Regional Development Planning · PDF filePhilosophy of Regional Planning, 1928 6. Thomas Adams and Lewis Mumford debated the multi-volume Regional Plan of New York, 1928-1932 7

REGIONAL PLANNING

AND DEVELOPMENT

EnP. Angelica N. Francisco

April 3, 2016

CHE Multi Purpose Hall

Short Course on Environmental Planning

DCERP & HUMEIN Phils. Inc.

• Region refers to a city or central place plus the outlying territories that are functionally integrated with it.

• Region is based on natural/physical as well as economic/political relationships between urban areas and its surrounding rural territories

• Economic linkages– Extent of urban influence on nonurban

– areas. e.g. journeys to work

– Extent of urban dependence on non-urban territories for food, water and labor supplies, etc.

– Production and consumption functions: Industries, commerce, trade

• Infrastructure linkages– Major Transport nodes

– Utility trunks – water purification plants, power supply

– Areas performing sink-functions of city, e.g. landfill, MRF, STP

What is a Region?



• Functional Region – geographical area which displays a certain functional coherence, an interdependence of parts, defined on the basis of certain criteria;– Economic Region – bound by economic linkages, interflows of factors and materials, inputs-and outputs. Economic

Regions are often carved out by Trans-National Corporations and other agents of Globalization by their interlinking of industrial clusters, districts, zones and ports.

• Region as Space Economy. Traditional Industrial Districts, Clusters, Ecozones,

– Natural Region – a geographic area of interdependent ecosystems and natural communities (this will be discussed in subsequent sessions under Ecosystem-Based Planning)

• Formal Region – geographical area which is uniform and homogeneous in terms of related criteria; variability is absent; Used generally for analytic purposes– Political-Administrative Regions defined by common political authority, administrative boundaries (national, state,

local) or electoral constituency.

– Urban Region -- region encompassing large cities/towns as well as commuter villages/communities economically and socially linked to them or dependent upon them. Urban regions are erroneously treated as homogeneous rather than as physical and socio-cultural mosaic/collage/palimpsest or as a heterogenous “ecosystem”

• Historic Region – area bound together by a common historical past

3

Region in Real Space



• Natural Region – area defined by the interdependence and connectedness of natural units and habitats

• Bio-Region – based on interdependence and natural connectedness of life forms and species

• Eco-Region – based on interdependence and natural connectedness of ecosystems and their communities

4

Types of Region



May 3, 2015Short Course on Environmental Planning

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1. Early influences from the Garden City Movement (UK) and New Towns Movement (US)

2. The number of US cities with ‘municipal planning commissions’ grew from 100 to 500 between 1920 1930.

3. Regional Planning Association of America was founded in 1923-25 published “Survey” – a manifesto containing the concept of a region

members - architects, engineers, surveyors, sculptors, artists, sociologists (lawyers associate members only)

result - interdisciplinary approach to planning

4. Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 (UK) Concerned with the spatial impact of problems and the spatial coordination of many

different policies

Method of Planning – man assumes control over physical and human matter and processes it to serve his defined needs

History of Regional Planning Movement



5. Benton MacKaye published The New Exploration: A Philosophy of Regional Planning, 1928

6. Thomas Adams and Lewis Mumford debated the multi-volume Regional Plan of New York, 1928-1932

7. Regional Planning on counties, river basins, valleys, dams, rangeland, ancestral land -- Los Angeles County, 1922; Appalachian Trail, 1928; Tennessee Valley Authority 933; Grand Coulee Dam 1935; Colorado River- Hoover Dam 1936; St Lawrence Seaway, 1959; Delaware River 1961; Miami (Ohio) Valley 1970.

8. Regional Planning easily dovetailed with Transportation Planning (Penn-Jersey, 1954; Chicago-Detroit, 1954)

History of Regional Planning Movement



Garden City – Ebenezer Howard



• Garden City most potent planning model in Western urban planning

• Created by Ebenezer Howard in 1898 to solve urban and rural problems

• Founder of Garden City Movement

• Emphasizing self-contained communities surrounded by "greenbelts"



Core Garden City Principles:• Strong community• Ordered development• Environmental quality

These were achieved by:- Unified ownership of land to prevent individual land - Speculation and maximize community benefit- Careful planning to provide generous living and- Working space while maintaining natural qualities - Social mix and good community facilities- Limits to growth of each garden city- Local participation in decisions about development

Garden City – Ebenezer Howard



• Father of modern town planning / regional planning

• First to link sociological concepts into town planning

• “Survey before plan” i.e. diagnosis before treatment

• The sequence of planning is to be: (a) regional survey; (b) rural development; (c) town planning; and (d) city design

• These are to be kept constantly up to –date

Geddisian Triad – Patrick Geddes



• Conurbation – waves of population inflow to large cities followed by overcrowding and slum formation, and then the wave of backflow – the whole process resulting in amorphous sprawl, waste, and unnecessary obsolescence.

• A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns, and other urban areas that, through population growth and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban and industrially developed area.

Patrick Geddes – Planning Concepts:



• A tool for regional analysis, index-museum and the world’s first sociological laboratory

• It represents the essence of Geddes’ thought – his holism, visual thinking, and commitment to understanding the city in the region

Patrick Geddes – Outlook Tower:

• It concerns planning for a sub-national territory with known scale (size) and extent (scope), normally a contiguous area whose parts have common or complementary characteristics and are linked by intensive interaction or flows. The whole region is set apart from neighbouring territories by its distinctive economic and social characteristics, continuities and discontinuities, opportunities and problems, even though it may not have defined local authority structures and clear administrative boundaries.

• It is intermediate between national and urban levels and straddles the gap between national and grassroots levels.

What is Regional Planning?



• Region is always extended urban space – it has urban as well as rural components.

• Aspects of Regional Planning– Physical – planning an area’s physical structures: land use,

communications, utilities, etc. and has its origin in the regulation and control of town development (direct control), decentralization policies

– Economic – concerned with the economic structure of an area and its overall level of prosperity (works more through the market mechanism), growth poles, efficiency, how to attract investments, reduction of regional disparities (regional convergence)

– Social – migration of people, issues of equity, allocation, redistribution

– Cultural – ethnic identity, common history, homogeneity versus heterogeneity

– Environmental – connectedness of ecosystems, sustainability

What is Regional Planning?



• Decentralization policies

• Distribution of population

• Reduction of economic disparities among regions – versus economic polarization

• Inter-regional allocation or redistribution of resources (regional convergence)

• Institutional capacitation (e.g. reorganization of local governments)

• The problem of urban congestion is at a scale where the old categories of “urban, suburban and rural” no longer suffice. Hence “region” is a cross-cutting, more encompassing concept that treats cities in relation to its environs; this new approach also considers principles of ecological balance and resource renewal. Cities under this scheme would become subordinate to region; old cities and new towns alike grow as necessary parts of a region

Focus of Regional Planning



• Causes of Regional Imbalance– Geography & natural endowments: uneven distribution of harbors,

minerals, raw materials

– historical factors: invasion, colonization, etc.

– specific economic, political, technological, social, demographic conditions

– combination: in the beginning, external factors, later internal factors

• State policies and interventions have to temper if not rectify Regional Divergence rather than intensify it.

Regional Divergence -- Regions are

inherently unequal



Principles of Regional Planning



• Designate transportation corridors using hubs and spokes and consider major new infrastructure

• Some settlements in the region may be administrative in nature while others are based upon manufacturing or transport.

• Set regional level policy which encourages a mix of housing values and communities.

• Resist development in flood plains or along earthquake faults. These areas may be utilized as parks, or farmland.

• Designate greenbelt land or similar to resist settlement amalgamation and protect the environment.

• Consider designating essential nuisance land uses locations, including waste disposal.

• Consider building codes, zoning laws and policies that encourage the best use of the land.

Regional Planning as Networking



The new paradigm of Regional Planning since the 1990s:1. The real assets of a region are the actors within the region,

their resources and the specific regional culture of cooperation, communication and competition.

2. The core of spatial planning is no longer the elaboration of plans and programs. Regional development must promote the realization of planning goals by supporting the cooperation between different stakeholders, both from public administration and the private sector.

3. Planning and acting in networks is especially important at the regional level.

4. The role of space becomes different and planners need special knowledge (ex. international marketing)

Clarence Stein’s Six Principles of New Towns

(1920s, USA) – Earliest Regional Planning Efforts



1. Plan simply, but comprehensively

2. Provide ample sites in the right places for community use

3. Put factories and other industrial buildings where they can be used without wasteful transportation of people and goods

4. Cars must be parked and stored (not on the streets!)

5. Bring private and public land into relationship

6. Arrange for the occupancy of houses

The Neighborhood Unit - Clarence Perry (1929)



• The neighbourhood is the planning unit for a town

• Evolved due to the advent of industrial revolution and degradation of the city environment caused due to: (a) high congestion; (b) heavy traffic movement through the city; (c) insecurity to school going children; (d) distant location of shopping and recreation activities



• A satellite town or satellite city is a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to smaller metropolitan areas on the fringe of larger metropolis.

Characteristics:• Satellite cities are small or medium-sized cities near a large

metropolis • Predate that metropolis’ suburban expansion• Are at least partially independent from that metropolis

economically and socially• Are physically separated from the metropolis by rural territory;

satellite cities should have their own independent urbanized area, or equivalent

• Have their own bedroom communities• Have a traditional downtown surrounded by traditional inner city

neighborhoods

Satellite Towns

Ribbon Development



• Ribbon development means building houses along the routes of communication radiating from a human settlement

• Following the industrial revolution, ribbon development became prevalent along railway lines –predominantly in the UK, Russia and United States

• Ribbon development can also be compared with a linear village which is a village that grew along a transportation route, not as part of a city’s expansion

‘Growth Pole’ Theory by Francois Perroux



• “Growth does not appear everywhere and all at once; it manifests itself in points or ‘poles’ of growth, with variable intensities; it spreads by different channels with variable terminal effects for the economy as a whole.”

• Growth Pole –A spatial agglomeration of related industries which contains a growing number of propulsive firms, which, through their expansion, induce growth in the surrounding hinterland

• Propulsive firm/ industry -- dominant economic unit which when it grows or innovates, induces growth in the other economic units. It may be a firm, a cluster of firms within the same sector (i.e., an industry), or a collection of firms which have shared agreement (industrial estate).

• Characteristics of propulsive firms: large size; fast growth; strong linkages; innovative

– Direct and indirect dominating influence over all other activities

– Oligopolistic concentration of industry with price leadership and keen sense of anticipation in the moves of its own sector as well as related branches

Growth Center by Jacques R. Boudeville



• Transformed ‘Growth Pole’ into a specific place within a region that is heterogeneous, continuous, and not specialized.

• Growth Center (geographic space) is a propulsive urban center of a region possessing a complex of expanding industries where the agglomeration of activities induces growth in its surrounding hinterland. The growth center has growth rate of population or employment that is greater than that of total region.

• “Regional growth center” refers to “a set of expanding industries located in an urban area and inducing further development of economic activity throughout its zone of influence” with complex activities around propulsive center

• Growth Inducement Mechanisms: disturbances or changes are then spread over the whole region: Polarization, Agglomeration, Spread Effects

• Growth centers are often crafted onto “hierarchy of central places”– Central place functions = number of functions

– Nodal location = predominant flows

– Location on the development surface = level of development indifferent locations

– Population growth rate

Usefulness of Growth Pole / Growth Center



• Efficient way of generating development –owing to agglomeration economies

• Less public expenditures if investment areas are concentrated in specific growth points

• Spread effects out of the growth point will help solve the problems of depressed regions

• Transportation routes as channels of growth

• Useful to understand regional structures and designate regional centers, predict changes or prescribe solutions to certain regional problems

• Inspired the Philippine strategy of “concentrated decentralization” where alternative urban centers serve as counter magnets to the Primate City (NCR) which has caused “economic polarization”

‘Theory of Cumulative Causation’ (1957) by Gunnar Myrdal, Nobel Laureate



• Capitalism is characterized by income and welfare inequalities based on history

• In countries divided into regions, growth will not be the same. Disequilibrium in economy is due to market forces; Market forces create regional inequalities and widen those which already exist. Market forces, if left alone, tend to increase rather than decrease inequalities between regions

• Regions with expanding economic activity will attract net migration from other parts of the country, thus favoring the growth regions.

• Circular and cumulative causation– Change in some variables does not bring the system back to equilibrium = induces

supporting changes farther from the initial state

– A region or country becomes richer, the poor becomes poorer because of cumulative process where forces work in circular causation to reinforce development or underdevelopment.

– “The poor becomes poorer and the rich becomes richer.”

‘Theory of Cumulative Causation’ (1957) by Gunnar Myrdal, Nobel Laureate



• Trade operates with the same fundamental bias in favor of more progressive regions

• Government policy should be to counteract tendency of capitalist system to foster regional inequalities. Government needs to intervene to decrease imbalances wherever the normal market mechanisms proves inadequate.

• Linkage – input-output relationships among firms or among industries

• Forward linkage – outputs or sales from one intermediate firm/industry is maximally utilized by another firm/industry

• Backward linkage – factors of production or intermediary inputs from one firm/industry is maximally utilized by another firm/industry

Theory of Cumulative Causation



Gunnar Myrdal’s Theory of Cumulative Causation



John Friedmann’s ‘Center-Periphery Model’



• Friedmann went beyond notions of growth pole and growth center using center-periphery concept that goes beyond intersectoral distribution of resources.

• Economic growth would occur through a highly developed and interconnected functional hierarchy of cities and towns and such growth is proportional to the size of agglomeration. This hierarchy of cities is a means of integrating the periphery with the center.

• Regions are either “homogeneous” and “interdependent”. The latter are polarized regions.



• The periphery of a polarized region can be divided into four parts: upward transitional, downward transitional, resource frontier and special problem.– Upward transitional regions are areas which are growing

– with high growth potential but are capital constrained.

– Downward transitional regions are old rural (or industrial) economies in decline and where emigration is most evident.

– Resource frontiers are new settlement zones in which potentials for growth is large.

– Special problem regions are those needing policy interventions more than the other cited regions.

• This classification allows distinction of regions according to needed policy actions and that the treatment of regional problems are not taken in isolation but in consideration of the whole regional system.

John Friedmann’s ‘Center-Periphery Model’

Agropolis by John Friedman



• Connect urban area with its surrounding rural areas

• Selective Territorial Closure –trade among yourselves, basically self reliance, focus on domestic demand, not exports

• Basic Needs Approach

• “Agropolis” became a model for “Integrated Area Development” in regional planning.

‘Central Place Theory’ by Walter Christaller

• Central Place is a village/town/city that is engaged in settlement-forming trade and provides a common location for the local exchange of goods and services

• ‘Hinterland’ is the surrounding area or Market Area being served by a central place; it is a large tributary

• There is clustering of human population around Central Places through time until a Hierarchy of Settlements appears that corresponds to the market’s need for low-level to high-level services.

• The larger the settlements, the fewer their number. The larger a settlement, the farther away a similar size settlement is.

• The range of market increases as the population increases

• The larger the settlement, the higher the order of its services. Deviations to this rule are: Tourist resorts that have a small population but large number of

functions. Dormitory towns that have a large population but a small

number of functions



Central Place Theory (The Urban Hierarchy Model)

1) Cities of the same order have similar economiccharacteristics and population sizes.

2) Higher order cities have all the services of a lower order city, plus functions that they export to lower order cities.

3) Smaller cities have smaller hinterlands and are closer together.

4) Central places of the same order will be equally spaced across the regional/national landscape.

5) Commodities generally do not flow up the hierarchy.

Big PointA useful, but not perfect model that underscores the importance of recognizing the local city’s role in a regional economy.



1) Producers are willing to travel up to point ‘a’, to purchase from the other producers

2) With improved transport and communication, consumers willing to travel further to ‘b’

3) Market areas overlap:

4) Systematic pattern of central places is evenly spaced and surrounded by hexagonally shaped market areas

5) Service activities range from “low order” services found in every center to “higher order” services found only in major cities.



Central Place Theory (The Urban Hierarchy Model)

Scalogram as a Measure of Centrality

A Scalogram Matrix is used to arrange the different types of facilities and services and rank them by their level of ubiquity and functional complexity.

The scalogram can also be used as a general reference in making decisions about locating services and facilities in order to increase potential access for communities within various levels of the hierarchy.

Usefulness of Central Place Theory

• Theory stresses relevance of market area to the size of a town’s population

• Theory highlights the importance of situation rather than site conditions

• Theory introduces urban hierarchy, helps understand the emergence of an integrated hierarchy of cities of different functions and sizes.

• Theory served as basis for administering urban regions and for allocating resources (for investment decisions)

• Provides framework for understanding regional spatial structure



Limits of Central Place Theory

• CPT assumes urban settlements are located on an isotropic or uniform plain and keeps terrain, soils, other environmental factors as uniform; theory ignores variable topography.

• Production inputs are present everywhere (‘ubiquitous’) at the same price static. A steady-state economy free of government or social classes.

• Transportation is universally available, assumes uniform transportation costs in all directions

• Theory assumes uniform distribution of population, uniform per capita demand, and evenly-distributed purchasing power. Population is equated with demand. Not necessarily so.

• Linear concept of market : from a single-good economy to a multiple-goods economy with different-order goods

38Short Course on Environmental Planning


• Producers always optimize (maximize profits) while consumers minimize costs.

• Consumers expected to patronize nearest centers from their locations. No shopping externalities (no complementary goods and imperfect substitutes)

• Theory does not consider local specialization wherein places produce goods and services for other areas;

• Real-world deviations: Historical circumstances Government interference Social stratification Income differences Topographical variationsShort Course on Environmental Planning


Limits of Central Place Theory

Urban Bid-Rent Theory William

Alonso (1964)



• Each activity derives utility from every site of the urban area;

• Utility is measured by the ‘rent’ an activity is willing to pay for the use;

• Among the different rents from the utility of the site, the maximum one

will determine the market value.

• People would trade-off land and amenities for accessibility; this would

explain where people work and where they live.

• Land value is maximum at the city center and decreases when

moving to peripheries;

• Rent diminishes outward from the center to offset both expected

lower revenues, higher operating costs, and higher transport costs

• Gradient is determined by rent and influenced by location and

corresponds to density (distance to market)


Alonso (1964)



• Rent gradient would emerge, consisting of a series of bid rent curves; Different land uses would have different rent gradients, the rent with the highest gradient would prevail;

• A change of land use could be expected to take place through the price mechanism when one gradient falls below another


Alonso (1964)

• Land that is more accessible to the center has a higher value.

• Land rents decline farther away from an employment or transport center.

• As a firm moves closer to the CBD, transport costs fall which increases the amount a firm is willing to pay for land.

• Taller buildings are built on higher-valued land leading to the formation of ‘Central Business District’

• Firm substitutes capital for land enabling it to produce the same output on less land, or in other words, more output per unit of land.

• Higher land prices lead profit maximizing firms to substitute other factors of production for land.



Critique Urban Bid-Rent Theory

Critique:

• Urban Bid-rent Theory states that commercial space (retail, offices) needs to get close to the population but as diseconomies of urbanization ensue (congestion, traffic, etc), manufacturing firms move away from the urban center.

• When populations also move away from the urban center as in the processes of ‘suburbanization’ and the growth of multiple nodes, the value of urban land at the core also decreases.

• Thus, Urban Bid-Rent Theory only applies to monocentric cities with strong urban cores and CBDs – Example: Melbourne, Zurich, Stockholm, Copenhagen



Assumptions:• City is mono-centric with a single nucleus• There is perfect competition and level

playing field; there are many identical price-taking firms which are earning zero economic profits in equilibrium

• Land is sold to the highest bidder.• All land is identical, except for transport

nodes which have higher accessibility.

World Bank’s Model of Regional Planning in

World Development Report 2009 Framework



Spatial data to understand region conditions

• Compile information:

– Sub-national / geo-referenced data to measure poverty, incomes, employment, industrial composition

– Census or household data to measure labor migration

– Inter regional trade data to measure production linkages

• Generate Stylized Facts:

– How large and persistent are “distances” across regions?

– Measuring and mapping poverty Measuring geographic inequalities (Consumption , Production, Natural endowments)



Identify barriers to connectivity:

– Identify why geographic differences in economic and social indicators persist?• Barriers to labor mobility

• Inflexible land use and property rights

• High transport costs

– Measure economic and social costs• Limited access to public services

• Loss of scale and specialization in production





Identify priorities for territorial integration

• Identify activities that generate the highest economic and social payoffs regionally as well as nationally

– Calculate costs and benefits of investments across regions and sectors

– Rank order options based on expected payoffs





• Policies leading industrial development in lagging regions may involve trade-offs

– For manufacturing based growth accelerators

• economies of scale will matter a lot

– As industrial clusters are in formation:

• it is important not to counter them

– Export-led growth is made between cities; and regions close to export markets





• In areas with rich natural and economic geographies –countries should emphasize durable investments that accelerate national economic growth– Tilt investments to increase productivity of firms

– Transport and telecommunications

• In areas with poor natural and economic geographies –countries should emphasize portable investments that accelerate poverty reduction and stimulate labor mobility.– Tilt investments to improve living standards of families.

– social services -- basic education, health, water and sanitation





• No single best policy option that could maximize both economic growth and poverty reduction simultaneously, but…

• Governments could improve its chances of improving on both fronts (growth/poverty reduction) by:– Concentrating core transport infrastructure investments in urban

centers with high economic potential, and

– Evenly distributing public education spending to improve human capital across all LGUs.





Three sets of instruments to connect lagging and leading areas:

• Institutions– Spatially universal: health, education, rural access, water,

property rights -- use/ transfer, income tax policies, portable pensions

• Infrastructure– Spatially connective: inter-regional transport, logistics,

information and communication technologies

• Incentives− Spatially targeted: incentives, tax holidays, technology

transfer/ innovation, clusters, EPZs, SEZs



Thank you for listening!



Documents

Regional Development Planning · PDF filePhilosophy of Regional Planning, 1928 6. Thomas Adams and Lewis Mumford debated the multi-volume Regional Plan of New York, 1928-1932 7