reflection in action teaching strategies.pdf

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Networks: Vol. 14, Issue 2 Fall 2012

Giaimo-Ballard & Hyatt 1

Reflection-in-Action Teaching Strategies Used by Facultyto Enhance Teaching and Learning

Dr. Cindy Giaimo-Ballard and Dr. L. Hyatt

College of Education and Organizational Leadership at the University of La Verne

Abstract

Scholars have suggested that reflective strategies are vital to teaching and learning (Brookfield,

1998; Dewey, 1964; Rogers, 2001; Schn, 1983, 1987; Zeichner, 1996). Additionally, accreditinginstitutions recognize the importance of reflective practice and include the requirement in theirstandards. However, little direction is given to faculty regarding reflective methods and processes,and it is unclear how faculty members apply the process of reflection. To elucidate these processes,this study explored the phenomenon of reflection-in-action regarding teaching from theperspectives of faculty from institutions accredited by the National Council for Accreditation ofTeacher Education (NCATE), using Schns (1983, 1987) concept of reflection-in-action as theconceptual framework and interviewing as the primary method of data collection. Analysis of thedata allowed for determination that the participants practiced the reflective teaching strategies of(a) note taking, (b) requesting feedback, (c) setting up checkpoints, and (d) adjusting to improvepractices while performing observation in practice. Participants also noted that partaking in the

NCATE accreditation process encouraged reflective strategies for the improvement of teaching andlearning.

Introduction

Scholars have identified the practice ofreflection as a critical skill for all educators andhave noted the importance of reflectiveteaching strategies for instruction and learning(Brookfield, 1998; Drevdahl, Stackman, Purdy,& Louie, 2002; Risko, Roskos, & Vukelich,

2002; Rogers, 2001; Scanlan, Care, & Udod,2002; Schn, 1983, 1987; Sparks-Langer,Simmons, Pasch, Colton, & Starko, 1990; Ward& McCotter, 2006). According to Dewey(1964), reflection is an important tool forteaching because it enables us to know whatwe are about when we act (p. 211). Expandingon Deweys work, Schn proposed his theory ofreflective practice, which describes reflection asa skill that validates the knowledge gained from

practitioner practices (York-Barr, Sommers,Ghere, & Montie, 2006), and identified twotypes of reflection: reflection-in-action andreflection-on-action.

Additionally, accrediting bodies identifyreflection as a necessary skill. For example,NCATE includes reflective thought in four of its

six standards as an ideal method to improveteaching practices. Central to NCATEs missionis accountability and improvement throughmeeting standards. Institutions thatsuccessfully meet the requirements of all sixstandards earn full accreditation. For us, theimportance of reflection became more focusedas our college was undergoing the NCATEaccreditation process. We saw this as anopportunity to learn from other professors who


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have experienced the NCATE accreditationprocess and successfully earned their fullaccreditation. Because NCATE -accreditedinstitutions are held to a high standard relatedto reflection, discovering how faculty fromNCATE-accredited institutions approachreflective thought provides insights into

practices that enhance teaching and learning.This study focused on examining in-actionreflective teaching strategies based on Schns(1983) conception of reflection-in-action as apractice that suggests not only that we canthink about doing, but we can think aboutdoing something while doing it (p. 54). Byexamining these strategies, this study providesinsight into practices that enhance teachingand learning and adds to the literatureregarding faculty and reflection.

Background

Dewey (1933) described reflection as anactive, persistent, and careful consideration ofany belief or supposed form of knowledge inthe light of the grounds that support it andfurther conclusions to which it tends (p. 9)that allows individuals to think critically andscientifically. Schns (1983, 1987) perspectiveson reflective practice have become the mostwidely adopted theoretical views of reflection

in education since Dewey (Crain, 2005).According to Schn (1987), practitionersexhibit a kind of knowing-in-practice, most ofwhich is tacit (p. 30) and engage in reflection-in-action when they reflect during anexperience and make changes during an action.Specifically, when engaging in reflection-in-action, practitioners stop in the midst of action,make necessary adjustments, and, if necessary,alter their methods to improve their practice(Schn, 1983). Schn (1987) further explained,

What distinguished reflection-in-action fromother kinds of reflection is its immediatesignificance for action (p. 29).

It is well documented that reflective teachingstrategies are important for instruction andlearning (e.g., Brookfield, 1998; Drevdahl et al.,2002; Rogers, 2001; Schn, 1983, 1987). Manytheorists agree that as reflection enhances thequality and depth of knowledge (e.g., Cunliffe,

2004; Koster, Brekelmans, Korthagen &Wubbles, 2005; Mezirow, 1981; Moon, 1999),quality teaching results from a process bywhich educators experiment, inquire, reflect,and consistently compare their teachingbehaviors with their espoused theory of action(Dewey, 1933, 1938; Schn, 1983, 1987).

According to Schns approach, The process isreflexive in that the more one reflects on themismatch between espoused theory andtheory-in-use, the more information one hasfor reflective analysis, allowing one to improveones quality of reflection (Torbert, 2009, p.3).

In their research, Wubbles and Korthagen(1990) found that (a) the quality ofrelationships between students and faculty wasenhanced by reflection, (b) relationships were

more positive and constructive for faculty withhigher levels of reflective thinking, and (c)reflection assists in achieving quality learning.In a similar study, Watts and Coleman (n.d.)indicated the important role of reflection andthe positive influence that reflection can have,in terms of, the process of good qualitylearning (p. 8). Zeichner (2007) noted thatwhen educators reflect, they are able to makeimprovements in the quality of instruction.These and similar findings led Ostorga (2006)

to conclude that because reflection informsteaching practices, strategies that aim toenhance reflective skills should be developedand implemented.

Furthermore, national accrediting bodies, suchas the NCATE, certification bodies, such as theNational Board for Professional TeachingStandards (NBPTS), and recognitionorganizations, such as the Council for HigherEducation Accreditation (CHEA), all advocatefor reflective thought on teaching as a valuable

practice for the professoriate and futureeducators. Even though much of the literatureaddresses the importance of reflectivestrategies, little of the literature providesfaculty with direction regarding the applicationof reflective methods and processes, and fewstudies have examined the extent to whicheducators apply the process of reflection. Toaddress these research gaps, this study aimedto identify and examine the in-action


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reflective teaching strategies used by faculty,from NCATE- accredited institutions, toenhance teaching and learning by addressingthe following two research questions:

1. What key reflective teaching strategiesare used by faculty to practice reflection-in-action?

2. How do these strategies correspond toSchns concept of reflection-in-action?

Methods

Research design

To conduct an in-depth exploration of thecentral phenomenonreflection-in-actiontheresearchers used a qualitative research design,an approach that has been demonstratedeffective in collecting data regarding individualperspectives and experiences with aphenomenon (Creswell, 2005; Heppner,Wampold, & Kivlighan, 2008). Specifically, aqualitative interview was designed. Someinterviews were conducted face to face due togeographical location and some wereconducted by telephone. The interviews weredesigned to take no longer than 60 minutes,however, the exact time of the interviews variedfrom one participant to another.

Participants

In qualitative research, to achieve a betterunderstanding of the central phenomenon,researchers intentionally select particularparticipants and sites (Creswell, 2005; Park,2008). The participants were purposefullyselected because they have experience with thecentral phenomenon. Criterion-based samplingis a strategy used in purposeful sampling.Within this strategy, participants are identifiedbecause they meet specific criteria (Park,

2008). Fifteen participants for this researchstudy were selected because they hadexperience with the phenomenon beingexplored and they were all full-time facultymembers working in NCATE-accrediteduniversities.

The criteria for selection included thatparticipants:

1. Taught in a higher education departmentfor at least three years.

2. Currently teach in an NCATE-accreditedinstitution.

3. Have experienced the NCATE accredit-ation process.

Maximum variation was used as a samplingstrategy. Within this technique, participantswere selected because they differ on somecharacteristic or trait (Creswell, 2005).Regarding maximum variation, Patton (2005)explained, Common patterns that emergefrom great variation are of particular interestand value in capturing the core experiences andcentral, shared dimensions of a setting orphenomenon! (p. 235). Patton further statedthat when common patterns and themesemerge from great variation, the data thenbecome of particular interest in describing thecore experiences and shared dimensions of thephenomenon. Particular to this study, varieddifferences included gender, time teaching inan NCATE-accredited institution, geographicdistribution, and institution type (private-nonprofit or public). In exploring facultysreflection-in-action teaching strategies fromuniversities across the United States, it is morelikely that multifaceted perspectives were

represented (Creswell, 2005).

Data collection

After the study received approval from theInstitutional Review Board, participants weresent a letter stating the purpose of the study,the parameters of the study, and thatparticipation is voluntary. The letter assuredparticipants that their names would be keptconfidential and they would be assignedpseudonyms.

Interviews, consisting of semi-structuredquestions, were the primary method of datacollection. This approach allowed theparticipants to ask for clarification and theresearchers to provide it when necessary.

The interview questions were provided to theparticipants prior to the interview after theysigned a consent form. The primary researcherbegan each interview with a discussion


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explaining that participation was voluntary andthat the participant may opt out at any time.The purpose of the study was restated andpermission to tape record each session wasrequested. After permission was granted, theinterviews were conducted. To ensure theaccuracy (reliability) of the subsequent

transcription of data, the participants wereasked to review and verify the transcripts of theinterviews. `

Data analysis

After transcription of the data, analysis of thedata began with the researchers performing theprocesses of bracketing and coding in order toidentify themes. During the bracketing phaseof a study, key statements that relate directly tothe phenomenon are identified (Patton, 2005).

The key statements are interpreted and thenexamined for what they reveal about therecurring characteristics of the phenomenon.When bracketing was completed, the data wereaggregated according to the themes that hademerged.

To ensure interrater reliability, the primaryresearcher trained a second rater in the codingprocess for independent analysis of the data.Interrater reliability was established todetermine the consistency of interpretations of

the data. After the second rater independentlycoded one of the transcriptions, the primaryresearcher and the second rater met to assessand clarify the process of analysis.

After data had been analyzed, the primaryresearcher and the second rater met to discusstheir findings and came to a consensusregarding the themes. The criteria by which atheme was categorized as a major theme were:

Repetitions appeared in and among

participants transcripts.

The repetitions were identified by at least60% of the participants.

Results

Findings for research question 1: Whatkey reflective teaching strategies areused by faculty for practicingreflection-in-action?

The four themes (reflective teaching strategies)

that emerged from the analysis of the data were(a) note taking, (b) requesting feedback, (c)setting up checkpoints, and (d) adjusting toimprove practices. Figure 1 shows the fourreflection-in-action strategies and thecorresponding percentage of participants whoidentified each.

Figure 1.

Reflection-in-action strategies and percentageof faculty that identified each

Note taking60%

Requesting feedback87%

Setting up checkpoints73%

Adjusting to improve practices100%

The following data, using pseudonyms, wereextracted from the interviews.

Note taking

The participants described note taking duringaction, a theme identified by 60% of theparticipants, as a means by which to develop acollection of ideas and examples from whichthey could later draw:

I always take notes . . . sometimes duringclass. I also take notes during conferences

and while reading professional literature.(Grace)

Several participants described the strategy ofnote taking as a tool for reflecting-in-actionthat assists them in fulfilling the goal of futureplanning:

I spend some time looking at my notes. . . . Iam always building my course for nextsemester. I always have a file open and


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make notes about the current syllabus andhow I can change it. (Keith)

When an idea occurs I write it down asquickly as possible and play with it a bit.(Ian)

The strategy of taking notes is not novel;

however, what was revealed during theinterviews was that faculty felt compelled toanalyze their own work. It was evident that theparticipants had an inquiry-oriented attitude asthey used the strategy of taking notes to assesstheir teaching practices and to make futureimprovements in their work. Schn (1995)demonstrated the process of inquiry with aquote from Dewey (1938), who observed thatan ongoing inquiry process institutes new conditions that occasion new problems (p. 2).

The process that Schn (1995) and Dewey(1938) referred to provides opportunities foreducators to reflect on situations while devisingthe latest strategies for future improvements.

Requesting feedback

The participants described requestingfeedback, a theme identified by 87% of theparticipants, as a reflection-in-action strategy.Several participants described receivingfeedback in both verbal and written forms from

their students:During class sessions I receive feedbackfrom students. . . . I realize that I may needto reflect. I may have to change theapproach. For example, I may have to givethe students a break, get them involved in arole-play or start a dialogue about the topic.(Grace)

I reflect when students are engaged inscenarios . . . and conversations.

(Francesca)I realized I needed to back up a couple ofsteps during the class. Students wereresisting and not understanding. . . . Ireflected on their conversations and actionsand realized that I needed to slow down.(Kathy)

One participant described eliciting commentsfrom his colleagues:

We [faculty] mentor one another throughobservations and solicit feedback.(Anthony)

One component of using feedback is thestrategy of asking questions and applying theresponses to engage in improvement andfurther reflection. This practice aligns with aconstructivist view of teaching (Piaget, 1972;Vygotsky, 1962), which emphasizes engagingthe learner in the process. When teachers use aconstructivist approach, they involve studentsin experiences rather than simply transmittingknowledge to them. When the participantsdescribed asking their students questionsabout course content or teaching strategies,they were describing a means by which theyactively engaged their students in their ownlearning, after which they collected student

feedback to determine the appropriate nextsteps. Lucien described how he practicesSchns (1987) concept of reciprocal reflection-in-action with student teachers:

When I am working with a student teacher and,possibly, Im complimenting her teaching skillsand she is taking it in a negative manner . . . Ireflect on how to say things to her. I want tomake sure she understands. I check forunderstanding and then possibly see if there issomething else going on with her that I mayneed to address.

In this example of reciprocal reflection-in-action, the participant reflects on what thestudent teacher reveals regarding knowledge ordifficulty to determine the most usefulfeedback. Furthermore, by soliciting questionsfor feedback, the participants are able toquestion and challenge their existingparadigms. This process leads to double-loopreflection (or double-loop learning), which

Schn (1987) described as an importantprocess of reflection involving a higher level ofcognition that can lead to a shift in the way thatstrategies are framed and eventuallyimplemented. When double-loop learningoccurs, the person critically examines theunderlying value or message and makes achange in his or her action and in thegoverning variable (Schn, 1987). Therefore,the action and the variable have changed. For


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example, when Lucien was engaged with thestudent during discourse, he began to questionhis approach to determine the best way toassist the student resulting in a change ofaction. If he made a change of action, only thendid single-loop learning occur. If Lucienchanged his action and the underlying variable

behind the action, then double-loop learningtranspired.

Setting up checkpoints

The participants described setting upcheckpoints, a theme identified by 73% of theparticipants, as a means of establishing asystematic series of checkpoints within theirreflective strategies. For example, Elizabethdescribed engaging in frequent progressmonitoring while engaging with her students,

while several other participants describedusing student responses to inform theirreflection-in-action. Their practices reflectSchns (1983) concept that reflection-in-action suggests not only that we can thinkabout doing, but we can think about doingsomething while doing it (p. 54). Severalparticipants described reflective processes thatincluded engaging in purposeful inquiry duringpractice:

As you are going through the materials you

are not quite sure if students are graspingwhat they need to. I set up quick breakoutsduring class, and a concluding activity so Ican see if they actually grasped theconcepts. (Brianne)

Using some kind of a systematic process check(such as setting up check points) for reflectionchanges reflection from a haphazardoccurrence to an intentional strategy. Intentionalacts originate from careful thought and are

accompanied by consideration of their potentialeffects (Epstein, 2007, p. 4). It seemed that when

participants were intentional in setting up situationsthat addressed students understandings, they had a

goal in mind. The participants responses illustrateda need to be intentional about their reflective

practice and an awareness of the value of solicitingcomments from students. It was apparent to us that

the participants followed Vygotskys theory ofsocial constructivism. Vygotsky, a socialconstructivist, believed that cognitive

development is enhanced through socialinteractions with a more advanced peer or aneducator (Berk & Winsler, 1995; Crain, 2005;Thomas, 2005), similar to the participantsrecollections of their interactions withstudents. For instance, they intentionally posedquestions to elicit inquiry from their students.

Their questions and/or the students feedbackled them to further questioning, reflection, andsolutions. This process promoted curiosity,joint problem solving, and reflection on theperspectives of others (Berk & Winsler, 1995).Most importantly, through conversation, thequality of relationships are enhanced whenfaculty offer students the opportunity forreflective thought (Wubbles & Korthagen,1990).

Adjusting to improve practice

The participants described the practice ofimproving practice, a theme identified by 100%of the participants, as a means of analyzingtheir teaching approaches to determine theeffectiveness of their strategies. Severaldescribed the means by which they apply thispractice:

When I am teaching . . . if students . . . lookuninterested this is a clue that I need tochange things. (Grace)

I am always thinking about ways toimprove. I am always thinking about whatwould make this better. (Ian).

Contemplating the consequences of youractions . . . and using the contemplation

in thinking about how to change what youplanned to do. (Catarina)

Reflection helps me to do self-evaluations. Ihave always tried to make sure that I am

self-improving. (Francesca)

This finding was consistent with the literature,as scholars have noted that one goal ofreflective practice is to help practitionersimprove their teaching (e.g., Killion, et al.,1991; Rogers, 2001; Schn, 1983, 1987;Zeichner, 2007). The idea of improvementfurther connects to Schns (1983) thinking. Hedeclared that when reflecting-in-action, the


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goal of the reflection should be improvedpedagogy.

In addition, this finding resonated with theNCATE standards, which depict reflection as anecessary tool for educators to use to improvetheir practice. NCATE (2008) recommendsthat educators should monitor and refine theirwork with continuous in-depth reflection forthe purpose of improvement.

Findings for research question 2: Howdo these strategies correspond to

Schns concept of reflection-in-action?

Analysis of the data regarding the secondresearch question led to identification of thetwo themes of (a) observation in practice,which 100% of the participants described, and(b) inquiry during practice, which 73% of the

participants described. The following sectionspresent information and conclusions related tothese themes.

Observation in practice

The participants descriptions of their reflectiveprocesses during their interactions withstudents clearly indicated that they practicedreflection-in-action during observation:

While engaged in a conversation with a

student I may be reflecting on how I canrestructure my questioning so sheunderstands what I am saying. (Lucien)

I always think about what I am doing andhow the students respond and if I need tochange while reflecting-in-action.(Catarina)

Observation in practice is an important aspectof reflection because it enables practitioners toassess their own practice and to make changes

if necessary (Schn, 1983). For example,Daniella recalled, While I was teaching Isensed that I was moving too quickly. I couldjust feel it. I sensed it while it was happening.

By reflecting on their intuitive knowledge whileengaged in action, these participants practicedSchns (1987) concept of reflection-in-action.As such, they would agree with Schn thatduring their observations and in the midst ofaction . . . our thinking serves to reshape what

we are doing while we are doing it . . . when wecan still make a difference to the situation athand (p. 26).

Inquiry during practice

Reflection-in-action was apparent whenparticipants described their reflection

processes that included inquiry duringpractice:

Oftentimes the questions I ask duringteaching, to develop critical thinking skillsin students, become an avenue for reflectivethought within me. (Sally)

Several of the participants added to the inquiryconcept by modeling effective teachingstrategies and including a dialogue about whyadjustments were being made:

Just yesterday, I had to reflect during theexperience . . . during conversations inclass. . . . I believe in questioning studentsand having a dialogue about what went welland what didnt go so well . . . then I modelfor them and point out to students what Iam doing and why. (Abigail)

I model teaching strategies for students, butI have to make it very explicit why I amchanging in the midst of action. I wouldnt

just model it for them. (Cinzia)Schn (1987) argued that for deep learning tooccur, educators must do more than simplydescribe or model an action. He explained thatdeep learning only occurs when educatorsexplain what they are doing and why they aredoing it. Such explanation should occur notonly between teachers and students but alsoamong teachers, for as York-Barr et al. (2006)noted, By sharing newly constructedknowledge among colleagues, the impact on

effectiveness can be multiplied (p. 16).

Discussion

This study aimed to identify how faculty fromNCATE-accredited institutions approachreflection-in-action strategies. By investigatingthese strategies, this study provided insightinto practices that enhance teaching andlearning and added to the literature regardingfaculty and reflection. Analysis of the data


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collected from the 15 participants led to theidentification of four reflective teachingstrategies, (a) note taking, (b) requestingfeedback, (c) setting up checkpoints, and (d)adjusting to improve practices. An unexpectedoutcome also revealed that participating in theNCATE accreditation process actually

promoted reflection. For Grace, it madereflection more purposeful for herself and herstudents. Brianne stated that it made herdocument students reflections, which she maynot have otherwise done. We viewed Abigailscomment as inspiring, as her institutioncreated a resource center for new faculty afterit participated in the NCATE accreditationprocess. Through the resource center theinstitution assists new faculty with teachingstrategies and approaches that encourage

reflective work. These reflection-in-actionteaching skills aligned with the literature bystating how the strategies support the learningprocesses of faculty and students.

When engaged in the four reflective strategies,the participants described being able toevaluate their own teaching with an inquiry-oriented attitude, adjust practice forimprovement, and model reflective practiceswhile explaining why they are makingadjustments. Evaluating their own teaching

through reflective strategies thus assists themin analyzing their teaching approaches and theeffectiveness of their strategies, providing themwith information with which to improve theirpedagogy and increase student learning.

The participants responses clearly indicatedthat they maintain an inquiry-orientedattitude. According to Dewey (1938), theprocess of inquiry is dynamic, as an ongoinginquiry process does not simply solve onesproblems but also institutes new . . .

conditions that occasion new problems (ascited in Schn, 1995, p. 2). Maintaining aninquiry-oriented attitude thus provideseducators with opportunities to reflect onsituations while devising the latest strategiesfor problem solving.

Making changes to practice for the purpose ofimprovement directly relates to reflectivepractice, which both Dewey (1933) and Schn

(1983) considered a central component ofreflective thought. Dewey (1933) asserted theimportance of testing ideas, which allows forfurther responses and possible changes. To doso, one must think things through for change tooccur. Schn (1983) explained that as

The practitioner allows himself toexperience surprise. . . . He reflects on thephenomenon before him. . . . He carries outan experiment which serves to generateboth a new understanding of thephenomenon and a change in the situation.(p. 68)

The participants responses clearly indicatedthat practicing reflection-in-action drove themto analyze their own practice, which resulted inimprovements in their teaching and student

learning. Their responses also indicated thatthe participants understood the importance ofmodeling their reflective strategies and theeffectiveness of intentionality. Remarking onthe significance of explaining the why behindthe thinking process, Schn (1987) noted,Inquirers can sometimes figure out how tosolve unique problems or make sense ofpuzzling phenomena by modeling theunfamiliar on the familiar (p. 186).

Reading the statement about explaining the

why behind the what was a life-changingexperience for the authors. As we werebeginning our own discovery of how to reflectmore deeply, with the ultimate goal ofadvancing student learning, this idea struck achord. Explaining the whatand whybehind apractice is now an adopted strategy. Sinceadopting this strategy, the researchers havewitnessed students making a connection frompractice to theoretical views. We have alsoobserved students making more informed

choices and creating meaning from the action.For example, we were teaching a group ofstudents about the processes of planning forchildren through an emergent curriculum. Theemergent process includes presenting ahypothesis to children, creating conditions inwhich children can explore and test thoseideas, observing and documenting, and thenposing a new hypothesis to the children. As wewere lecturing, we realized that by modeling


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the process for the college students with anexplanation of the why behind it, they wouldbe able to make a deeper connection to thecontent. Adopting this strategy with ourstudents has made a difference in how we teachand in their learning.

Relating to the four reflection-in-actionstrategies, the participants made it clear thatintentionality was key to reflective thought.Whether they were taking notes during class,requesting feedback from students, setting upcheckpoints for self-reflection, or makingadjustments to their teaching, their behaviorsespoused intentionality. Participants statedthat they felt compelled to reflect for thepurpose of improving their teaching andultimately enhancing student outcomes. Wehave learned the significance of being

intentional with reflection. Reflection does nothappen by chance. Reflection-in-action occursthrough the process of observation in the midstof an action, adjusting the action and applyingthe new action. As Dewey (1933) stated,reflection is not haphazard it must be apersistent habit that includes careful thought.We approach this by informing our collegestudents of the necessity of continuousreflection. In the past, we expected ourstudents to reflect during their student

teaching experience without giving themadequate background on reflective definitionsor strategies. Today, definitions of reflectionare addressed along with approaches toaccomplish the task. We inform students aboutwhy they need to be cognizant of reflectionstrategies, how to make reflection a habit, andthen how to implement their findings in theirown teaching with children. Making reflectionintentional is similar to Deweys concept ofreflection in that it becomes a habit of the

mind, including a plan that is well thought outand purposeful. This is an important step in thecontinuous process of enhancing teaching andlearning.

For educators, learning how to reflect and howto teach students the fundamentals behindreflection is vital. The strategies presented hereare not an exhaustive list of reflectivestrategies; however, they provide insight intothe understandings of reflective strategies used

by faculty. This study also adds to the practicalunderstanding of professors teaching artistrythrough reflection by addressing theirapproaches and strategies. Because reflection isseen as a tool to be used continuously forproblem solving, planning, and decisionmaking (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Dewey,

1933; Schn, 1983, 1987), faculty may use thesestrategies as a guide to assist in planning forteaching and learning.

Noting the lack of research specific to faculty(e.g., Drevdahl et al., 2002; Palmeri, 2006),scholars have called for further research intoreflective practices (e.g., Beauchamp, 2006;Crain, 2005; Scanlan et al., 2002). By offeringnew perspectives on reflection-in-action, thisstudy helps fill this research gap by adding tothe literature on faculty and reflection.

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C o p y r i g h t o f N e t w o r k s : A n O n l i n e J o u r n a l f o r T e a c h e r R e s e a r c h i s t h e p r o p e r t y o f C .

C o m p t o n - L i l l y a n d i t s c o n t e n t m a y n o t b e c o p i e d o r e m a i l e d t o m u l t i p l e s i t e s o r p o s t e d t o a

l i s t s e r v w i t h o u t t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r ' s e x p r e s s w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . H o w e v e r , u s e r s m a y p r i n t ,

d o w n l o a d , o r e m a i l a r t i c l e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l u s e .

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