 58.74 Dec.

April. 12.75 -1.64 57.23 Jun. 8.7 Jan.

May. 18.18 -2.59 56.09 July 5.2 Feb.

June 23.8 10.98 51.43 Aug. 11.4

July 27.30 12.30 53.03 Sep. 23.9

Aug. 25.40 9.28 59.16

Sep. 21.91 8.35 58.93

Oct. 13.5 -1.75 56.77

Nov. 9.33 -8.17 56.50

Dec. 3.31 -11.77 68.58

13

Table 3: Rainfall distribution

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total

annual

rainfall

(mm)

2004 0.4 0 0.3 0.5 0 1.3 0 2.4 0 1.1 1.5 0 7.5

2005 4.3 3.5 0.5 5.4 0.1 0.2 4.7 0 0 0 0 0 18.7

2006 14.2 0 0 3 0.4 104.9 94.2 151.5 134.7 43.9 146.8 157.6 851.2

2007 0 1 0 0 0.5 0.6 9.5 0.2 0.5 0 0 0 12.3

2008 2.5 1.4 0 2.3 2.1 0 7 12.4 5.1 0 0 0 32.8

2009 10.1 0 0.3 0 3.2 0.2 1.9 0.5 1.9 0 5.8 4.6 28.5

2010 0.9 6.3 0.9 9.7 16.4 4.2 3.4 9.6 1 0.4 0 7.1 59.9

2011 2.9 31 5.7 0.4 0 0.3 0 9.5 5.3 1.7 0.7 0 57.5

Fig. 2: Temperature variation throughout the year

average max. and min. temperatures in °C

precipitation totals in mm

source: IMD

ii. Increase in Soil Temperature through Mulching

Temperature regimes of the mulched and bare soil plots were compared. Maximum daily

soil temperature at 10 cm depth were differed between mulches, but the range of maximums

between them was less than 5 °C. All mulches, except the white colour plastic, significantly

increased soil temperatures in comparison to the bare soil. The highest subsurface

temperatures were observed beneath the black mulch. The black plastics all had high

shortwave absorptance, which indicated that incoming radiation was initially absorbed by

the plastic and then transferred to the soil by conduction. Significant conduction at the

mulch-soil interface could have occurred because good contact between the mulch and soil

surface. The high temperatures beneath reflective mulch showed its optical properties showed

that had a relatively high shortwave transmittance coupled with a relatively low long wave

transmittance. Mulch could have heated the soil by initially transmitting and/or absorbing

shortwave radiation, while preventing the loss of emitted radiant energy in the long wave

14

spectrum (Ham et. al., 1993). Clear plastics are normally used to achieve maximum soil

temperatures for soil solarization (DeVay, 1991) but if clear plastic had been placed loosely

on the surface, so that an insulating air gap would have been established, then greater heat

storage or less heat loss might have occurred. This situation demonstrates that both mulch

optical properties and the methodology used to install the plastics can affect the extent of

soil heating. Therefore clear mulch produced maximum daily temperatures that were lower

than those produced by black plastics and the reflective film. Siweket. al. (2007) conducted

the experiment to study the effect of mulching films of different colours made from original

and recycled materials on microclimatic conditions and subsequent yield of lettuce and

celery. They reported that lettuce cultivation on transparent mulch, temperature was 2.4 °C

higher and in the case of celery by 1.7 °C higher than the temperature of non-mulched soil.

Table 4: Increase in subsurface soil temperature in different colour of mulching

Days Mulch type Increase in temp.

Black Reflective Silver White Clear No Black Reflective Silver White Clear

mulch mulch mulch transparent mulch mulch mulch mulch mulch trans.

1 37.4 37.7 35.2 33.4 35.4 33.2 4.2 4.5 2.0 0.2 2.2

2 37.4 37.9 34.5 32.9 35.4 34 3.4 3.9 0.5 -1.1 1.4

3 39.7 40.7 36.3 35.4 38.1 37.4 2.3 3.3 -1.1 -2.0 0.7

4 38.4 39.2 35.7 34.6 36.9 35.2 3.2 4.0 0.5 -0.6 1.7

5 38 38.7 35.5 34.7 36.6 35.2 2.8 3.5 0.3 -0.5 1.4

6 37 37.2 34.1 33.6 35.1 31.9 5.1 5.3 2.2 1.7 3.2

7 35.8 35.9 33.3 32.8 34 32.9 2.9 3.0 0.4 -0.1 1.1

mean 37.7 38.2 35 33.9 35.9 34.3 3.4 3.9 0.7 -0.4 1.6

Source: Ham et. al., 1993

iii. Seed Germination, Crop Growth and Temperature

Temperature affects the growth and productivity of plants, depending on whether the plant

is a warm season or cool season crop. Rates of photosynthesis and respiration both rise

with increasing temperatures. As temperatures reach the upper growing limits for the crop,

the rate of food used by respiration may exceed the rate at which food is manufactured by

photosynthesis. Seeds of cool season crops germinate at 4.4 to 26.7 °C. In the high

mountainous region, soil temperatures are a limiting factor for plant growth. Soil temperature

is an important environmental parameter for plant growth. Variation in soil temperature is

much more pronounced because of varying characteristics and composition of soil. Soil

temperature extremes influence the germination of seeds, functional activity of root system

Extreme low temperature impede intake of nutrients. Soil moisture intake by the plants

stops when the soil temperature is at a temperature of below 1 °C. Day time soil temperature

is more important because it is necessary to maintain favourable internal crop water status

in the light of the high evaporation rate. Crop yield increases linearly as the 10 cm depth

soil temperature increases from 15 °C to 27 °C for maize. Extreme low and high temperature

15

influences the soil microbial population and rate of organic matter decomposition. Rate of

decomposition is high under high soil temperatures. Black mulch increases the temperature

in the tune of 2.8 to 5 °C in comparison to non-mulched condition. The crop season can be

extended and optimum temperature required for germination can be achieved through plastic

mulching. It was observed from the Table 5 that vegetables need about 26 °C therefore

mulching can be used in all crops in Leh region where maximum temperature used to be

25 °C (Table 6). Mulching should be practiced in all fruits and vegetables crops to get the

desired optimum temperature during the crop growth season.

Table 5: Germination temperature for vegetables

Vegetables Germination Temperature, (o

C) Planting

Minimum Maximum Optimumdepth,

temp. temp. temp.cm

Beets 4.4 32.2 26.7 1.8 to 2.5

Cabbage 4.4 32.2 26.7 1.25

Carrots 4.4 32.2 26.7 0.63

Cauliflower 4.4 32.2 26.7 1.25

Potato 7.2 10-15

Radish 4.4 32.2 26.7 1.25

Spinach 4.4 21.1 21.1 1.25

Turnips 4.4 37.8 26.7 1.25

Source: http://www.cmg.colostate.edu/gardennotes/720.html

Table 6: Desired ambient and soil temperature during the crop season

Crops Optimum ambient Soil Source

temperature temperature

(o

C) (o

C)

Day Night

Potato 18 to 20 below 15 15 to 18 http://www.netafimindia.com/agriculture-potato.html

Cabbage 18 to 20 3 to 12 15.6 to 18 http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/7219.pdf

Carrot 15.6 to 18.3 > 5.0 15 to 18 http://www.tagawagardens.com/documents

coldcropvegetables.pdf

Spinach beet 15.6 to 18.3 4.5 to 5.5 15.6 to 18 http://www.cyber-north.com/gardening/carrot.html

Turnip 15 to 23.9 4.5 to 5.5 10 to 35

Radish 10 to 21.1 > 5.0 > 12

Cauliflower 18 to 20 3 to 12 15.6 to 21

iv. Potential of Mulches in Horticultural Crops

Leh is about 4000 metres higher; it means that only one crop a year can be grown there,

while two crops can be grown in some places. Efforts should be made to harness available

mulching technologies for getting good yields in cold mountainous region. To tap the

horticultural potential fully, however, it will be necessary to make available mulch with

16

drip-fertigation technology in the cost-effective manner. Mulching is one such area which

can facilitate the most efficient utilization of inputs (water and fertilizer) and improves

returns per unit area and time. Resources of the Leh are given in the Table 7. The net

irrigated area by canal is 10193 ha and cropping intensity is 100.50%. Area under fruits

crop is 1686 ha while under vegetables is 860 ha. Plastic mulch required to cover vegetables

and fruits were estimated by using 100 micro in fruits and 50 micron in fruits. In estimation

of amount of mulch (Table 8) required we had taken 60% area coverage under fruits and

80% area coverage under vegetables (Table 9).

Table 7: Resources about the Leh

1. Agricultural land use Value

i. Net sown area (‘000 ha) 10.103

ii. Area sown more than once (‘000 ha) 0.413

iii. Gross crop ped area (‘000 ha) 10.156

iv. Cropping intensity (%) 100.50

2. Irrigation

i. Net irrigated area (‘000 ha) 10.103

ii. Gross irrigated area (‘000 ha) 10.516

iii. Rain fed area (‘000 ha) 0.00

iv. Irrigated by canal (100%) 10.193

3. Productivity, kg/ha

i. Apricot 4048.14

ii. Apple 6276.75

iii. Walnut 2188.73

iv. Pear 37.29

Table 8: Mulch thickness and coverage

Thickness of mulch film Area coverage by using Weight of 1 m2

Micron Gauge mmin 1 Kg mulch in m

2

plastic mulch (gm)

25 100 0.025 42 23

50 200 0.05 21 46

100 400 0.10 11 93

200 800 0.20 5.3 209

250 1000 0.25 4.29 233

Source: NCPAH, Ministry of Agriculture

17

Table 9: Mulch requirement in horticultural crops

S. Horticultural Total area Irrigated area Mulch Requirement

No. crops (000 ha) (000 ha) thickness, of mulch,

(micron) (tons)

1. Fruits (60 % area covered with mulch)

i. Apricot 0.777 0.777 100 424

ii. Apple 0.608 0.608 100 332

iii. Walnut 0.051 0.051 100 28

iv. Pear 0.246 0.246 100 134

v. Peach 0.004 0.004 100 2

2. Vegetables (80 % area covered with mulch)

i. Potato 0.370 0.370 50 141

ii. Cabbage 0.125 0.125 50 48

iii. Peas 0.140 0.140 50 53

iv. Cauliflower 0.090 0.090 50 34

v. Radish, Turnip 0.050 0.050 50 19

vi. Onion, Tomato, Cucurbits 0.085 0.085 50 32

Wang et. al. (2011) studied the effect of drip irrigation, plastic mulched drip irrigation

and plastic mulched of regulated drip irrigation on the field experiment of mountainous

apricot orchard. During the crop growth period, compared to the conventional irrigation,

the plastic mulched drip irrigation saved water by 62.46%. The plastic mulched drip irrigation

gives the water use efficiency of 7.934 g/m3

, which was the highest. Study was conducted

by different Precision Farming Development Centre to study the impact of mulching on

crop yield, water saving and weed control. The compiled data are given in the Table 10.

Productivity of fruits and vegetables can be doubled in the region by using mulch besides

extending the crop duration.

Table 10: Studies on mulching at various centres of PFDC’s all over India

S. No. Crop Location of Plastic Increase in

PFDC (micron) yield (%)

1. Chilli 50 60.1

2. Brinjal

Navasari (Gujarat)

50 27.1

3. Sugarcane 50 50.2

4. Chilli 50 59.0

5. Cauliflower Hisar (Haryana) 50 31.9

6. Potato 50 35.5

7. Cauliflower

Pantnagar (UK)

50 71.0

18

8. Tomato 25 46.5

9. Okra Pantnagar (UK) 25 47.9

10. Tomato 25 79.2

11. Tomato 25 65.4

12. Okra

Kharagpur (WB)

25 55.1

13. Guava 100 26.0

14. Lemon 100 21.6

15. Kinnow

Delhi

100 46.8

16. Pomegranate 100 33.3

17. Brinjal 25 33.3

18. Bhendi 25 46.7

19. Bhendi Coimbatore (TN) 25 54.0

20. Chilli 25 18.6

21. Groundnut 15 20.5

22. Banana 50 12.6

23. Arecanut Travacore (Kerala) 50 28.4

24. Bhendi 50 25.0

25. Maize 25 44.6

26. Brinjal 25 10.0

27. Bhendi

Rajendranagar (AP)

25 67.0

28. Tomato 25 65.3

29. Plum 50 9.2

30. Tomato 50 85.6

31. Pea Solan (HP) 50 66.6

32. Apricot 50 33.3

33. Peach 31.2

S. No. Crop Location of Plastic Increase in

PFDC (micron) yield (%)

Conclusions

Mulching technology is crucial to the high mountainous region having low temperature

throughout the year. Introduction of plastic mulch particularly linearlow density polyethylene

(LLDPE) has brought a revolution in agricultural water management for boosting crop

yield sand productivity. This is one of the fastest growing plasticultural applications in the

world. Moreover for mulching using lower thicknesses (15 to 20 microns) are highly suitable

but in extreme climatic condition like in Leh, mulch of 50 microns thickness are most

suitable in vegetables and 100 micron in fruits. However due to ever increasing cost of raw

19

materials the mulchare costlier now. Hence, government should take all possible measures

to reduce the cost of mulch sheet. Low cost machines may be developed for spreading and

rolling down the film in the field. PFDC’s may be geared up for large scale demonstration

in farmer’s field to give a wide publicity.

References

● Bhella, H.S. 1988. Tomato response to trickle irrigation and black poly- ethylene mulch. J. Amer.

Soc. Hort. Sci. 113:543-546.

● Decoteau, D.R., Kasperbauer, M.J., Daniels, D.D. and Hunt, P.G. 1988. Plastic mulch color

effects on reflected light and tomato plant growth.Scientia Hort. 34:169-175.

● Decoteau, D.R., M.J. Kasperbauer, and P.G. Hunt. 1989. Mulch surface color affects yield of

fresh-market tomatoes. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 114:216-219.

● DeVay, J.E. 1991. Historical review and principles of soil solarization, p.1-15. In: J.E.

● DeVay, J.J. Stapleton, and C.L. Elmore (eds.). Soil Solarization. FAO Plant Production Paper

109. Rome.

● Greenough, D.R., L.L. Black, and W.P. Bond. 1990. Aluminum-surfaced mulch: An approach

to the control of tomato spotted wilt virus in solanaceous crops. Plant Dis. 74:805-808.

● Ham, J.M., G.J. Kluitenberg, and W.J. Lamont. 1991. Potential impact of plastic mulches on the

aboveground plant environment. Proc. Natl. Agr. Plastics Congr. 23:63-69.

● Ham, J.M. and R.S. Senock. 1992. On the measurement of soil surface temperature. Soil Sci.

Soc. Amer. J. 56:370-377.

● Kluitenberg, G.J., J.M. Ham, and W.J. Lamont. 1991. Effects of aging on the optical properties

of plastic mulches. Proc. Natl. Agr. Plastics Congr. 23:149-154.

● Liakatas, A., J.A. Clark, and J.L. Monteith. 1986. Measurements of the heat balance under plastic

mulches. Part I. Radiation balance and soil heat flux. Agr.For.Meteorol. 36:227-239.

● Loy, B., J. Lindstrom, S. Gordon, D. Rudd, and O. Wells. 1989. Theory and development of

wavelength selective mulches. Proc.Natl.Agr.Plastics Congr. 21:193-197.

● Maiero, M., F.D. Schales, and T.J. Ng. 1987. Genotype and plastic mulch effects on earliness,

fruit characteristics, and yield in muskmelon. Hort Science 22:945-946.

● Piotr Siwek1, Andrzej Kalisz1, RenataWojciechowska. 2007. Effect of mulching with film of

different colours made from original and recycled polyethylene on the yield of butter head lettuce

and celery.Mulching influence on the yield of lettuce and celery 25.FOLIA HORTICULTURAE,

Ann. 19/1, 2007, 25-35.

● Wang Wei-jun, Wang Hong, Zhang Ai-jun, Zhang Rui-fang, Zhou Da-mai. 2011. Effects of

Different Irrigation and Soil Moisture Conversation Treatments on Soil Water Dynamics and

Water Consumption in Apricot Orchard. S662.2, CNKI:SUN:BFYY.0.2011-12-002

● Wien, H.C. and P.L. Minotti. 1988. Increasing yield of tomatoes with plastic mulch and apex

removal. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113:342-347.

20

Micro-Irrigation for Enhancing the

Productivity of Horticultural Crops

T.B.S. Rajput1 and Neelam Patel

2

1

Principal Scientist and 2

Senior Scientist, Water Technology Centre

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 012

Introduction

The dominant method of irrigation practiced in large parts of the country consists of diverting

a stream from head of field into furrows or borders and allowing it to flow down the grade

by gravity. Generally under surface irrigation methods, the crop utilize only less than one

half of the water released and remaining half gets lost in conveyance, application, runoff

and evaporation. Accordingly, the efficiency of surface irrigation methods is low. Micro

irrigation methods like drip and sprinklers need to be employed for efficient distribution

and application of water for crop production. Adoption of these methods, may help in

saving significant amounts of water and increase the quality and quantity of produce. These

techniques are very well suited for water scarce areas and areas where adequate land leveling

is either undesirable owing to less soil depth or uneconomical. Ladakh region very well fits

into the natural domain for selection of water application methods.

Micro irrigation is broadly understood as a method of water application not only through

the emitters on or below the soil surface, but also by sprayers, micro jets or bubblers above

the soil, conveying water through the air and not directly to the soil. Micro irrigation is

based on the fundamental concepts of irrigating only the root zone of the crop and

maintaining the water content of the root zone at near optimum levels.

Drip irrigation can be used for most crops, such as:

Orchard crops : Grapes, Banana, Pomegranate, Orange, Citrus, Tamarind, Mango,

Fig, Lemon, Custard Apple, Sapota, Guava, Pineapple, Coconut, Cashew

nut, Papaya, Aonla, Litchi, Watermelon, Muskmelon etc (Fig. 1).

Vegetables : Tomato, Chilly, Capsicum, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Onion, Okra,

Brinjal, Bitter gourd, Bottle gourd, Ridge gourd, Cucumber, Peas,

Spinach, Pumpkin etc. (Fig. 2)

Cash Crops : Sugarcane, Cotton. Arecanut, Strawberry etc (Fig. 3).

Flowers : Rose, Carnation, Gerbera, Anthurium, Orchids, Jasmine, Lily, Mogra,

Tulip, Dahilia, Marigold etc.

Plantation : Tea, Rubber, Coffee, Coconut etc.

Spices : Turmeric, Cloves, Mint etc.

Oil seed : Sunflower, Oil palm, Groundnut etc.

Forest crops : Teakwood, Bamboo etc.

21

The main advantage of drip irrigation system is its high degree of control on water

application. Drip irrigation provides a large number of irrigating points per unit area that

result in better uniformity of water application. Drip irrigation thus maintains uniform

moisture content in the soil through out the cropping period (Fig. 4).

Fig. 1: Orchard crop under drip irrigation system

Fig. 2: Vegetable under drip irrigation system

Fig. 3: Cash crops under drip irrigation system

Fig. 4: Moisture content regime for various irrigation systems

22

Fig. 5: Surface drip irrigation system Fig. 6: Subsurface drip irrigation system

Types of Drip Irrigation Systems

i) Surface Drip Irrigation System

In this system, the drippers and the lateral lines are laid on the soil surface. In this system,

water is applied to the soil near the root zone of the plants. The system applies water slowly

under pressure to help maintain the soil moisture within the desired range of plant growth.

The volume of soil wetted by surface drip irrigation is much less than that wetted by surface

irrigation methods (Fig. 5).

ii) Subsurface Drip Irrigation System

In this system, the laterals and the drippers are installed below the soil surface and water is

applied slowly through drippers. The most commonly used systems are Bi-wall, Typhoon,

T- tape and cane wall system. These systems are mostly used for irrigating row crops (Fig. 6).

Drip Irrigation Components

A typical drip irrigation system has many components including, (i) Head works consisting

of control unit, filters and fertilizer applicators, (ii) Water distribution pipes network

consisting of main, sub main and laterals, (iii) Water emitting devices, (iv) Flowregulating

and flushing devices and (v) Automation unit and sensors (Fig. 7). Depending upon the

crop need, size of the farm, quality of available water, application of chemicals and fertilizers

with irrigation water the need of many a components is decided.

Advantage of Drip Irrigation

● 40-100% of water can be saved over flood method. Runoff and deep percolation losses

are nil or negligible

● Water use efficiency of drip irrigation is 90-95%

● Labouris required only to start and stop the system

● Weeds infestation is very less or almost nil due to less wetting of soil

● Saline water can be used. Frequent irrigation keeps the salt concentration within root

zone soil below harmful level

23

● Diseases and pest problems is relatively less because of less atmospheric humidity

● Suitable under various soil physical constraints as flow rate can be controlled.

● Water control is very precise, high and easy

● Use of fertilizer efficiency is very high due to reduced loss of nutrients through leaching

and runoff water

● Partial and controlled wetting of soil surface eliminates any possibility of soil erosion

● Frequent watering eliminates moisture stress and yield can be increased up to 20-100%

Limitations of Drip Irrigation System

● Salinity hazard - in long run in absence of leaching of salts built up.

● Sensitivity to clogging of system components.

● High cost of irrigation systems.

● Requirement of high skill in design, installation and operation

Table 1: Water savings and yield increases under drip irrigation system as compared to surface method

of water application

Crops Water saving (%) Yield increase (%) Crops Water saving (%) Yield increase (%)

Ash gourd 12 10 Groundnut 10-40 5 - 74

Banana 35 - 45 5 - 30 Guava 19 27

Beet 79 36 Kagzi lime 24 - 64 10 - 44

Ber 19 24 Okra 20 - 25 20 - 25

Okra 45 27 Onion 25 - 50 4 - 55

Brinjal 25 - 30 20 Papaya 54 - 68 19 - 77

Bitter Gourd 57 26 Pomegranate 3 - 24 49 - 60

Brinjal 25 - 65 16 - 63 Potato 20 - 54 25 - 66

Fig. 7: Typical drip irrigation system

24

Broccoli 14 28 Radish 51 - 76 51 - 53

Cabbage 23 - 60 16 - 46 Ridge gourd 45 - 50 16 - 20

Castor 25 - 70 30 - 36 Sapota 20 - 25 15 - 20

Cauliflower 12 - 44 28 - 72 Sugar beet 26 15

Chilli 25 - 45 20 - 60 Sugar cane 14 - 41 16 - 40

Coconut 65 12 Sweet potato 60 28

Cotton 40 - 50 5 - 35 Tapioca 40 6

Cucumber 56 31 Tomato 25 - 78 50 - 60

Custard Apple 50 - 55 20 Turmeric 53 76

Grapes 47 19 Watermelon 36 88

Clogging and its Control in Micro Irrigation System

Partial or total clogging of drippers/sprinkler nozzles is a chronic problem and the most

serious constraint to the long-term operation of drip irrigation system. Inadequate

consideration of the physical, biological and chemical characteristics of the water supply

will result in serious clogging problems.

Solution to Clogging Problems

The clogging can be prevented by adequate filtration. Sand from well water can be removed

by centrifugal separators. Suspended organic matter and clay particles can be separated

with gravel filters, disk and screen filters, which have to be cleaned periodically. Filtration is

not sufficient when wastewater is used for drip irrigation - chlorinating or some other method

of disinfecting is needed to prevent growth of bacterial slimes and algae. Some of the

precipitates can be dissolved by injecting dilute Hydrochloric acid into the systems. Bacterial

slime can be dissolved by hypochloritic injection.

Maintenance of Drip Irrigation System

Regular maintenance of drip irrigation system is essential for its successful functioning.

1. Check for emitting device functioning, discharge, wetting zone, leakages of pipes, valves,

fittings etc,

2. Check placement of drippers

3. Check for leakages through filter gaskets in the lids, flushing valves, fittings etc.,

4. Check the filter for the debris

Fertigation

Fertigation is the process of application of water-soluble solid fertilizer or liquid fertilizers

through drip irrigation system (Fig. 8). Through fertigation nutrients are applied directly

Crops Water saving (%) Yield increase (%) Crops Water saving (%) Yield increase (%)

25

into the wetted volume of soil immediately

below the emitter where root activity is

concentrated. In fertigation, plants receive

small amounts of fertilizer early in the crop’s

season, when plants are of the vegetative stage.

The dosage is increased as fruit load and

nutrient demands grow, and then decreased as

plants approach the end of the crop’s cycle. This

gives plants the needed amounts of fertilizer

throughout the growth cycle, rather than a few

large doses.

Frequency of Fertigation

Fertilizers can be injected into the irrigation system at various frequencies once a day or

once every two days or even once a week. The frequency depends on system design,

irrigation scheduling, soil type, nutrients requirement of crop and the farmer’s preference.

Methods for Fertilizer Injection

Fertilizers can be injected into drip irrigation system by selecting appropriate equipment.

Commonly used fertigationequipments are: 1) Venturi pumps, 2) Fertilizer tank

(By-pass system), 3) Fertilizer injection pump.

Fig. 8: Banana under drip & fertigation

Methods for fertilizer injection

Fertilizer Compounds Suitable for Fertigation

There are several sources of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium that can be used for

application through micro irrigation.

Preparation of NPK Stock Solution

Aexample given below to instruct users how to prepare their own solutions.

To prepare 100 litre stock solution type “6.4-2.1-6.4” (N:P:K)

● Fill 70 liters of water in the tank,

26

● Add 4 kg MKP,

● Add 14 kg Urea,

● Add 8.2 kg KCl,

● Bring volume to 100 liters

Apply 2 liter stock solution per 1m3

water to reach 130, 40 and 130 ppm of N, P2

O5

and

K2

O, respectively.

Calculation ….

Fertilizer N : P : K Fertilizer N : P : K

Urea 46 – 0 – 0 MAP 12 – 61 – 0

Ammonium Nitrate 34 – 0 – 0 Potassium Chloride 0 – 0 – 60

Ammonium Sulphate 21 – 0 – 0 Potassium Sulphate 0 – 0 – 50

Calcium Nitrate 16 – 0 – 0 Potassium Thiosulphate 0 – 0 – 25

Magnesium Nitrate 11 – 0 – 0 MKP 0 – 52 – 34

Urea Ammonium Nitrate 32 – 0 – 0 Phosphoric Acid 0 – 52 – 0

Potassium Nitrate 13 – 0 – 46 NPK 19 – 19 – 19

i) 4 kg MKP = 4 kg MKP x 52% P2

O5

= 2.1 kg P2

O5

/100L = 21,000 ppm P2

O5

= 4 kg MKP x 34% K2

O = 1.36 kg K2

O/100L = 13,600 ppm K2

O

ii) 14 kg Urea = 14 kg urea x 46% N = 6.44 kg N/100L = 64,400 ppm N

iii) 8.2 kg KCl = 8.2 kg KCl x 61% K2

O = 5 kg K2

O/100L = 50,000 ppm K2

O

When 2 liters of the stock solution is applied to 1m3

of water; the plants will receive the

following concentrations of N, P and K at the dripper:

N = 64,400 ppm x 2L/1000L = 128.8 130 ppm N

P = 21,000 ppm x 2L/1000L = 42 40 ppm P2

O5

K = (13,600+50,000) ppm x 2L/1000L = 127.2 130 ppm K2

O

Advantages of Fertigation

i) Ensures a uniform and regular flow of water as well as nutrients, resulting in increased

growth rates for higher yields and quality.

ii) Offers greater versatility in the timing of the nutrient application to meet specific crop

demands.

iii) Improves availability of nutrients and their uptake by the roots.

iv) Safer application method, as it eliminates the danger of burning the plant root system.

v) Simple and more convenient application method that saves time, labor and energy.

27

vi) Timely applications of small but precise amounts of fertilizer directly to the root zone,

this improves fertilizer use efficiency and reduces nutrients leaching below the root

zone.

vii) Cost of application by fertigation is about one-third the cost of conventional application

methods

Disadvantages of Fertigation

i) Uneven nutrient distribution when the irrigation system is faulty.

ii) Over fertilization if excess water is applied to the crops.

iii) Chemical reactions of fertilizer with calcium and bicarbonate in water, which can lead

to clogging of drip fertigation system.

iv) Potential chemical back flow into water supply.

v) Safe and effective fertigation requires careful and attentive management.

vi) Beneficial only when the micro irrigation system is adequately designed, fully functional

and properly managed

Benefits and Cost Analysis

The cost of micro irrigationsystem depends to a large extent on the type of crop, its spacing,

water requirement, proximity to water source etc. The relative cost of the system decreases

with increase in the area since certain essential components remain the same irrespective of

the area covered. The increase in yield in drip irrigation ranged as high as 100 percent in

bananas, 40 to 50 percent in sugarcane, pomegranate, tomato, and chillies and around

25 percent in grapes, cotton and groundnut. In these crops, the irrigation water savings

compared to conventional methods ranged from 40 to 70 percent. The payback period ranged

from 1 to 4 years only in different crops as against a life span of 8 years for the drip system.

Table 2: Effect of fertigation on yield of different crops

Crop % Saving % Increase Crop % Saving % Increase

in fertilizer in yield in fertilizer in yield

Tomato 40 18 Castor 60 32

Okra 40 18 Cotton - 20

Onion 40 16 Potato 40 -

Broccoli 40 10 Tomato 50 28

Banana 20 11 Tomato 40 33

Bang lore blue grapes 20 - Sugarcane 50 -

Sapota 40 - Gerbera - 37

Banana 40 - Tomato 20 25

28

Present Status of Micro Irrigation in India

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, State Agricultural Universities, and National

Committee are promoting research efforts for the encouragement of drip irrigation for the

Use of Plastics in Agriculture, and the drip manufacturers. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry

of water Resources and different State governments have sponsored promotional activities

for drip irrigation. But its application at commercial level was encouraged by the formation

of a National Committee on the Use of Plastics in Agriculture which is now known as

National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH). The committee

has established 22 Precision Farming Development Centres in different agro climatic

conditions of the country. All the promotional efforts are aiming to achieve a significant

part of the estimated potential of micro irrigation in the country (Table 3).

Table 3: Area suitable for drip irrigation in India

Crop Area (Mha) Area suitable for drip irrigation (Mha)

Sugarcane 4.10 4.10

Condiments and Spices 2.19 1.40

Fruits 3.40 3.40

Vegetables 5.30 5.30

Coconut 1.90 1.90

Oil seeds 26.20 1.90

Cotton 9.00 9.00

Total 54.49 27.00

Government Assistance for Promoting Drip Irrigation System

At present, the assistance under the “National Mission on Micro Irrigation” is available for

all types of drip / micro irrigation systems such as on line drip irrigation systems, in line

systems, subsurface drip irrigation systems, micro tube, micro jets, fan-jets, micro sprinkler,

mini sprinklers, misters and similar other low discharge irrigation systems to farmers to

realize the benefits of improved technology of water and fertilizer management.

Research and Development Needs for Micro Irrigation System

1. Development of rationalized method of scheduling of irrigation for different crops

2. Filtration system needs to be designed based on the indigenous available material

3. Appropriate software for design, maintenance and crop cultivation practices

4. Efforts are needed for minimizing the cost of micro irrigation systems

5. Efforts are needed to combine micro irrigation with major irrigation systems

6. Efforts are needed to promote micro irrigation for reuse of harvest water

29

Design and Construction of Water Harvesting

Structure/ Farm Pond for Irrigation

R.S. Spehia

Principal Investigator

Precision Farming Development Centre

Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, HP

Introduction

Water is one of the critical resources for ensuring food security and sustainable economic

development. Agriculture sector has been and is likely to be the major user of water but the

share of water allocated to irrigation is likely to decrease by 10% to 15% in the next decade

owing to growing demand of water by other sectors of economy. With sustained and

systematic development of irrigation, the irrigation potential through various projects has

increased from 22.6 million hectares (m ha) in 1951 to about 98.84 m ha at the end of the

year 2004-05. Great strides have been made in agricultural production in the country,

particularly in areas which have assured irrigation facilities. However, about 63% of the

total cultivated area of 142 m ha is still rainfed. It has been estimated that even after

development of full irrigation potential of 139.5 m ha as against the possible cropped area

of 200 m ha, about 60 m ha will be left as rainfed. The situation is more challenging in hills

where most of the agriculture is rainfed due to which crop yields are poor and variable.

Furthermore, in Shiwalik region of north-western states of India, out of an average rainfall

of 100 cm, about 50 per cent ends in runoff. All these facts lead us to the realization that

Item Maximum permissible cost Pattern of Assistance

Community tanks/on farm

ponds/on farm water reservoirs

with use of plastic/RCC lining.

Rs. 15 lakh/unit in plain areas,

Rs. 17.25 lakh/unit in hilly areas.

100% of cost for 10 ha of command area, with

pond size of 100 m x 100 m x 3 m or any

other smaller size on pro rata depending upon

the command area, owned & managed by a

community/farmer group. Cost for non-lined

ponds/tanks (only in black cotton soils) will

be 33% less. Assistance under NHM will be

restricted to the cost of plastic/RCC lining.

However, for non MNREGS beneficiaries,

assistance on entire cost including construction

of pond/tank as well as lining can be availed

under NHM.

Water harvesting system for

individuals – for storage of

water in 20 m x 20 m x 3 m

ponds /dug wells@ Rs. 100/m3

Rs. 1.20 lakh/unit in plain areas,

Rs. 1.38 lakh/unit in hilly areas

(maximum 2ha)

50% of cost including lining (in plains) and

75% of cost i.e. Rs. 1.03 lakhs per beneficiary

in hilly areas. For smaller size of the ponds/

dug wells, cost will be admissible on pro rata

basis. Maintenance to be ensured by the

beneficiary.

30

our strategy should be to conserve every drop of rainfall. However, the main challenge is to

propagate low cost and affordable technology which farmers can adopt easily. The rain

water harvesting through the construction of low density polyethylene (LDPE) lined ponds

is the ideal proposition for the farmers, in general, and poor farmers of hills having small

and fragmented land holdings, in particular. Keeping this in view, Government of India is

providing subsidy to the tune of 50% in plain areas and 75% in hilly areas under National

Horticulture Mission (NHM) and Horticulture Mission for North-East & Himalayan States

(HMNEH). The details of subsidy are as under:

What is rain water harvesting and why?

Rain water harvesting is a process to capture the rain water when it rains, store that water

above ground or recharge the underground water and use it later. In other words, it is the

process of collection, storage and recycling of rain water for agricultural, domestic or

industrial purpose. The basic principle of rain water harvesting is to ‘catch the water where it

falls’. Rain is the primary source of all water. There are other sources viz. rivers, streams,

springs, wells, lakes, ponds, etc., but all these are ultimately dependent on rainfall. Hence,

proper conservation and management of primary source will also regulate these secondary

sources. Rain water harvesting is broad term and it does not imply harvesting of water

received directly from rain only, but also from all other secondary sources as these all draw

water from rain and snow.

Rain water harvesting is essential because

● Surface water is inadequate for meeting the demands of different sectors and increasing

dependence on ground water.

● Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rain water into the sub-soil has decreased

drastically and recharging of ground water has diminished.

● Ever increasing human and livestock populations, industrialization, changing life styles,

etc., are leading to increased competition of water among different sectors.

● Water table is going down alarmingly making thousands

of ground water resources dry every year.

Design of Farm Pond

Layout, Shape, size and storage capacity: Shape depends on

the soil type, which dictates the maximum possible slope that

will stay in place without falling in. normally, the shape is

kept as trapezoidal with side slopes of 1:1 to 1:2 and effective

depth 1.5 to 5m. The side slopes should have a ratio of 1:1

and 1:2 for stable and unstable soils, respectively. The pond

should be constructed in the form of frustum of an inverted

pyramid (Fig. 1 & 2). The size of water harvesting structures

is important, but more important is its sustainability, efficiency

31

and appropriateness. The demand dictates the required storage capacity. The catchment

area and rainfall determine the supply and storage capacity are necessary for achieving

higher water productivity. The basic principle used for selecting the size of any rain water

harvesting system is that volume of water, which can be captured and stored (the supply)

must equal or exceed the volume of water required (the demand).

Ex: For an area of 800 m2

, with plants (vegetables) having spacing of 60 cm x 45 cm,

cumulative evaporation losses of 850 mm (over a period of 4 months during summer),

irrigation through drip on alternate days having discharge rate of 2lph (wherein drip is

operated for average of 30 minutes), the total number of irrigations would come to be 55.

As evaporation losses are 850mm, the depth of the pond should be minimum of 1 m,

but in hilly terrains it must not be more than 3m as the area becomes limiting factor.

Therefore, Volume of water required per irrigation: 1.0 litre (discharge during 30 min)

x 3000 (no of plants) = 3000 litre.

Total volume of net irrigation water: 3000 x 55 = 165000 liter i.e. 165m3

excluding the

evaporation losses. Therefore, the pond size with capacity of 165m3

would be 12 m x 12 m

x 2m.

The cost may vary from site to site as per head load, size of pond etc. and site conditions.

Lining material: The thickness of LDPE sheet should be 200-250 microns (800-1000 gauge)

and should conform to BIS standard 2508/1977. For large size farm ponds of capacity

more than 1000 m3

, 1000 gauge sheet should be used.

As per the size of ponds given in NHM / HMNEH the quantity of sheet required for

100 x 100 x 3 m pond will be 26 quintal while for 10 x 10 x 3 m will be 150 kg.

Construction of farm pond

The construction process includes (i) Selection of site (ii) Excavation (iii) Lining of pond.

Selection of site: The site should be selected keeping in view the following issues:

● The pond should receive sufficient runoff.

● The site should be such that higher storage-excavation ratio can be achieved.

● The site should not have hard rocks which would require blasting consequently increasing

the cost of construction. In case, rocks come in the way, blunting of the sharp edges

should be done. Thereafter, use of cement/gunny bags can be done before lining of sheet.

● The pond should be close to the command area to ensure ease of irrigation preferably

through gravity flow.

● The site should not be very close to the existing springs, if any; otherwise excavation

may disrupt the capillary lines of the spring resulting in reduced discharge.

● The pond should not be constructed over the natural water source if found during the

excavation process.

● There should not be any large tree near the site.

32

Excavation: First of all, determine the pond

dimensions (L,W,D and side slope and then mark the

top level (outer rectangle/trapezium) as well as the

bottom level (inner rectangle/trapezium) length and

width clearly on the ground (Fig. 3). Excavated soil

can be kept near the pond around the periphery and

used later following the principle of cut and fill ratio.

Finishing of pond bed and side walls: After

excavation, the side slopes of pond are made smooth and compacted by removing angular

projections, protruding stones, pebbles, roots etc. Before laying the sheet, apply thin layer

of slurry of clay and cow dung or place a thin layer of used gunny bags/soft grass between

the sheet and the walls of the pond to avoid damage by sharp protruding objects. Spray of

Atrazine @ 0.4 g/m2

is given on the side walls after applying slurry for controlling weeds.

If needed, simple pipe (5 cm diameter) spillway may be provided to regulate the outflow.

Lining of pond: The ponds are located on a variety of soil types which – exhibit wide range

of seepage characteristics and lining with suitable lining material helps in minimizing seepage

losses and to improve storage efficiency. Both black LDPE and Silpaulin sheets were found

equally good. In addition, Tarfelt and other sheets are also available which can be used for

lining.

Jointing of LDPE sheet: Generally plastic sheets are available up to 14 m width. If possible,

jointing of sheets should be avoided by procuring sheet of required width. If jointing is

required, bitumen heated to 100 °C is spread over 30 cm wide strip on one sheet and this

painted portion of the sheet is put over the counterpart and is pressed by a smooth object.

It is then allowed to cool. Sheet can also be jointed/repaired with synthetic rubber adhesive.

Some of the dealers are nowadays providing sheet according to the size of the pond.

Laying of LDPE sheet and fixing outlet pipe: The plastic sheet is spread over the dug out

area after ensuring that there are no sharp stones, pebbles, etc. on the side slopes. Anchor

the lining sheet edges in a small trench (0.25 m x 0.25 m) dug around the external periphery

of the pond to ensure that sheet lies smoothly on the side walls of the pond and firmly held.

The trench can be approximately 0.5 m away from the external periphery of the pond. The

Fig. 3: Excavation of Pond

Fig. 4: Pond Lined with LDPE sheet

33

lining sheet should fit in the pond area loosely so that it does not break when it is anchored

(Fig. 4). The sheet should not be placed on a very hot and windy day. For fixing the outlet

pipe through the sheet, a hole of 5 cm diameter, slightly larger than that of outlet pipe is

made in the sheet. The sheet is then embedded with pipe in the embankment by pouring

additional cement concrete (1:3:6) over the surface adjacent to hole.

Stone/brick pitching: The stone/brick pitching imparts longevity to the sheet as well as

pond and both are important considerations for farmers. Both black LDPE and Silpaulin

sheets are UV resistant but these are damaged by sunlight if exposed for longer duration.

The plastic sheet must be protected by covering with inert material such as soil, bricks,

stones, etc which is not damaged by UV rays (Fig. 5). Pitching with bricks/stones also

protects the sheet from any accidental physical damage by sharp objects. In areas, where

bricks are not readily available, flat stones with blunt edges can be used. Stone pitching is

started by placing bigger diameter stones (about 20 cm) at the bottom of the slope. The

diameter of the stones should be gradually reduced (about 10 cm) as the pitching work

proceeds towards the top of the side slopes. The bricks/stones are arranged in a manner

that provides grip to each other.

The top 30 cm width of stone pitching is plastered with cement mortar (1:4). If depth

of pond is more than 2.0 m, 30 cm wide vertical bond by cement mortar may be provided

at an interval of 0.6 m.

Silt retention trench: Construct of silt retention trench

(2 m x 1 m) along the inlet channel near the pond to

prevent silt getting into the pond in case of surface

runoff harvesting. The silt retention trench should also

have proper LDPE sheet lining and brick pitching to

avoid seepage. The runoff water is first directed to silt

retention trench and the inlet channel from this trench

is connected thereafter to the storage pond (Fig. 6).

Cost and Life of LDPE Pond

The cost of LDPE farm ponds is mainly influenced by the factors such as location of site,

digging, sealants and pitching materials. The costs of digging and availability of pitching

Fig. 5: Pond overlaid with different type of material

Fig. 6: Silt retention trench

34

material vary with site conditions and location. At places where digging through machine is

possible, cost of excavation comes to about less than 1/3rd

of amount required for manual

digging. The cost of harvested water in the pond size as given in NHM (20 x 20 x 3 m) in case

of a well-protected black LDPE and Silpaulin sheets is much lower than the RCC constructed

tank (Table 1). The cost of this construction is about 1/5th

as compared to masonry cement

tank of the same capacity. The life of pond depends upon the longevity of plastic sheet. If

pond is constructed with quality materials, workmanship and maintained properly, life of

atleast 20 years or more can be expected (Table 1).

Table 1: Cost of dug out LDPE farm pond (20 x 20 x 3 m with effective capacity of 650 m3

) with

different lining materials

Sl. Lining material Approx. cost of Cost (Rs/m3

of Expected life

No. construction water harvested) (years)

(Rs. in lakh)

1. Kaccha pond without lining 0.31 48.00 –

2. Black LDPE sheet lining 0.61 78.38 5-7

3. Black LDPE sheet lining & pitching with bricks 2.34 299.50 20+

4. Plastic sheet lining (UV resistant) 0.70 82.30 5-7

5. Plastic sheet lining (UV resistant) & pitching 2.85 351.00 20+

with bricks

6. Masonry cement/RCC tank 16.00 2462.00 20+

Irrigation Potential and Efficient use of Water

The first decision in rain water harvesting is the efficient use of water. The irrigation through

flooding should be avoided. The water productivity can be increased if harvested water is

used through efficient irrigation systems such as drip/sprinkler irrigation systems. Ponds

of 50-200 m3

capacity can be easily constructed on individual farmer basis which are sufficient

for vegetable cultivation in about one kanal area. A 165 m3

capacity pond once filled can

provide 55 irrigations through drip irrigation system in summer months to one bigha area

(800 m2

). If location of pond permits to achieve at least 25 m head, drip/micro sprinkler

systems of irrigation can be operated through gravity without involving any pumping system.

In areas, where desired head is not available, a suitable pumping system should be used to

achieve the desired operating pressure for the micro-irrigation system.

It is pertinent to mention here that rooftop area

of polyhouses can be effectively used for rain water

harvesting. A polyhouse of 200 m2

roof top area

can yield up to 160 m3

water in the area having

average annual rainfall 100 cm which can fully meet

the water requirement of crops grown inside the

polyhouse.

35

Diversification of Crops

The availability of water though pond can help farmer in diversifying towards cash crops

like vegetable and fruit crops which require more and frequent irrigations. Therefore, if

water is harvested and used efficiently, the traditional wheat-maize or wheat-rice-maize

cycle can be provided an alternative.

Water Quality in the Water Harvesting Structures

The most important question that comes to mind is what will be the water quality in such

ponds. The research suggests that the water quality remains within permissible limit even

after storage for longer periods. Therefore, the water so harvested can be easily used for

irrigation and other non-drinking purposes.

Protection and Maintenance

● Trespassing by animals should be avoided.

● In case the sheet is punctured or damaged, paste required size of LDPE sheet using

heated bitumen at damaged portion.

● Clean the silt retention trench regularly. Inspect inlet channel and collecting area

regularly. Periodically clean the pond and remove accumulated silt/algae.

● Storage of water of first 1-2 monsoon showers should be avoided for preventing quick

sedimentation of siltation tank.

The do’s & dont’s in LDPE farm pond

Do’s

● Ensure good dressing before laying the sheet.

● Jointing of the sheet, if required, is done by heat sealing/synthetic rubber adhesive at

the site itself.

● Direct the rain water to the pond through a single point.

● Recommended cement: sand ratio is 1:4 for bricks joining at the top 30 cm.

● Ensure a systematic procedural follow up and the use of right quality material and

good workmanship.

Dont’s

● Don’t use hooks and also don’t drag the sheet.

● Don’t walk on the sheet while it is being laid.

● Don’t use rough tools or equipment’s for cleaning.

● While constructing pond, make sure there are no trees near the pond.

36

Government of India Policies & Initiatives for

Plasticulture Development under Centrally

Sponsored Schemes for Cold Arid Region

Ashok Gahrotra

Sr. Project Officer

National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture

Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, GoI, New Delhi

To provide a thrust to development in the horticulture & agriculture sectors in the

country, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture has launched following major

schemes, which are implemented through agencies designated by the state Governments:

● National Horticulture Mission (NHM)

● Horticulture Mission for North East & Himalayan States (HMNEH)

● National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI)

● Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

● National Food Security Mission (NFSM)

These schemes follow an integrated approach by covering all aspects - research, modern

nursery management, production, productivity improvement through adoption of modern

technologies, creation of water resources, nutrient management, organic farming, bee

keeping, mechanization, technology dissemination, human resource development, integrated

post-harvest management, marketing infrastructure, processing etc. Support under all these

components is available to attain the objectives of enhanced production, improved nutrition

and increased returns to the farmers.

Under protected cultivation assistance is available for greenhouse, shade net house,

low tunnel, plastic mulching, plant protection nets. Similarly, other precision farming

interventions such as high density plantations, plant rejuvenation, canopy management,

meadow orchard have also been included for increasing production & productivity of crops.

Under National Mission for Micro Irrigation, improved methods of irrigation have been

included for increasing water use efficiency and saving of inputs – water, power, fertilizers,

weed cost, and provide more income to the farmers.

Plasticulture interventions covered under HMNEH and NMMI which are applicable

in the cold arid region are briefly explained hereunder.

Horticulture Mission for North East & Himalayan States (HMNEH)

The Horticulture Mission for North East & Himalayan States (HMNEHS) is applicable in

North Eastern States of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya,

37

Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura and Himalayan States of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal

Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The Mission aims to promote holistic growth of horticulture

sector covering several crops - fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, root & tuber crops, cashew-

nut, mushroom and aromatic plants in these states. The scheme works through 4 Mini

Missions as under:

● Mini Mission I – Concentrate on Research & Technology Generation

● Mini Mission II – Aims at increasing production & productivity

● Mini Mission III – Aims at Post harvest Management & Marketing

● Mini Mission IV – Aims at processing of horticulture produce and value addition.

Mission is demand & need based in each segment.

For plasticulture development the Mission has following provisions:

Nurseries

For production and distribution of good quality seeds and planting material, the Mission

has a provision for establishment of modern nurseries which has necessary infrastructural

facilities such as greenhouse, shade net house with micro irrigation facility etc. for year

round multiplication of planting material. Provision for pump house to provide sufficient

irrigation to the plants and water storage tank to meet at least 2 days water requirement has

also been made. Facility for soil sterilization/solarisation system is also there.

Assistance is available for setting up nursery units having a minimum area of 1 ha

@ Rs.6.25 lakh per ha for a maximum area of 4 ha with a total cost of Rs. 25 lakh.

Vegetable Seed Production

For the production of disease free seeds/seedlings of vegetables, especially of hybrids and

those vegetables whose seed is very costly and there is low germination of seeds with heavy

mortality of seedlings in open nurseries, there is a provision for establishment of greenhouse

with insect netting on sides and rolling poly sheets and plastic trays & small plugs of varying

sizes for different crops for a maximum area of 1000 sq. m. Sprinkler irrigation system is

also allowed along with infrastructure for media sterilization i.e. steam boiler, holding bins,

etc.

Creation of Water Resources

Under the Mission, assistance is provided for creating water sources through construction

of community tanks, farm ponds/reservoirs lined with plastic/RCC to ensure life saving

irrigation to horticulture crops. These water bodies are linked with Micro-Irrigation facility

for judicious use of water. Cost is estimated at Rs. 17.25 lakh per unit for tank size of

100 m x 100 m x 3 m to irrigate 10 ha of command area. The pond/tank is to be owned and

managed by community/farmers’ group. For smaller size of the ponds/tanks, cost will be

38

admissible on pro rata basis, depending upon command area. Assistance is limited to cost

of plastic/RCC lining for pond/tank constructed in convergence of MNREGS and 100%

assistance will be provided including the cost of plastic/RCC lining for non- MNREGS

beneficiaries.

Similarly, assistance is also provided for creating water source through construction of

farm ponds/dug wells for individuals and the cost is estimated at Rs. 1.38 lakh of tank size

20 m x 20 m x 3 m in hilly areas for storage of water @ Rs. 100/cubic meter for command

area of 2 ha. For smaller size ponds/dug wells, cost is admissible on pro-rata basis depending

upon the command area. This will also be in conjunction with MNREGS and for non-

MNREGS beneficiaries, assistance @ 75% of cost is provided including the cost of plastic/

RCC lining.

Protected Cultivation

Assistance for various plasticulture applications is as under:

S. Item Maximum Pattern of Assistance

No. Permission Cost

I. Green House Structure

a) Fan & Pad System Rs. 1465 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

b) Naturally Ventilated System

i. Tubular Structure Rs. 935 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

ii. Wooden Structure Rs. 515 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

iii. Bamboo Structure Rs. 375 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

II. Plastic Mulching Rs. 20000 per ha 50% of cost limited to 2 ha per beneficiary

III. Shade Net House

i. Tubular Structure Rs. 600 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

ii. Wooden Structure Rs. 410 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

iii. Bamboo Structure Rs. 300 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 4000 sqm per beneficiary

IV. Plastic Tunnel Rs. 30 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 1000 sqm per beneficiary

V. Anti-Band / Anti hail Nets Rs. 20 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 5000 sqm per beneficiary

VI. Cost of planting material of high Rs. 105 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 500 sqm per beneficiary

value vegetables grown in Polyhouse

Cost of planting material of high Rs. 500 per sqm 50% of cost limited to 500 sqm per beneficiary

value flowers grown in Polyhouse

Organic Farming

Organic farming in horticulture is becoming increasingly important. Its environmental

and economic benefits have captured attention in many countries. Basic rule of organic

production is that natural inputs are to be applied and synthetic inputs are totally prohibited.

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For promotion of organic farming in horticulture there is a provision of making available

vermi compost units/organic production units @50% of cost subject to a maximum of

Rs.30,000 per beneficiary for a unit having size of 30’x 8’ x 2.5’. For smaller units, assistance

is available on pro-rata basis. For plastic (HDPE) made vermi-beds of 96.cft

(size - 12’x 4’x 2’, the cost is limited to Rs. 10,000/per bed.

National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI)

The Government has introduced National Mission on Micro Irrigation considering that

the use of modern irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler irrigation is the only alternative

for efficient management of surface as well as ground water resources. The scheme aims at

increased water use efficiency, crop productivity and farmers’ income. It is applicable in all

states, and is being implemented in convergence with other centrally sponsored schemes

mentioned above; besides, Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm & Maize

(ISOPOM), and Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC).

The Main Objectives of NMMI are:

● To increase area under micro irrigation through improved technologies.

● To enhance water use efficiency.

● To increase productivity of the crops and farmers’ income.

● To establish convergence and synergy among ongoing Govt. programmes.

● To promote, develop and disseminate MI technology for agricultural and horticultural

development with modern scientific knowledge.

● To create employment opportunities for skilled and unskilled person especially

unemployed youth.

The Scheme covers drip and sprinkler irrigation. However, sprinkler irrigation is

applicable only for those crops where drip irrigation is uneconomical. It is applicable on all

crops – horticultural & agricultural.

Under the Mission, out of the total cost of MI System, 40% is borne by the Central

Government, 10% by State Government and remaining 50% by the beneficiary, either

through his/her own resources or soft loan from financial institutions in the case of general

category. However, for small & marginal farmers assistance is available @ 60% of the cost

and remaining 40% to be borne by the beneficiary in the ratio of 50:10:40 between Central,

State Governments and the beneficiary farmer.

Any beneficiary who holds land in his/her own name or lease land for a period of 10

years (the projected life of the system) for cultivation of crops and has a water source of

his/her own or shared is eligible to apply for the assistance under the scheme.

Farmers who have already availed the benefit of subsidy can apply again after 10 years

which is considered as projected life of the system.

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Assistance is limited to a maximum area of 5 ha per beneficiary. In addition to the 10%

state contribution, many states are contributing 10 to 30% more to raise the total benefit for

the farmer upto as high as 90%.

At least 33% of the allocation is to be utilized for small, marginal and women farmers.

The allocation to SC/ST farmers is generally in proportion to the population in the district.

The assistance for demonstrations is to be taken up in farms belonging to State/Central

Governments, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and ICAR Institutions, progressive

farmers and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) /Trusts on their own land limited

to @ 75% of the cost for a maximum area of 0.5 ha per beneficiary, which is entirely met by

the Central Government.

The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are involved in selecting the beneficiaries.

There is a strong HRD input for farmers, field functionaries and other stake holders at

different levels. Besides, there is a provision for publicity campaigns, seminars/workshops

to develop skills and improve awareness among farmers about importance of water

conservation and management.

The Precision Farming Development Centre (PFDC) located in the state provides

research and technical support for implementing the scheme.

Supply of good quality system, both for drip and sprinkler irrigation having BIS marking,

proper after sales services to the satisfaction of the farmer is another important feature of

the scheme.

The Scheme is implemented by agencies designated by the state which is called

Implementing Agency (IA) to whom funds are released directly on the basis of approved

annual action plan for each year.

At the national level, National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture

(NCPAH) is the nodal agency for coordination with states and monitoring the scheme

which also provides inputs for developing suitable policy measures for effective

implementation of NMMI in the country. NCPAH is also responsible for providing technical

support at the Central and State levels.

National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture

(NCPAH)

The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India is the nodal Ministry for promotion of

Plasticulture Applications and Precision Farming in the country. The development

programmes form a part of many of the Centrally Sponsored Schemes which are

implemented through the respective state departments.

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The National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH) in

the Ministry of Agriculture has the mandate to promote and develop the use of plastics in

agriculture, horticulture, water management areas. The Committee during its tenure covering

over 3 decades has submitted several reports and documents to the Government of India,

which have paved the way for plasticulture development in the country. On the

recommendation of NCPAH, the Government introduced assistance to farmers for adoption

of plasticulture applications, which have initial high capital cost. NCPAH assists the Ministry

in deciding Guidelines for scheme implementation; help prepare technical specifications,

cost norms and provide inputs as and when required for fine tunning the schemes. It also

monitors plasticulture development in the country.

Based on NCPAH recommendation, the Government established 22 Precision Farming

Development Centres (PFDCs) all over the country to undertake research and extension

activities for promotion of plasticulture applications.

NCPAH was originally constituted as National Committee on use of Plastics in

Agriculture (NCPA) in the Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals in the year 1981.

It has been functioning in the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of

Agriculture since 1993. Considering the importance of precision farming & plasticulture

applications, NCPAH has been reconstituted at periodic intervals by the Government.

The Union Agriculture Minister, Govt. of India is the Chairman of NCPAH with

Minister of State for Agriculture, GoI as its Vice-Chairman. The members of NCPAH

includes Secretaries of Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC), Chemicals &

Petrochemicals, Water Resources, Panchayati Raj, Secretary (DARE), DG (ICAR),

representatives from State Governments, NABARD, BIS, Vice-Chancellors of Agricultural

Universities, Representatives from Hi-tech horticulture Industry, Farmers’ Association. The

Horticulture Commissioner is the Member Secretary of NCPAH.

At the Central level, NCPAH coordinate promotion of Plasticulture for improving

productivity and quality of produce. It recommends suitable policy measures for promotion

of plasticulture in the country. It facilitates increased adoption of various plasticulture

applications like drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, protected cultivation, community

tanks, post-harvest management etc. through various activities. It facilitates in promotion

of Research and Development through PFDCs and build data base on plasticulture. It

helps BIS in development of quality standards for products used in plasticulture and is

represented on various BIS Committees. NCPAH ensures proper adoption of Indian

standards at the field level through feedback on manufactures of plastic products to state

implementing agencies etc. It suggests ways and means for effective implementation of

Centrally Sponsored Schemes on Micro-irrigation having integration with NHM, HMNEHS,

RKVY etc. in relation to plasticulture components in these schemes. It also supervises and

monitors effectively the performance of Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs)

in particular; and overall development of plasticulture and Precision Farming in the country.

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Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs)

On the recommendation of NCPAH, the Government established 22 Precision Farming

Development Centres (PFDCs) all over the country to develop research data on plasticulture

applications, provide technical inputs to state governments for implementation of Centrally

Sponsored Schemes, and conduct extension activities for promotion of plasticulture

applications. The PFDCs are located in State Agricultural Universities, ICAR Centres,

IARI, New Delhi and IIT, Kharagpur. The 1st

PFDC came up in 1985 and subsequently

17 PFDCs were established till 2003. During 2008-09, the Government decided to add

5 New PFDCs in the states where earlier there were no PFDCs. Presently 22 PFDCs are

operating in the country. The PFDCs are funded under National Horticulture Mission

(NHM) and work in close coordination with the state implementing agencies.

After establishment, Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) started, for the

1st

time in the country, systematic research on different plasticulture technologies including

micro irrigation, protected cultivation, nursery raising, mulching, plant propagation, water

harvesting, storage and packaging for enhancing shelf life and quality. It was important to

investigate the benefits of these technologies to convince the farmers for its adaptation.

Initial research included the comparisons of drip irrigation and poly-house technologies

with conventional system of farming in terms of water saving and yield enhancements.

After establishing the superiority of micro irrigation systems and poly houses, the focus of

research shifted to estimation of water requirements, modification of crop geometry and

use of mulches in drip irrigated field for realizing the potential benefits of the systems.

Interaction and collaboration with micro irrigation industry for technological support for

system improvements is also one of the important engagements of PFDCs.

With passing time i.e. in nineties, the emphasis emerged on precision farming, including

use and application of software and more efficient instrument in agriculture besides the

canopy management, meadow orchard, rejuvenation of senile orchard, shade nets, low

tunnels, use of simulation and modeling of moisture and nutrient movement under improved

micro irrigation system including automated system and subsurface drip system and use of

saline and domestic waste water in vegetables through micro irrigation systems.

During the year 2005, Government of India launched National Horticultural Mission

and Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Micro Irrigation to promote horticulture development

with efficient use of inputs, especially in the area of water management. PFDCs are involved

in the Mission activities including the development and monitoring of horticultural

development activities in their respective regions, especially plasticulture related activities.

PFDCs are also serving as the technology hub for the capacity building of stake holders,

information dissemination, and technological support to State Governments and end users.

Thus, of late, PFDCs are working in close collaboration with State Government agencies for

popularizing of precision farming technologies among farmers.

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The Technologies Developed by Different PFDCs are as under:

● Designs of micro irrigation system under different, soil, crop and agro-climatic

conditions developed for important crops on the basis of research trials on crop water

requirement, crop geometry and drip design parameters.

● Protected cultivation technologies developed including standardization of structural

design, cladding material on the basis of selection of crops and cropping schedule,

selection of artificial media, water requirement of crops, environment control and benefit

cost analysis.

● Mulching technology developed including standardization of film thickness and colour,

procedure for installation of mulches, machine for mulch installation, for yield

enhancement, water saving and weed control.

● Low tunnels designs were developed including structural designs, selection of crops

and cladding material.

● Development of crop protection technologies including rain shelter, hail net, bird net

and shade nets appropriate for different agro climatic situations.

● Water harvesting technology developed including size of pond, cost of earth work,

lining cost including cost of pond for storage of canal and rain water and its use through

micro irrigation system.

● Standardization of disease free nursery raising using plastic plug trays and soil less

media consisting coco peat, vermiculite and perlite.

● Standardization of plant propagation techniques for development of healthy planting

material.

● Technology developed for high density planting of orchard, canopy management,

meadow orchard, rejuvenation of senile orchards for productivity enhancement with

saving of inputs.

● Technologies developed for packaging, transport and storage of perishable farm produce

for enhancing shelf life and value addition for higher profitability.

● Developed softwares and decision support systems for design of fertigation and irrigation

system for enhancing water and fertilizer use efficiency.

● Dissemination and demonstration of proven technologies to farmers and stake- holders

through capacity building of farmers, literature development in popular language,

television and radio media, technology demonstration, technology display and

information Centre.

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