Recovery Plan for the Southern Corroboree Frog

July 2001

Recovery Plan for theSouthern Corroboree Frog(Pseudophryne corroboree)

Approved Recovery Plan

NSWNATIONALPARKS ANDWILDLIFESERVICE

© NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2001.This work is copyright, however material presented in this plan may be copied forpersonal use or published for educational purposes, providing that any extracts are fullyacknowledged. Apart from this and any other use as permitted under the Copyright Act1968, no part may be reproduced without prior written permission from NPWS.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service43 Bridge Street(PO Box 1967)Hurstville NSW 2220Tel: 02 95856444

www.npws.nsw.gov.au

Information or queries regarding the Southern Corroboree Frog are best directed to theRecovery Team coordinator at:

Threatened Species Unit,NPWS Southern Directorate,PO Box 2115Queanbeyan, NSW 2620Ph: (02) 6298 9700

Or

The Director,Regional Wildlife Programs,Wildlife Australia Branch,Environment Australia,PO Box 636,Canberra ACT 2601

Cover photo: The Southern Corroboree Frog Pseudophryne corroboreePhotograph: David Hunter

This plan should be cited as follows:

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2001) Approved Recovery Plan for theSouthern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree). NSW NPWS, Hurstville NSW.

ISBN: 0 7313 6213 6

Approved Recovery Plan The Southern Corroboree Frog

Recovery Plan for theSouthern Corroboree Frog(Pseudophryne corroboree)

Executive Summary

This document constitutes the Approved New South Wales State Recovery Plan for the Southern Corroboree Frog(Pseudophryne corroboree), and as such considers the conservation requirements of the species across its knownrange. It identifies actions to be undertaken to ensure the long-term viability of the species in nature and the partieswho will carry these out.

The Southern Corroboree Frog is listed as Endangered (Schedule 1, Part 1) on the NSW Threatened SpeciesConservation Act 1995. The species is distinctive and easily recognised because of a striking colour pattern on itsupper surface consisting of bright yellow longitudinal stripes alternating with black stripes. Below it is also boldlymarked with black, yellow and white blotches. Adults reach a length of between 25-30 mm.

The species has an extremely limited range, being restricted to sub-alpine areas within Kosciuszko National Park inthe south of New South Wales. It is only found at high altitudes (between about 1300 and 1760 m), occupying anarea of about 400 km2. The Southern Corroboree Frog utilises two distinct habitat types: a breeding season habitatassociated with pools and seepages in sphagnum bogs, wet tussock grasslands and wet heath; and a terrestrial non-breeding habitat in forest, sub-alpine woodland and tall heath adjacent to breeding areas.

It is intended that this recovery plan be implemented over a five-year period. Actions identified in the recovery planinclude; (i) monitoring to detect trends in population numbers, (ii) recruitment enhancement through populationsupplementation, (iii) captive husbandry and breeding trials, (iv) determination of the life-history stage responsiblefor population decline and age structure of the adult breeding population, (v) screening for pathogens, (vi) habitatprotection and (vii) community awareness and involvement.

These will be undertaken by the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, the Amphibian ResearchCentre and the University of Canberra using existing resources. An additional $248,750 over the five-year period willbe required to implement some currently unfunded actions.

BRIAN GILLIGAN BOB DEBUS MPDirector-General Minister for the Environment


Acknowledgements

The research into, and management of, the Corroboree Frog has been a combined effort of the NSW National Parksand Wildlife Service (NPWS), The University of Canberra (UCAN) and The Amphibian Research Centre (ARC). Anumber of people have contributed to survey and research work on the species. The NPWS would like to thank thefollowing individuals:

Dr Will Osborne, The University of Canberra, who is the author of this plan. Dr Stephen Clark and Michael Saxon,Threatened Species Unit, Southern Zone, NPWS, for finalising and editing the plan.

Members of the Corroboree Frog Recovery Team who have each in their own way put much thought and effort intothe Recovery Program: Stephen Clark (NPWS), Graeme Enders (NPWS), Bob Gay (formerly of NSW State Forests),Graeme Gillespie (Arthur Rylah Institute), Ken Green (NPWS), Steve Horsley (NPWS), David Hunter (UCAN), AnnJelinek (Env. Aust.), Adrian Johnstone (NPWS), David Lawrence (NPWS), David Leslie (State Forests), GerryMarantelli (ARC), Will Osborne (UCAN), Marjo Rauhala (Env. ACT), Rod Pietsch (NPWS), Michael Saxon (NPWS),David Shorthouse (Env. ACT), Craig Smith (NPWS) and Andrew Stirling (State Forests). David Hunter is owedparticular thanks for undertaking most of the field research and monitoring since 1996.

Environment Australia has provided ongoing funding for the implementation of the Recovery Plan, resulting inconsiderable improvements in the knowledge and understanding of the ecology of the Corroboree Frog.

N S W N a t i o n a l P a r k s a n d W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e P a g e 1


1 Introduction

There is considerable international concern aboutdeclines and extinctions of many populations ofamphibians at high altitudes (eg. McDonald 1990;Carey 1993; Fellers and Drost 1993). The AustralianAlps has not been immune from such declines, whereat least five species of frog are reported to be in seriousdecline (Gillespie et al. 1995; Hollis 1995; Hunter et al.1997). These include several endemic species such asthe Baw Baw Frog (Philoria frosti) (Hollis 1997) andthe Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophrynecorroboree). This Recovery Plan summarises ourcurrent knowledge of the Southern Corroboree Frog (P.corroboree), documents the research and managementactions undertaken to date, and identifies the actionsrequired and parties responsible to ensure the ongoingviability of the species in the wild.

The attainment of this Recovery Plan’s objectives issubject to budgetary and other constraints affectingthe parties involved. It may also be necessary toamend this Recovery Plan in the event of newinformation or following recommended changes to theRecovery Program by the Recovery Team. Theinformation in this Recovery Plan is accurate toJanuary 2001.

2 Legislative Context

2.1 Legal Status

The Southern Corroboree Frog is now considered to beCritically Endangered using the criteria applied byIUCN (Tyler 1997) and has been officially listed asEndangered under both the CommonwealthEnvironment Protection and BiodiversityConservation Act (EPBC Act) 1999 and the NSWGovernment Threatened Species Conservation Act(TSC Act) 1995.

2.2 Recovery Plan Preparation

The TSC Act provides a legislative framework toprotect and encourage the recovery of threatenedspecies, endangered populations and endangeredecological communities in NSW. Under this legislationthe Director-General of National Parks and Wildlife(NPW) has a responsibility to prepare Recovery Plansfor all species, populations and ecological communitieslisted as endangered or vulnerable on the TSC Actschedules. Similarly, the EPBC Act requires theCommonwealth Minister for the Environment to ensurethe preparation of a Recovery Plan for nationally listedspecies and communities or adopt plans prepared by

others including those developed by State agencies.Both Acts include specific requirements for the mattersto be

addressed by Recovery Plans and the administrativeprocess for preparing Recovery Plans.

This Recovery Plan has been prepared to satisfy boththe requirements of the TSC Act and the EPBC Act andtherefore will be the only Recovery Plan for thespecies. It is the intention of the Director-General ofNPW to forward the final version of this draft RecoveryPlan to the Commonwealth Minister of the Environmentfor adoption, once it has been approved by the NSWMinister for the Environment.

2.3 Recovery Plan Implementation

The TSC Act requires that a public authority must takeany appropriate measures available to implementactions included in a Recovery Plan for which theyhave agreed to be responsible. Public authorities andcouncils identified as responsible for theimplementation of Recovery Plan actions are requiredby the TSC Act to report on measures taken toimplementation those actions. In addition, the Actspecifies that public authorities must not makedecisions that are inconsistent with the provisions ofthe Plan

The NSW NPWS is the only public authorityresponsible for the implementation of this RecoveryPlan.

2.4 Relationship to Other Legislation

The lands on which the Southern Corroboree Frogoccurs include those that are owned or managed by theNPWS. Relevant legislation includes:

• National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974• Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979• Rural Fires Act 1997• The Commonwealth’s Environment Protection and

Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

The interaction of these Acts with the TSC legislationis varied. The most significant implications aredescribed below and in Section 2.5.

The Rural Fires Act 1997 requires that all partiesinvolved in fire suppression and prevention must haveregard to the principles of Ecologically SustainableDevelopment (ESD) when exercising their functionsand when preparing Operational Plans and Bush FireRisk Management Plans. Consideration of theprinciples of ESD must include the conservation of



biological diversity and ecological integrity. Withinthis, consideration must be given to the impact onthreatened species and their habitats.

2.5 Environmental Assessment

The New South Wales Environmental Planning andAssessment Act 1979 (EP&A Act) requires thatconsent and determining authorities, and the Director-General of National Parks and Wildlife, as aconcurrence authority, consider relevant RecoveryPlans when exercising a decision-making functionunder Parts 4 and 5 of the EP&A Act. Decision-makersmust consider known and potential habitat, biologicaland ecological factors and the regional significance ofindividual populations.

The only public authority that has a decision makingfunction in relation to the Southern Corroboree Frog isthe NSW NPWS. Activities as defined under theEP&A Act require the approval of the Director-General.Any other action not requiring approval under theEP&A Act, and which is likely to have a significantimpact on the Southern Corroboree Frog, requires aSection 91 licence from the NPWS under the provisionsof the TSC Act. Such a licence can be issued with orwithout conditions, or can be refused.

The EPBC Act regulates actions that may result in asignificant impact on nationally listed threatenedspecies and ecological communities. It is an offence toundertake any such actions in areas under State orTerritory jurisdiction, as well as on Commonwealth-owned areas, without obtaining prior approval from theCommonwealth Environment Minister. As theSouthern Corroboree Frog is listed nationally under theEPBC Act, any person proposing to undertake actionslikely to have a significant impact on this speciesshould refer the action to the Commonwealth Ministerfor the Environment for consideration. The Ministerwill then decide whether the action requires EPBC Actapproval.

Administrative guidelines are available, fromEnvironment Australia, to assist proponents indetermining whether their action is likely to have asignificant impact. In cases where the action does notrequire EPBC Act approval, but will result in the deathor injury of a Southern Corroboree Frog and thatindividual is in, or on a Commonwealth area, a permitissued by the Commonwealth Minister under the EPBCAct will be required.

The Environment Minister can also delegate the role ofassessment and approval to other CommonwealthMinisters under a Ministerial Declaration, and to theStates and Territories under bilateral agreements. At

the time of writing of this plan the development of abilateral agreement between NSW and theCommonwealth was not complete. When in place suchan agreement will avoid the need for duplication ofenvironmental assessment.

2.6 Critical Habitat

The TSC Act makes provision for the identification anddeclaration of Critical Habitat. Under the TSC Act,Critical Habitat may be identified for any endangeredspecies, population or ecological community occurringon NSW lands. Once declared, it becomes an offenceto damage Critical Habitat (unless the action isexempted under the provisions of the TSC Act) and aSpecies Impact Statement is mandatory for alldevelopments and activities proposed within declaredCritical Habitat.

Under the EPBC Act, Critical Habitat may be registeredfor any nationally listed threatened species orecological community. When adopting a RecoveryPlan the Federal Minister for the Environment mustconsider whether to list habitat identified in theRecovery Plan as being critical to the survival of thespecies or ecological community. It is an offence underthe EPBC Act for a person to knowingly take an actionthat will significantly damage Critical Habitat (unlessthe EPBC Act specifically exempts the action). Thisoffence only applies to Commonwealth areas. Howeveran action which is likely to have a significant impact ona listed species is still subject to referral and approvalunder the EPBC Act.

To date, Critical Habitat has not been declared for theSouthern Corroboree Frog. The declaration of criticalhabitat is not considered to be a priority for thespecies, as other mechanisms provide for itsprotection. Given that it only found on land managedby the NPWS, the type of developments or activitieswhich are likely to occur are limited by the provisionsof the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (the NPWAct).

This Recovery Plan identifies those habitat featuresand the location of sites currently known to be criticalto the survival of the Southern Corroboree Frog, asrequired by the EPBC Act.

3 Species Information

3.1 Description and Taxonomy

The Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree)(Anura: Myobatrachidae) was described by Moore(1953) from a single specimen collected at Round



Mountain (Colefax 1956). The collection site is nowwithin Kosciuszko National Park. Until recently, onlyone species of Corroboree Frog was recognised(Cogger 1992). However, Wells and Wellington (1985)provided a brief argument for recognising the NorthernForm as a separate species, which they namedP. pengilleyi after Dr R. Pengilley who undertooksubstantial research on the species in the 1960’s. Morerecently, Osborne et al. (1996) provided a detailedgeographic analysis of variation in the morphology andcalls of P. corroboree and recommended that P.pengilleyi be recognised. This recommendation hasbeen generally accepted by other authorities (eg. Tyler1997). Pseudophryne pengilleyi is also now recognisedas a distinct species in the TSC Act (on Schedule 2,Vulnerable).

All reference to P. corroboree in this Recovery Planrefers to the Southern Corroboree Frog. Pseudophrynepengilleyi refers to the Northern Corroboree Frog, aspecies with a more extensive distribution in the FieryRange and Brindabella Range (Osborne 1989) (Figure1).

The Southern Corroboree Frog is distinctive and easilyrecognised because of its striking dorsal colour patternconsisting of bright yellow longitudinal stripesalternating with black stripes (Cogger 1992). Theventral surface is boldly marked with black and yellowand white blotches. A large flat femoral gland ispresent on each hind limb, and the inner metatarsaltubercle is low and round. Adults reach a length ofbetween 25 and 30 mm. There are a number ofdifferences between the Southern and NorthernCorroboree Frogs, includingconsiderable genetic divergence(Roberts and Maxson 1989; Osborneand Norman 1991), differences incolour-pattern and morphology(Pengilley 1966; Osborne et al. 1996)and skin biochemistry (Daly et al.1990).

All Pseudophryne lay large eggs thatare individually surrounded by tough,transparent capsules. When hydratedthe egg capsules swell to a relativelylarge size. The eggs of SouthernCorroboree Frogs are amongst thelargest in the genus (Tyler 1989);measuring approximately 3.4 mm indiameter, with a capsule that swells toup to 8.0 mm in diameter whenhydrated.

The tadpoles are generally welladvanced when they hatch, measuring

about 15 mm in total length. Hatching generally occursat about Gosner (1960) stage 27. Osborne (1991)provides a simple key to identify tadpoles that mayoccur sympatrically with both Southern and NorthernCorroboree Frogs. Considerable skill is required tocorrectly identify the species at the tadpole stage. It isnot possible to distinguish between the tadpoles of thetwo species of Corroboree Frogs although Osborne etal. (1996) noted that P. pengilleyi had a greater numberof blotches on the tail-fin. The mouth parts of the twospecies are identical.

3.2 Distribution

The Southern Corroboree Frog has a limitedgeographic distribution (Figure 1). All known historicsites of occurrence are shown in Figure 2. The speciesoccurs only in Kosciuszko National Park from SmigginHoles in the south, and northwards to the MaragleRange, about 5km west of Cabramurra. Thisconstitutes a linear range of 51km. The broadest partof the range (24 km) occurs near Mount Jagungal. Thespecies occupies a relatively narrow altitudinal stripbetween about 1300 and 1760 m, occupying an area ofabout 400 km2 (Osborne 1989). The SouthernCorroboree Frog is separated from populations of theNorthern Corroboree Frog (Figure 1) by thecomparatively dry and wind-swept Kiandra andCoolamine Plains. These areas consist of broadstretches of cold, treeless plain that are devoid ofsheltering tall heath and woodland. The plains haveslightly lower annual precipitation than the nearbymountain ranges (Adomeit et al. 1987). This may act asa barrier to the dispersal of the frogs, effectively

Figure 1. The distribution of P. corroboree and P. pengilleyi inrelation to existing nature conservation reserves. Darker stippling



Figure 3. Distribution of all remaining sites where P.corroboree was recorded at least once duringextensive surveys conducted during 1996 to 1998.Triangles represent sites whereP. corroboree were found during extensive surveysduring 1996-1998; open circles, sites where P.corroboree previously occurred and are no longerconsidered to be present. The species hasdisappeared from parts of its former range nearSmiggin Holes, Happy Jacks Plain, Pretty Plain andTooma Dam. Numbers of adult males at most sitesshown were extremely small.

Figure 2. Map of part of Kosciuszko National Parkshowing sites where P. corroboree was recorded in1986/87 by Osborne (1989) (all sites shown on themap) and the results obtained from resurveying thesame sites during 1996 to 1998 (Closed circles,sites with P. corroboree in 1986/87 which stillsupported the frogs in 1996-1998).

isolating the two species.

Extensive surveys were undertaken across threesummers (1996-1998) to determine the current extent ofthe Southern Corroboree Frog (Hunter et al. 1997 andin prep.). Of the approximately 160 potential breedingsites surveyed during this period (which included 60sites where the species was recorded to be formerlypresent by Osborne 1989), only 63 sites were found tostill support the frogs (Figure 3). Of the 60 former sitessurveyed, only eight were found to still have frogs(Figure 3). At sites where frogs still occur, the numbersof adult males remaining was very low. Fifty of the 63sites had fewer than six adult males present. Only onelarge population remains (95 adult males in 1998). Theoverall geographic range of the species has nowcontracted (Figure 3), and includes extensive areaswhere the frogs are now either extinct, or in veryreduced numbers (particularly Pretty Plain, HappyJacks Plain, Finns Swamp, Whites River and theSmiggin Holes and the Guthega area south of the

Snowy River).

3.3 Land Tenure

All known and historical populations of the SouthernCorroboree Frog occur within Kosciuszko NationalPark, an area managed by the NPWS. The security ofthis National Park tenure is governed by the provisionsof the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (NPWAct). The land is zoned 8a - National Park. Existingpopulations are managed within the provisions of theKosciuszko National Park Plan of Management. Smallpopulations of the Southern Corroboree Frogpreviously occurred in the Perisher-Smiggins and theGuthega resort areas within the park (Osborne 1988).

3.4 Habitat

Southern Corroboree Frogs utilise two distinct habitattypes: a breeding season habitat associated with poolsand seepages in sphagnum bogs, wet tussock



Plate 1. Typical breeding habitat used by Southern Corroboree Frogs. Woodland and heath in the distanceprovides non-breeding season habitat for adults and juveniles. Photograph: Pavel German

grasslands and wet heath; and a terrestrial non-breeding habitat in forest, sub-alpine woodland and tallheath adjacent to the breeding area (Plate 1). Duringthe summer, the adult frogs breed in shallow pools andseepages within the breeding area, before returning tothe adjacent woodland and tall moist heath at the endof the breeding season (Pengilley 1966). Osborne (1988and unpublished) found that, following breeding,adults are capable of dispersing over 300 metres intothe surrounding woodland.

There have been no published studies of the breedinghabitat of Corroboree Frogs, but detailed quantitativeinformation is provided by Osborne (1990). Breedingsites usually consist of temporary pools and seepages,in areas with level, to gently sloping topography. Sitesused by the frogs occur on granitic and volcanicsubstrates, but porous rock types, including shale andlimestone, are generally avoided. The vegetationpresent at breeding sites varies considerably, rangingfrom bog and wet-heath at higher altitudes to wet sod-tussock grassland in some low-lying valleys.

Breeding sites are characterised by the presence ofspreading rope-rush Empodisma minus, peat mossSphagnum cristatum, and the shrubs Baeckeagunniana and Epacris paludosa . Several other plantspecies, including sod-tussock grasses Poa spp.,candle heath Richea continentis, the rush Restioaustralis and the sedge Carex gaudichaudianacommonly occur at breeding sites. The breeding poolsare characteristically shallow, and have relatively largesurface areas, low water flow rates, and have a long

duration (Osborne 1990). This allows the water in thepreferred pools to become warmer during the day,possibly enhancing tadpole development. Thebreeding pools are the most sensitive feature of thebreeding habitat of the Southern Corroboree Frog andprotection of the catchment area of the pools andseepages is essential for their long-term persistence asbreeding sites.

Litter, logs and dense ground cover in the understoreyof snow gum woodland provides over-winteringhabitat (Pengilley 1966). Plant species typical of thishabitat include Bossiaea foliosa , Prostantheracuneata, Oxylobium spp. and Phebalium spp.

3.4.1 Seasonal movements and over-wintering sites

Frogs typically undertake annual movements from non-breeding habitats to ponds and other breeding sites(Duellman and Trueb 1986). Osborne (1988) conducteda two-year program of pitfall trapping NorthernCorroboree Frogs at Ginini Flats in the ACT.Ginini Flats is a large Sphagnum bog surrounded bydry Bossiaea foliosa heath and subalpine woodland.The results of this study indicated that at the end ofthe breeding season adult males and females undertakea seasonal movement away from the bog, upslope intosurrounding heath and woodland. The dispersaldistances measured at this time were up to 300 m.Pengilley (1992) also found that Northern CorroboreeFrogs moved between woodland and low-lying heathand grassland breeding sites at Coree Flats in theBrindabella Range. It is likely that the Southern



Corroboree Frog undertakes similar movements and thefew observations available support this view.

The over-wintering sites of Southern Corroboree Frogsare not known. Pengilley (1966) found large numbersof adult and sub-adult Northern Corroboree Frogs nearCoree Flats in the northern Brindabella range "underlogs, leaf litter and vegetation in the forest". Osborne(1988) also searched for over-wintering frogs at CoreeFlats and Ginini Flats, but found only 15 individuals, allsheltering beneath logs. The frogs were found atdistances ranging from 15 to 155 m from the nearestbreeding pools. It is likely that any ground-layer litterand debris, including logs, rocks, fallen bark and grassthatch, will provide over-wintering sites for the frogs.Because of the importance of suitable over-winteringhabitat to the frogs, protection of habitat shouldinclude those areas adjacent to the breeding sites,which may provide shelter and food for sub-adults andadults throughout the year.

3.5 Life-history and ecology

3.5.1 Breeding biology

Like most frogs, Southern Corroboree Frogs have twostages in the life-cycle; an aquatic tadpole stage andterrestrial post-metamorphic juvenile and adult stage.However, they differ from other frogs in that their eggsare laid out of the water in a terrestrial nest, and theembryos develop to an advanced stage within the eggcapsule before hatching.

Adult males move into the breeding areas in earlysummer, and call during January and February. Themales call from small chambers in moss or other softvegetation at the edges of the breeding pools. Thefrogs have three call types; an advertisement call,threat call, and courtship call (Pengilley 1971b). Theadvertisement call and courtship call are used to attractfemales to the males calling site, whereas the threat callserves as a warning to other males (Pengilley 1971b).Stimulating the males to give threat calls has beenrecommended as a reliable procedure for monitoring thenumber of calling males (Osborne 1991).Advertisement call intensity varies depending on theweather, with more calling occurring during warmerovercast conditions, and during late afternoon(Pengilley 1971b).

Females only enter the bogs briefly to lay their eggs inthe terrestrial oviposition site, and then leave thebreeding site. The males continue calling for a numberof weeks, presumably to continue mating. They thenleave the bogs during late February to return to theover-wintering habitat (Pengilley 1966; Osborne 1988).The eggs are laid in small clutches of 16 to 38 eggsfrom January to mid February (Pengilley 1973). The

eggs are amongst the largest in the genus (Tyler 1989),measuring about 3.5 mm in diameter; the transparentcapsules swelling to about 8 mm in diameter whenhydrated (Osborne 1991). Tadpole developmentinitially occurs within the egg and the relativelyadvanced tadpole emerges from the eggs at Gosner(1960) stage 27, measuring about 15 mm. At this stagethe tadpoles are well-developed with the first sign ofthe hind limb showing as a small bump on the bodynear the base of the tail.

Hatching is thought to occur during autumn and winterduring periods of high rainfall or snow melt. Thetadpoles wriggle to the nearby pools where they livefor the remainder of the larval period, feeding on algaeand other organic detritus in the water. The tadpolesshow little growth during winter, when temperatures atthe breeding sites are very low and snow often coversthe ground. The water in the pools at this time may bebelow 1°C and the surfaces of exposed pools regularlyfreeze if exposed to the air on cold nights (Jacobson1963). At the end of winter, when snow has meltedfrom the breeding sites, the tadpoles continue growingslowly until metamorphosis in early summer.

Reliable autumn precipitation is critical to the over-winter survival of the tadpoles. It appears that if thenests are not submerged during this period, then theeggs either do not hatch, or hatch prematurely in thenest site, with the tadpoles becoming stranded in thedry vegetation surrounding the nest. For example, inthe autumn and winter of 1997 precipitation was nothigh enough to cause the flooding of nests at manysites and there was extensive mortality of tadpoles ofboth species of Corroboree Frogs (D. Hunter,University of Canberra, unpublished observations).The pre-metamorphic period is also critical even if thetadpoles manage to move to the pools because theyare vulnerable to pool-drying at this time.

3.5.2 Post-metamorphic behaviour and diet

Very little is known about the life history of the frogsafter they leave the pools as juveniles. Pengilley (1966,1971a, and pers. comm.) suggested that they remain inmoist vegetation near the breeding pools for severalmonths, where they feed on a wide variety of smallinvertebrates. As they grow larger, the juveniles leavethe breeding area and move into the adjacent non-breeding habitat where it is thought they remain untilthey are adults. The diet of sub-adults and adultsconsists mainly of small ants and, to a lesser extent,other invertebrates (Pengilley 1971a). Food intake isgreatly reduced during winter, with many individualsapparently not feeding. Frogs that have apredominance of ants in their diet are considered to bespecialised (Duellman and Trueb 1986).



3.5.3 Population demography

The particular reproductive strategy of the SouthernCorroboree Frog - low clutch size and prolonged periodof larval development - is suggestive of anevolutionary adaptation to an environment that ispredictable, with little long term variation. Thebreeding pools must have water in them from the timewhen the tadpoles hatch and enter the pool (thought tobe late autumn and winter), to mid-summer (Decemberand January) when the newly emerged froglets leavethe pool (Pengilley 1966; Osborne 1991).

Pengilley (1966) suggested that individuals reachedsexual maturity in about three years (ie. one year as anembryo and tadpole, and two years as a juvenile). Inaddition, based on the results of a mark-recapturestudy of Northern Corroboree Frogs, Pengilley (1966,1992) suggested that there was a high mortality ofadults between years, with few adults that had alreadymated being recaptured in successive years. However,there was a severe drought during the middle of hisstudy which may have increased mortality. Recentresearch undertaken by David Hunter indicates that thesurvival rate of Northern Corroboree Frogs is higherthan found by Pengilley and that adults may live toeight years. Now that the techniques for marking andageing frogs have been validated (D. Hunterunpublished data) this research will be extended toinclude the Southern Corroboree Frog.

Amphibians typically experience high levels ofmortality during their pre-metamorphic life-historystages (Wassersug 1975). However, the level of pre-metamorphic mortality may be highly variable betweenspecies and appears to be related to the life-historycharacteristics of individual species (Duellman & Trueb1986). Whether mortality is greatest during embryonicor larval development also appears to be related to thelife history characteristics of a species (Duellman andTrueb 1986). Species that lay their eggs terrestrially,such as those within the genus Pseudophryne, oftenhave greater embryonic survivorship than thosespecies that lay their eggs in an aquatic environment(Duellman & Trueb 1986).

Pre-metamorphic mortality in Pseudophryne has beeninvestigated previously by Woodruff (1975) andPengilley (1966, 1992) who focused primarily onembryonic mortality. Woodruff (1975) foundembryonic mortality in the laboratory to be less than5% for Pseudophryne bibroni, P. dendyi and P.semimarmorata, although he did observe much highermortality in the field as a result of desiccation when abreeding season was followed by an abnormally dryperiod. Pengilley (1992) studied field embryonicmortality in P. corroboree and P. pengilleyi (thenrecognised as P. corroboree). He also found relatively

low embryonic mortality, except during a drought yearwhen the majority of egg clutches exhibited 100%mortality. These results support the generalisation thatspecies which lay their eggs terrestrially exhibit lowembryo mortality except when faced with catastrophicevents.

Very little research has been conducted on tadpolemortality in Pseudophryne. This is mainly due to thelogistical problems associated with accurately samplingthe aquatic life-history stage. The tadpoles frequentlyhide in thick pond vegetation or bury themselves in siltat the bottom of the pools (D. Hunter and W. Osborne,pers. obs.). Pengilley (1966) determined the mortalityrate of the Southern Corroboree Frog tadpoles in threepools based on the number of eggs originally present.The results varied with mortality rates of 50%, 86.5%and 93.6% being calculated for the different pools.Pengilley (1966) suspected that the mortality hedetected was predominantly due to predation bydragonfly larvae (although this statement was notqualified). The highly ephemeral nature of the breedingsites for both species of Corroboree Frogs also rendersthem susceptible to pool drying (Osborne 1990). Theseobservations suggest that there is the potential forhigh levels of mortality at the tadpole stage, which isconsistent with the mortality levels observed in mostamphibians which possess an aquatic larval stage(Duellman & Trueb 1986).

3.5.4 Predators and parasites

During three years of field-based research, Osborne(1990) saw no evidence of predation on CorroboreeFrogs. Although tadpoles of many frog species aresubject to very high rates of predation from fish andinvertebrates (Heyer et al. 1975; Caldwell et al. 1983;Duellman and Trueb 1986), these organisms are scarcein pools used by Corroboree Frogs. Vertebrates, suchas herons and snakes, which may prey on juvenile andadult frogs, are also very uncommon at high montaneand subalpine altitudes (Green and Osborne 1994) andare unlikely to influence populations in this area. Otherpotential predators of adult and sub-adult frogs includepredatory beetles and reptiles which are common insubalpine woodland, however it is likely that the frogsare unpalatable to these smaller predators (W. Osborneand D. Hunter, unpublished observations).

Parasites of frogs include protozoans, helminths,leeches, mites and the larvae of flies (Tyler 1976;Duellman and Trueb 1986). Whilst many parasites arenot lethal to their hosts, massive infestations bysporozoans have been observed to cause highmortality in adults and tadpoles in other countries(Duellman and Trueb 1986). In Australia,Pseudophryne spp. are parasitised by the dipterangenus Batrachomyia or frog flies, protocephalid



cestodes and oxyuroid nematodes (Pengilley 1966,Tyler 1976). Pengilley (1966) thought that heavyinfestations of Batrachomyia spp. may have causedthe death of juvenile and sub-adult P. pengilleyi,however this was not observed directly. Pengilleynoted that the low percentage of adults infected withsmall larvae may have indicated that adults are lesssusceptible to infection. Batrachomyia sp. was foundto parasitise both P. pengilleyi and P. corroboree butwas not observed in adults from the subalpine zone(Pengilley 1966). Since the decline in the size of thefrog population, the number of parasitised frogs hasapparently been reduced markedly. Of 226 frogsexamined in 1986/1987 by W. Osborne and M.Lau, onlyone individual (a P. pengilleyi) was found to beparasitised (W. Osborne, unpublished data). Althoughthere has been little direct research on the topic, it isunlikely that parasites have had a major role in thedeclines of these populations.

The onset of rapid declines in undisturbed populationsof frogs in high altitude areas has given grounds forconcern that the declines may be attributable to aparticularly virulent pathogen. Initially it wassuggested that the cause of the population crasheswas most likely to be a virus (eg. Laurance et al. 1996),however recent evidence from dying frogs collected inpristine areas strongly implicates a skin fungal disease(Chytridiomycosis) in the deaths of frogs in bothAustralia and South America (Berger and Speare 1998).

Further discussion on this issue is provided in Section4.2.3

3.6 Ability of Species to Recover

If the continuing decline of populations can beprevented, it is highly likely that, with correctmanagement of habitat, local populations will recover.However, it seems unlikely at present that the specieswill recover throughout its geographic range.

4 Management Issues

Observations made between 1955 and 1970 indicatethat the Southern Corroboree Frog was abundantwithin its limited geographic range. High numbers ofindividuals were frequently recorded at suitablebreeding sites (see Osborne 1988 for a historicalreview). However, by 1986 it was apparent that thespecies had declined considerably in abundance(Osborne 1989). Subsequent monitoring over a thirteenyear period (1986-1999) indicated that the populationscontinued to decline and that remaining populationsare now severely depleted (Hunter et al. 1997; Osborneand Davis 1997, Osborne et al. in press). The specieshas disappeared from 70% of the sites at which it

formerly occurred, and the number of remaining adultmales is estimated to be in the order of 300-400individuals (Hunter et al. 1997; Hunter in prep.).

4.1 Extent of decline

In the summers of 1985 and 1986 Osborne (1988, 1989)undertook the first extensive surveys of thedistribution and relative abundance of the SouthernCorroboree Frog. He delineated the geographicdistribution of the species and compared currentpopulation levels to observations made by earlierworkers (including his own observations in the late1970’s). Osborne (1988, 1989) concluded that thenumbers of frogs present at most breeding sites werevery low; at 74% of the sites in the Snowy Mountainsten or less calling males were recorded at each site.Choruses estimated at greater than 25 calling maleswere recorded at only 15% of the sites with frogs.These larger sites occurred near Mt Jagungal andalong the Toolong Range south of Round Mountain inthe Jagungal Wilderness area.

For many of the historical records of the SouthernCorroboree Frog in the Snowy Mountains there is littleinformation available on numbers of individualsobserved. In such cases any assessment of changes inpopulation status can only compare the presentdistribution to past known occurrences. At best thiscan provide an indication of broad changes indistribution. However, additional information onrelative abundance is available for a number of sites(summarised in Osborne 1988, 1991) providing abaseline against which an assessment of whether ornot the species is declining can be made.

Population monitoring programs at several locationshave been under way for twelve years (1986-1998)(Osborne 1991, Hunter et al. 1997; Osborne and Davis1997; Osborne and Hunter unpublished data). This hasindicated that populations have not recovered, andthat there has been a gradual loss of local breedingaggregations and a corresponding contraction ofgeographic range (Figures 2 and 3). In the SmigginHoles and Guthega region all eleven remainingbreeding sites (see Osborne 1991 for further details)have been monitored using non-invasive techniquesannually since the summer of 1985/86. Each of thesesmall local populations has declined to extinction. Thispattern of severe declines has been repeated at mostother sites subject to monitoring. Of the 60 former sitessurveyed only eight were found to still have frogs. Atsites where frogs still occur, the numbers of adult malesremaining is very low; 50 of the 63 sites had fewer thansix adult males present in 1996-98. Only one largepopulation remained in 1998 (95 adult males in 1998).



Amphibian populations may undergo significantnatural fluctuations in time and space. Detection offrogs can vary markedly with season or local climaticconditions, which may affect calling and other activitylevels (Duellman and Trueb 1986). Studies undertakenoverseas indicate that amphibian populations mayexhibit considerable fluctuation over several years, andthat patterns of population change can vary betweenspecies (Berven 1990; Pechmann et al. 1991). Theinitial cause of the decline in the Southern CorroboreeFrog was thought to be the 1982-83 drought (Osborne1989), and a recent analysis of the long-term trends inprecipitation indicates that declining autumn andwinter precipitation (particularly snow cover) may havebeen implicated in the decline (Osborne and Davis1997). However, the link to precipitation is not readilyobvious and the actual cause of the decline is still notknown, particularly since the populations have notrecovered in response to more-favourable weatherconditions.

Understanding what constitutes natural populationchanges due to normal climatic or environmentalvariation is necessary before the significance of thedecline in the Southern Corroboree Frog can be fullyassessed. This can only be achieved by monitoringrelative abundance of populations over time periodslong enough to establish the extent of ecologicalstability or expected patterns of fluctuation. This isgenerally considered to be at least one generationturnover (Connell and Sousa 1983; Blaustein et al.1994; Pechmann and Wilbur 1998). It is likely that theSouthern Corroboree Frog takes three years to reachreproductive maturity (Pengilley 1966 and pers. comm.;Osborne 1991; D. Hunter pers. comm.), and may live forup to eight years (D. Hunter pers. comm). Thus, thecurrent monitoring which includes 12 consecutiveyears is likely to be long enough to have detecteddemographic changes. It also includes a complete ElNino cycle. It is highly unlikely that the extent ofdecline in the Southern Corroboree Frog is simply areflection of a normal population fluctuation.

What is not known is whether the observed decline ispart of a very long-term population cycle, although thisseems unlikely given the disappearance of the frogsfrom so many sites, including from regions that wouldbe difficult to re-colonise (eg. south of the Snowy Riverwhere the species now appears to be extinct). Long-term monitoring is required to determine if populationdeclines are continuing, or are part of a long-term cycle.Such monitoring is also essential for determining thesuccess of any experimental trials involving habitatmanipulation, recruitment enhancement ortranslocation.

4.2 Threats

The cause of the present serious decline in populationsof the Southern Corroboree Frog is unknown. Asmentioned above, it was originally assumed that thedecline was the result of drought that affected theregion in the early 1980's, and that once conditions hadimproved, the frog population would recover (Osborne1989). However, this has not been the case; localpopulations have continued declining, or remained low,during a decade which has included many potentiallygood breeding seasons (Osborne and Davis 1997). Thefrog is faced with a considerable risk because of itsspecialised life history and its high degree of breedinghabitat specificity. It has a very low clutch size, eachfemale breeds only once each season, and the tadpolesare slow-growing, spending over six months in theshallow pools. Such a strategy reduces the ability ofthe species to recover quickly during favourableseasons, and places it at risk from any long-termdisturbance which affects the breeding sites.

Whilst the principal cause of the population declineand range contraction has not been identified, it is clearthat its effect is acting at least on a regional basis sinceall high altitude populations, and some low altitudepopulations, of Northern Corroboree Frogs are also indecline (ACT Government 1997; Hunter and Osborneunpublished data). Whilst activities such as ski-resortdevelopment, road construction and the operation of ahydro-electrical scheme undoubtedly had majorlocalised influences on frog breeding habitat in KNP(see below), the likely cause of the current decline isobviously a response to a wider-reachingphenomenon.

4.2.1 Climate change

Concern about global warming (Pearman 1989;Galloway 1989; Whetton et al. 1996) has a particularsignificance for the conservation of cool-adaptedspecies such as the Southern Corroboree Frog(Bennett et al. 1991). Due to its restricted subalpinedistribution the species is likely to be particularlysusceptible to climate change. Global warming has thepotential to alter the breeding season and change theperiod required for eggs and tadpoles to develop; thismay lead to these events occurring earlier or later thanat an optimum time. A change in regional temperatureand precipitation is also likely to influence thehydrology of the breeding pools, and affect the growthand dynamics of vegetation in the breeding habitat.

During recent monitoring of breeding sites in theSnowy Mountains, it has been observed that somepools within breeding sites have become overgrown bySphagnum moss. Although such hummock-hollowdevelopment in bogs is a natural part of the bog

N S W N a t i o n a l P a r k s a n d W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e P a g e 1 0


dynamics (Clark 1980), other factors including reducedsnow cover, and warming may allow the moss to growmore prolifically (Tallis 1994). It should be noted thatloss of breeding pools (at least the larger, moreobvious pools) is not yet evident at most of the sitesmonitored in the Snowy Mountains, although thisneeds to be examined in detail during further surveys.Perhaps of greater importance is the possibility, asmentioned above, that with warmer temperatures, orlonger periods of drier weather during spring and earlysummer, the pools still containing tadpoles may dry(Osborne 1990; Pengilley 1992).

Of equal importance would be a shift in the seasonalityof precipitation or a decline in winter snow cover. Apreliminary analysis of long-term trends in snow-cover,precipitation and temperature indicated that decliningwinter snow cover and precipitation may be a factorcontributing to the decline (Osborne and Davis 1997;Osborne et al. 1998). In 1997 over-winter survival ofdeveloping encapsulated tadpoles of the SouthernCorroboree Frog and of subalpine populations ofNorthern Corroboree Frog was extremely low, withtadpoles surviving through the winter at only a few ofthe sites where eggs were observed in the previoussummer (Hunter, et al. 1999). The reason for this highmortality is not known, but two hypotheses have beenproposed: (1) due to reduced snow cover, tadpoleswere exposed to sub-zero temperatures; and (2) due toa low water table and minimal autumn and winterprecipitation nest sites did not flood and hatchedtadpoles were unable to move to the nearby pools.Testing of these hypotheses requires further research,which directly compares tadpole survivorship withhydrological and meteorological measurements.

4.2.2 Increased Ultraviolet Radiation

Ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) has increased significantlyin recent years due to increasing ozone (eg. Jones andShanklin 1995), and is likely to increase as reduction inozone in the upper atmosphere continues. Someamphibians are known to have increased levels ofdevelopmental abnormalities after exposure to artificialUV-B (Grant and Licht 1995; Licht and Grant 1997) andincreased ultraviolet radiation is implicated in frogdeclines at high altitudes where there is lessatmosphere for UV-B to pass through (Blaustein et al.1994). Recent research indicates that the developingeggs of some alpine amphibians are damaged byambient ultraviolet radiation (Blaustein et al. 1994,1995).

It is well known that UV-B radiation causesdevelopmental abnormalities in amphibians (see reviewby Grant and Licht, 1995) but few field-based studieshave addressed the possible effects. Experiments inNorth America (Blaustein et al. 1994; Blaustein et al.

1995) demonstrated species-specific differences in theability of eggs to repair radiation damage to DNA anddifferential hatching success of embryos exposed tosolar radiation at natural egglaying sites whencompared to controls shielded from UV radiation.Blaustein et al. (1994) argue that at high elevations,development times in amphibians may be extendedbecause of lower ambient temperatures, therebyexposing the developing eggs and tadpoles for longerperiods. Moreover, high altitude amphibians are oftenheliothermic and actively seek out sunlight to increasedevelopmental temperatures (Stebbins and Cohen,1995). Although higher elevation populations may bemore resistant to UV or may have behaviouraladaptations to minimise UV damage, these may beinsufficient to cope with the dramatic increases in UVlevels currently experienced at high altitudes (Blausteinet al. 1995).

Ultraviolet radiation can reach significant depths innatural waters (Smith, 1989), and in clear freshwaterlakes potentially harmful intensities of UV-B radiationcan penetrate to several metres (Schindler et al. 1996).With respect to the potential for causing damage tobiological organisms, shallow alpine lakes, pools andstreams are likely to be of greatest concern, as they arelikely to have very low amounts of dissolved organiccarbon and are exposed to high levels of ambient UV-B.In the shallow, extremely clear pools found in alpineregions, high levels of UV-B are likely to penetrate toall depths used as egg development sites byamphibians.

In a study conducted along an elevational gradient atThredbo in Kosciuszko National Park, Broomhall et al.(in press) found that newly-hatched tadpoles of adeclining frog (Alpine Tree Frog Litoria verreauxiialpina) showed significantly higher levels of mortalitywhen not protected by UV-B filters, when compared totadpoles protected by mylar UV-B filters. Moreover, anon-declining species used as a control (CommonEastern Froglet Crinia signifera) had significantlylower mortality under all treatments. Whilst it could beargued that ultraviolet radiation is unlikely to affect theadults or eggs of P. corroboree because they arehidden within the moss and are unlikely to be exposed,the larval life stage of the frog may be at risk becausethey are confined to highly-exposed shallow, clearpools. Research on the susceptibility of the SouthernCorroboree Frog eggs, embryos and tadpoles shouldbe undertaken.

4.2.3 Diseases

As mentioned in section 3.5.4 the decline in bothspecies of Corroboree Frog could also be a result ofdisease. The hypothesis that at least some declines inamphibians have been caused by pathogens (eg. Carey



1993; Laurance 1996; Laurance et al. 1996) has recentlygained favour, amongst at least some researchers(however, see Hero and Gillespie 1997; Alford andRichards 1997), following identification of a highlyvirulent fungal pathogen (Chytridiomycosis) inmoribund frogs at sites where declines have occurred(Berger and Speare 1998; Berger et al. 1999).

Chytridiomycosis has been detected in Spotted TreeFrogs (Litoria spenceri) that have died in the field inthe Snowy Mountains (G. Gillespie pers. comm.) andthe carcasses of captive adult Northern CorroboreeFrogs that died over winter at the Amphibian ResearchCentre in Melbourne were found to contain a range ofpathogens including a fungus similar toChytridiomycosis (G. Marantelli pers. comm.).Nevertheless, it is likely that partially decomposedcarcasses will contain a range of microbialdecomposers, so that this observation is notunexpected.

Rick Speares (James Cook University, pers. comm.) hasrecently detected the pathogen in museum specimensof the Southern Corroboree Frog collected in 1992 and1993. However, there is no field evidence to date thateither species has suffered rapid population decline asa result of fast-acting pathogens. Some researcherssuggest that it is likely that more than one causal agentis involved in frog declines in Australia (andelsewhere) and that these may in fact act in asynergistic manner. A fast-spreading disease is less-likely to be the cause of the decline in NorthernCorroboree Frogs because the decline has occurredslowly, with populations gradually becoming depletedbefore local extinctions have occurred (Osborne et al.in press). There is, however, very good reason forconcern. As further information on disease inAustralian frogs comes to light, tests should be madeto examine the susceptibility of both species ofCorroboree Frogs.

4.2.4 Bushfires and fuel reduction burning

An extensive experimental bushfire at BushrangersCatchment in the Brindabella Range eliminated a verysmall local population of Northern Corroboree Frogs(Osborne, unpublished data). However, near RoundMountain, and in the Maragle Range in KosciuszkoNational Park, subalpine bushfires that burnt to nearthe edges of Sphagnum bog pools during the breedingseason did not prevent the frogs from returning to thepools the following season. These fires occurred at atime when adult males and females were in or near themoist breeding habitat and thus their immediate impacton adults may not have been great. However, autumnfires burning through woodland and heath surroundingbreeding sites are likely to have a greater potentialinfluence. At this time adult and sub-adult frogs have

moved distances of up to 300 m or more, away from thebogs, to feed and to find suitable over-wintering sites.Extensive burning of understorey litter and grass coverin these areas, such as occurs during prescribed burns,is likely to reduce the shelter available to the frogs andmake them more vulnerable to dehydration or freezing.Earlier this century, an increased frequency of autumnburning in association with grazing activity may havehad a significant impact (K. McDougall, pers. comm.).

4.2.5 Former livestock grazing

Livestock grazing may also have been a historicalcause of habitat deterioration. Pengilley (1966)suggested that the Snowy Mountains had been themost severely affected by modification of its breedinghabitat due to livestock grazing. He considered that itwas possible that some contraction of the range of thefrogs may have occurred as a result of drainage ofsphagnum bogs and their conversion to grazing land.This suggestion is reinforced by well documentedobservations of a deterioration in vegetation cover anda significant increase in soil erosion during the grazingera in the Snowy Mountains (Byles 1932; Costin 1954;Wimbush and Costin 1979; McDougall 1989). Costin(1954) noted that trampling by livestock rapidly breaksthe ground surface in moist peatlands leading toincision of the bogs with deeper drainage channels.These deeper channels then hasten the drying out andhumification of the peat, which may be furtherdegraded by wind and water erosion. Grazing insubalpine grasslands and bogs was often accompaniedby burning, which probably further reduced theprotective cover in both the breeding habitat and non-breeding habitat of the frogs.

Given the importance of shallow seepage and bogpools as breeding sites for the frogs, it is likely thatdisturbance to these areas during the high-countrygrazing era (1889 to 1958) resulted in the loss of somelocal populations. It is now over 30 years since thecessation of grazing and the condition of bogs andother potential breeding habitats is reported to haveimproved (A.B. Costin pers. comm.; R.B. Good pers.comm.), and the effects are now likely to be greatlydiminished. Nevertheless, long-term monitoringstudies such as those of Wimbush and Costin (1979)should be encouraged as they provide valuableinformation on the recovery of these areas. Forexample, it is possible that, due to extensive formerdisturbance, incision and lowering of the water table,seepages and bogs no longer support the range ofpools that existed before stock grazing. Thishypothesis requires further consideration and could betested experimentally by construction of a variety ofartificial pools and monitoring of their suitability.



4.2.6 Construction activities associated withoperation of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme

Significant losses of Southern Corroboree Frogbreeding habitat probably occurred during theconstruction of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-ElectricScheme between 1948 and 1972. Near Smiggin Holes,Pipers Saddle, Wragges Creek and Guthega, extensiveroad-making, aqueduct construction and otheractivities influencing drainage are likely to haveresulted in the drying out of some areas, particularlywhere water was diverted away from suitable breedinghabitats or where the water table was lowered. Thegradual loss of some populations may have beenexacerbated by run-off of road silt and gravel. Areasimpacted upon by construction have now beenstabilised by soil conservation measures and naturalrehabilitation and, unless substantial new earth worksare proposed, are unlikely to present an additionalimpact to frog populations.

4.2.7 Construction activities associated with skiresort development

Southern Corroboree Frogs were once common in atleast three ski resort areas: Smiggin Holes, Blue Cowand Guthega (Osborne 1988). They almost certainlyalso occurred at Perisher Valley but there have been noreliable records of the species from this area. Osborne(1988 and 1991) presents a detailed account of thepotential impacts of ski developments on the frogs;this will not be repeated here. It now seems certain thatthe Southern Corroboree Frog no longer occurs in anyresort areas (W. Osborne unpublished data; see alsoOsborne 1988), but the disappearance of the frogs fromthese areas is obviously symptomatic of the morewidespread decline.

Apart from direct mechanical impacts on habitat, theconstruction activities outlined in Osborne (1991) mayhave other impacts that apply to a wider range ofsituations. These are: (1) increased erosion andsiltation, (2) increased nutrient run-off, and (3) streamor seepage diversion or drainage. These are brieflydiscussed below:

Erosion and siltation

Erosion and subsequent siltation resulting fromconstruction activities would be expected to have asignificant impact on breeding sites. The pools usedby Southern Corroboree Frogs as breeding sites aregenerally shallow, clear pools with few dissolved ionsand a moderately low pH. Any sediment run-off andincrease in turbidity in the pools would potentiallythreaten tadpoles by mechanically blocking their gills,smothering the detritus in the pools which provide thefood source of the tadpoles, or filling the pools with

sediment to the extent that they no longer containwater.

Increased nutrient run-off

Fertilisers are commonly used during rehabilitation ofdisturbed areas when agronomic plant species arebeing sown for revegetation. There is oftenconsiderable run-off of nutrients from these sites asevidenced by the spread of exotic plant species downdrainage lines below buildings, roads and carparks.The influence of higher levels of nutrient input intobreeding pools is not known, but would probablypresent problems if the native vegetation cover wasreplaced by taller plants which shaded the pools, or ifthe higher nutrient levels caused excessive algal build-up and eutrophication of the pool.

Stream diversion and wet area drainage

Ski-slope development and hydro-electric constructionmay alter the drainage characteristics of an area,commonly initiating erosion and drainage of bogs andwet heaths. Activities such as the construction ofunderground sewers, the laying of buried cables andthe building of drains could detrimentally affect thefrogs if the construction diverts water away frombreeding sites, causes a lowering of the water table inthe breeding area, or leads to a concentration of theflow.

Given the potential influences described above, it isunlikely that the Southern Corroboree Frog can bemaintained in areas that have been extensivelydisturbed as a result of ski resort development.Osborne (1991) suggests a need to protect thehydrological integrity of the breeding habitat bymaintaining an extensive protective buffer aroundbreeding sites. The requirement for a total prohibitionon disturbance within the breeding areas would bedifficult to meet given the present extent ofdevelopment in the resort lease areas.

Suitable breeding sites still occur within the resortlease boundaries, although the condition of potentialbreeding habitat in these areas varies considerably(Osborne 1988). Pools remote from groomed ski runsand roads appear to be in relatively good condition andprovide potential habitat. These sites have beenmapped (unpublished maps prepared by W.S. Osborneand held by NPWS at the Snowy Mountains RegionalOffice, Jindabyne). Pools close to, or within, ski slopesand lift lines, and near roads, are usually highlydisturbed and do not provide potential breedinghabitat. Many of these pools within summer-groomedski slopes, close to lift lines and near roads, have beenhighly disturbed as a result of past developments anddo not provide potential breeding habitat. They may



contain rubbish, grooming rubble and tree cuttings.Vehicle activity has also damaged some of the sitesand some pools appear to contain sediment washedfrom nearby roads or lift access tracks. While currentpractices for ski resort development (eg. Perisher BluePty Limited 2000b) are aimed at protecting SouthernCorroboree Frog habitat from further disturbance,those pools which have suffered past impacts areunlikely to recovery in the foreseeable future.

Although the prospects for Corroboree Frogs in themore intensively developed areas of ski resorts appearto be poor, intact areas of habitat remain in other partsof the resort areas. It should be noted that, untilrecently, at Mt. Baw Baw in Victoria the endemic BawBaw Frog, Philoria frosti, still occurred in and nearmanaged ski slopes (Malone 1985). Therefore, thepossibility of a recovery of Corroboree Frogpopulations in the Smiggin Holes-Guthega-Blue Cowarea should not be excluded completely, andconservation plans for the species should include aconsideration of potential breeding sites in the resortareas. Such provisions are included in the Ski SlopePlan for the Perisher Blue Ski Resort (Perisher Blue PtyLimited 2000a).

4.2.8 Collecting by humans

The Southern Corroboree Frog is an attractive speciesand because of its appeal is often searched for, andsometimes removed, by visitors. However, because oftheir specialised diet the frogs may be difficult tomaintain for long periods in captivity and thus havelow potential value for the pet trade.

The physical intervention involved in searching forCorroboree Frogs usually results in disturbance to thenest site. After being disturbed, males often begincalling again at the same site or move a short distanceaway (D. Hunter unpublished data). However, theactivities of people trying to find the frogs could beexpected to seriously disrupt reproductive success atsites with low numbers of frogs. In addition, thepulling apart of moss and other vegetation by peoplesearching for frogs may expose some of the clutches todehydration during dry summer conditions.

The second aspect of collecting is the potential forover-collecting for scientific purposes. In the past verylarge samples of Corroboree Frogs have been removedfrom various readily accessible sites in KosciuszkoNational Park and in the Brindabella Range (seecomments in Osborne 1988). However, these earlyscientific collections apparently did not permanentlyaffect the size of local breeding groups, with mostcollecting sites at a later stage still supporting largenumbers of frogs (Dr. R.K. Pengilley pers. comm.; D.J.Wimbush pers. comm.; Dr. R.E. Barwick pers. comm.).

It is possible that intense illegal collecting coulddeplete local populations, but it is unlikely thatscientific collecting would be undertaken withoutapplication first being made for research permits. Underthe present extremely low population numbers anyresearch on the Southern Corroboree Frog thatinvolves removal of specimens has the potential todisturb already seriously depleted populations,including the possibility of introducing exotic diseases.Therefore, any new research proposals that involveremoval of frogs require careful consideration by theNPWS and by the Recovery Team.

4.2.9 Weed invasion

Sites supporting Southern Corroboree Frogs arecurrently virtually free of weeds. Plantings of exotictrees, such as willows Salix spp., for soil conservationpurposes by the Snowy Mountains Hydro-ElectricityAuthority, have been widespread in the SnowyMountains. These plantings occur along roads,aqueducts and other areas disturbed duringconstruction activities. Although no breeding sites aredirectly threatened by willow invasion, in the longer-term the spread of willows by sexual reproduction andthe production of seed and also through vegetativegrowth along seepages and streams may present aproblem for the management of some sites. In Victoria,some bogs are being invaded by Mimulus moschatus,Mentha spicata and Juncus effusus (K. McDougall,pers comm.). Of these, Mimulus moschatus appears tobe the biggest threat as it grows well in the sphagnumand may form quite large patches. All three species arepresent in Kosciuszko National Park.

4.2.10 Feral animals

Feral Pigs (Sus scrofa) sometimes damage breedingareas used by Southern Corroboree Frogs. They mayalso damage over-wintering habitat by overturningshelter sites such as logs and destroying dense groundcover. This is mainly confined to areas betweenKiandra and Mt Jagungal and on the Toolong Range,but pigs appear to be slowly spreading to othersubalpine areas (C. Smith NPWS pers. comm.).Additional research on the interaction between pigsand Corroboree Frogs would be useful to better predictthe likely impacts.

5 Previous Recovery Actions

• Considerable research has already been publishedon the biology of both species of Corroboree Frogs.Much of this research was originally carried out inthe mid-1960’s by Ross Pengilley (Department ofZoology, ANU; see references below) who focusedmainly on describing the reproductive biology,



calling behaviour and diet of both species (thenrecognised only as the northern and southern formsof P. corroboree). More recently, Will Osborne(Department of Zoology, ANU and Applied EcologyResearch Group, University of Canberra) hasundertaken research specifically aimed at improvingour knowledge of the conservation biology of bothspecies. Osborne’s work examined distribution andabundance, morphology, genetics and climate (seereferences below). A product of this work was thepublication of a paper supporting recognition of thenorthern form as a full species - P. pengilleyi(Osborne et al. 1996).

• A Species Management Report and accompanyingManagement Plan was published in 1991 (Osborne1991). This report recommended research andmanagement actions for both species of CorroboreeFrogs. Some of these actions have now beencompleted (eg. implementation of an annualmonitoring program, analysis of long-term weatherpatterns) or are currently underway (monitoring ofhabitat change at breeding sites; breeding responseof very small populations).

• Funding to support recovery actions has beenobtained for four years (1997-2000) from the FederalEndangered Species Program.

• In the last three years new research specificallyaimed at understanding the metapopulationprocesses affecting both species has beenundertaken by David Hunter (Applied EcologyResearch Group, University of Canberra). Hunter isexamining the ecological processes that affect thedemography of small populations of this species.Specifically, he is examining population agestructure, reproductive success, and levels ofembryonic and larval mortality in populations ofdifferent sizes and with different degrees ofisolation. At a broader scale, he and Osborne areexamining the extent of decline throughout the rangeof both species, and attempting to relate the declineto biogeographic processes such as regionalclimate.

• A management and monitoring program for bothspecies of Corroboree Frog has been implementedby the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service inconjunction with the University of Canberra. Thisprogram was recently reviewed after considerationof experimental design factors and the number ofsites to be monitored has increased to allow fordifferent hypotheses concerning the populationdeclines (see section 6 below for more details).

• A survey of a large number of known and potentialbreeding sites (including known extinction sites) hasbeen completed. This work, carried out over severalbreeding seasons to allow for seasonal variation in

the abundance of frogs, has made it possible toassess the size and geographic distribution ofbreeding populations. It has also permittedcomparisons to be made with results of earliersurveys to assess the extent of any changes inpopulation size and to determine whether declinesare continuing and the extent of contraction in thegeographic range of the species.

• Data have been collected on the habitat features at arange of sites including topographic position,hydrological characteristics, soil moisture, litterdepth, and vegetation structure and floristics.Analysis of these data will enable comparisons to bemade between successful, declining/poor and formerbreeding sites. Once key habitat variablesassociated with successful breeding sites have beenidentified, it may be possible to recommendmanagement actions that can be undertaken toarrest declines at selected experimental sites (seeAction 3.3 – Breeding pool manipulation).

• A study is being concluded to identify aspects ofclimate such as temperature, precipitation, snowdepth and duration which may have had an effect onthe breeding or non-breeding habitat of the species.Analysis of data for the past 30 years(encompassing periods when the frogs wereabundant and in decline) now being undertakenmay, for example, link decline to abnormally lengthydry periods which could have affected survival oftadpoles through pond drying.

• The Perisher Blue Ski Slope Plan proposes to retainexisting areas of Southern Corroboree Frog habitatwithin the resort wherever practicable (Perisher BluePty Limited 2000a). While the Corroboree Frogcurrently appears to be absent from the resort, thisapproach has been adopted in the hope that thespecies may make a recovery in the future.



6 Proposed Recovery Objectives, Actions and Performance Criteria 1999-2003

The recovery objectives, actions and criteria listedbelow are based on the need for determining the causeof the ongoing population decline in the SouthernCorroboree Frog. The approach taken is bothexperimental and proactive; the general philosophyfollows that of Caughley and Gunn (1996). Caughleyand Gunn state that “the effectiveness of treating adecline depends on the accuracy with which itscauses have been diagnosed. More than one factormay be driving a decline which increases the need foran experimental investigation. A shotgun approachwith a suite of recovery treatments is seldom, if ever,the answer. Diagnosis will reveal the magnitude ofhow different factors are affecting the decline andthat, in turn, will guide priorities for the treatments”.Once such a diagnosis has been made, managementactions additional to the general managementprescriptions proposed for populations in KosciuszkoNational Park by Osborne (1991) can be implemented.These may include, for example, artificial maintenanceof breeding pools or deliberate flooding of ovipositionsites to reduce mortality in the early life-history stages.

Overall Objectives

In the long term, the overall objective of the recoveryprogram is to downlist the species from critically-endangered to endangered within ten years (based onIUCN criteria of population size and trends, extent ofoccurrence and probability of extinction). Theimmediate objective is to prevent the continuingdecline in population numbers and throughexperimental management increase the size of selectedrepresentative populations across the geographicrange of the species.

Overall Criterion

Populations of Southern Corroboree Frog stopdecreasing and remain stable or increase directly due torecovery actions at six key sites over five years.

Specific Objective 1: Identify the cause ofthe continuing population decline and obtainecological information that can be used inexperimental management.

Action 1.1 Prepare and implement arigorous but minimal disturbance annualprogram for monitoring representativeremaining populations and extinctionsites.

The design will include the following treatments:altitude, precipitation, pool abundance, catchment size,original population size, breeding habitat, non-breedinghabitat and metapopulation position. Monitoring willinclude tadpoles to determine whether breeding hasbeen successful.

Population monitoring is an important component ofthe recovery process for threatened frogs in Australia(Tyler 1997). However, a lack of long-term studies hashampered efforts to determine the full extent of declinein amphibian populations, and the question as towhether population declines are indicative of apopulation collapse, or simply part of longer-termfluctuations in response to local weather patterns, orsome other cyclical phenomena remains unresolved formany species (Pechmann et al. 1991; Pechmann andWilbur 1998).

Recovery Criterion 1.1

Implementation of an effective program to monitorrepresentative populations, including known extinctionsites, for twenty years.

Action 1.2 Identify the life-history stagecontributing most to demographic failureand leading to decline.

Research will be undertaken to identify the mostsensitive period of the life-history. This research isessential for the undertaking of any form of populationviability estimation, and will include determining atwhat stage the highest mortality is experienced.Research initially will focus on the pre-metamorphicstage (eggs, tadpoles) because this is the stage thatusually suffers the highest levels of mortality throughpredation, competition and pond-drying (Wilbur 1980;Duellman and Trueb 1986).

Because of the already seriously depleted size of mostlocal populations of the Southern Corroboree Frog,studies of embryonic and tadpole mortality will have tobe undertaken somewhat opportunistically. To reducedisturbance to egg clutches, embryonic mortality willbe assessed only in conjunction with the collection ofeggs to be used in recruitment enhancement research(see Action 2.1). Similarly, tadpole mortality studieswill be undertaken at the recruitment enhancementsites. This will involve partitioning sections of eachexperimental pool (chosen randomly) in order to allowfor an accurate census. Since the aim of the populationenhancement project is to reduce early life history



mortality the use of enclosures is desirable becausetadpoles can be easily gathered and moved to saferwaters if the pools start drying. It will also allow for adirect comparison of survival rates of field-hatchedtadpoles compared to tadpoles hatched in thelaboratory and maintained over winter (Action 1.3) .Embryonic mortality will be determined by checkingrandomly located egg masses just prior to hatching.


Research completed which determined which life-history stage is contributing most to the currentdemographic failure and decline.

Action 1.3 Develop techniques and obtainpreliminary information on the agestructure of the adult breedingpopulation.

It will be almost impossible to undertake direct researchon juvenile frogs and adults in the field because oftheir small size (difficult to fit transmitters or otherelectronic marking devices) and because they are likelyto disperse into extensive areas of thick heath andwoodland where there is little likelihood of findingindividuals.

Although it may be difficult to undertake direct studiesof survivorship in juveniles and adults it will bepossible to compare the age structure of breedingadults present in the populations now with samples ofadults collected and preserved in museums prior to thedecline. In recently completed preliminary researchfunded by the University of Canberra, D. Huntersuccessfully examined the age structure of adultbreeding males of Northern Corroboree Frogs from anumber of low altitude and high altitude sites.Individual males were toe-clipped to obtain bonematerial for ageing, and their throat pattern wassketched for individual identification. Other datacollected included sex, weight, snout-urostyle length,tibia length, whether the males had been successful inmating, and the number of eggs in nest sites.Information was also obtained on the effect ofdisturbing males in their nest site.


Information on the age structure of the adult breedingpopulation obtained.

Action 1.4 Determine sensitivity of theSouthern Corroboree Frog to UV-Bradiation.

Serious declines affecting many species of frogs haveoccurred at high altitudes in undisturbed mountain

environments (eg. Crump et al. 1992; Carey 1993;Fellers and Drost 1993; Kagarise, Sherman and Morton1993; Gillespie et al. 1995). The global distribution ofdeclines in such habitats suggests causal agents thatexert their influence on a global scale. One plausibleexplanation for the declines is that exposed tadpoles oreggs are being damaged by UV-B radiation as a resultof ozone layer depletion (Blaustein et al. 1994). Highelevation regions have experienced the greatestincrease in solar Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation (Hermanand Larko 1994) and for this reason the potentialeffects of UV-B on the survival of the SouthernCorroboree Frog will be investigated.


Field experiments determining the sensitivity of eggs,embryos and tadpoles of the Southern Corroboree Frogto ambient ultraviolet radiation completed.

Specific Objective 2: Prevent the continuingdecline in population numbers byexperimentally increasing population size atselected sites

Action 2.1 Increase the size of the breedingadult population through artificiallydecreasing egg and tadpole mortality.

The premise behind this action is that the high egg andtadpole mortality observed during the over-winterphase is significantly contributing to the currentregulation of population size. The first phase of thisaction is to investigate possible techniques which maybe used to increase over-winter survival. The secondphase will involve monitoring the number of breedingmales between mortality-reduced populations andcontrol populations to investigate the potential for thisprocedure to increase the breeding adult populationsize.

Two possible techniques for reducing over-wintermortality are currently being tested. The first involvesremoving eggs from nest sites during autumn, rearingthem in captivity through to an early stage tadpole atthe Amphibian Research Centre (ARC), and returningthem to their natal pools in early spring after snow melt.During the 1997, 1998 and 1999 breeding seasons, acomparison between levels of field survivorship andcaptive reared survivorship through to metamorphosiswas undertaken. The results showed that the processof captive rearing significantly increases survivorshipthough to metamorphosis (for details of themethodology and results refer to Hunter et al. inpress).



The second technique being investigated involvesremoving the eggs from the nest sites during autumn,after the breeding pools have filled with water, andplacing them directly into the pools. Preliminary resultssuggest that this technique may also be usedsuccessfully to reduce early life-history mortality. Aninvestigation will be undertaken in 2000-2001 tocompare survivorship of field control, captive rearedindividuals and eggs placed directly into the water.This will allow the choice of the most appropriatetechnique for incorporation into this project.

Action 2.1 was initiated in 1997 with survivorshipthrough to metamorphosis being increased in threeremnant populations. An additional four populationswere incorporated into the project during 1998 and 1999to make a total of seven populations where recruitmentenhancement is being undertaken. Since the SouthernCorroboree Frog takes three years to reachreproductive maturity from the egg stage, it willprobably not be until January 2002 before we will haveany indication as to the success of this project.Furthermore, given that the Southern Corroboree Frogmay live for up to six years as a breeding adult,successive years of recruitment enhancement mayprovide more conclusive results due to the cumulativeeffect on the breeding population size. Furtherpopulations may be incorporated into the project if theinitial results prove successful.


Further decline in population numbers at sites withextant populations has been prevented through activemanagement of eggs and tadpoles in the field.

Specific Objective 3: In the longer term (by2015), to increase the total metapopulationto a level predicted to be adequate for longterm viability (both in terms of number ofindividuals and number of populations).

Action 3.1 Develop a captive breedingprogram.

Because of the major collapse of the wild population,development of a captive breeding program for theSouthern Corroboree Frog is now an essentialcomponent of the recovery program. The aim of thisbreeding program is to provide a source of animals forfuture experimentation and reintroduction projects,secure the genetic diversity of the species in the eventof further population declines and extinctions andprovide an educational resource and focus for fundraising efforts. The initial phase of this program willinvolve developing adequate captive husbandry

techniques for this species. The ultimate timing andscale of this program will be largely determined by thesuccess of this initial phase.

Captive husbandry research commenced in 1997. TheNPWS contracted the ARC in Melbourne to undertakeprivate research on methods for maintaining andbreeding both the Northern and Southern CorroboreeFrogs in captivity. A small number of adult NorthernCorroboree Frogs have been maintained in captivity fortwo years however breeding has not been achieved atthis stage. Similarly, a small number of SouthernCorroboree Frog tadpoles, which were obtained fromthe population enhancement program (refer to Action2.1) during 1997, 1998 and 1999, have been successfullyreared over the last three years. Because they have notyet attained reproductive maturity, their breedingpotential cannot be assessed. Additional tadpoles ofthe Southern Corroboree Frog and adults of theNorthern Corroboree Frog will be supplied to the ARCduring 2000 and 2001 for further development of thisprogram.

At present the captive husbandry program is beingconducted exclusively at the Amphibian ResearchCentre. Because of the possibility, however remote,that a single captive population could be destroyed byaccident or become infected by a pathogen, a secondcaptive colony would be highly desirable. Thispossibility will be considered by the Recovery Teamsubject to the availability of necessary funding andsufficient numbers of captive animals from the initialcaptive breeding program to make it feasible.


An increase in population numbers at sites targeted forrecruitment enhancement through the captivehusbandry program is achieved.

Action 3.2 Screening of captive rearedindividuals for pathogens prior torelease.

While the effect of disease on amphibian populationsis poorly known, the possibility that a disease isaffecting the populations of Southern Corroboree Frogshould not be ignored. Moreover, given recentconcern about a particularly virulent fungal diseaseaffecting captive frogs (Lee Berger, personalcommunication), the risk of introducing a disease intowild populations from captive-reared animals should beconsidered. Returning captive-reared animals to extantpopulations is considered to be highly undesirable dueto the risk of introducing a disease into the population.

A prudent approach, with regard to avoiding diseasetransmission, would involve the screening of all



individuals just prior to their release (Dodd and Seigel1991). Therefore, a sample of both field and captivetadpoles will be tested for pathogens before the releaseof the captive population back into the wild.

One additional action that will be considered in thefuture is determining whether the chytrid fungus iscurrently present in the wild population.


A screening program designed and implemented for thepresence of pathogens in field and captive rearedSouthern Corroboree Frogs returned to fieldpopulations.

Action 3.3 Breeding pool manipulation

The specific breeding habitat requirements ofCorroboree Frogs have been studied in detail byOsborne (1990). The main feature of the breedinghabitat is the presence of shallow pools or seepages,which occur in open areas away from trees or largeover-hanging shrubs. Because of the lengthy (6+months) larval period of the frogs, the water bodiesused as tadpole development sites necessarily must beof long duration. Osborne (1990) also found that thefrogs prefer large, shallow pools which warm during theday and have an edge protected by moss and othervegetation that provides suitable calling andoviposition sites. As previously mentioned someecologists suggest that, following the removal ofgrazing and associated disturbance, wetlands haveundergone seral changes (generally interpreted as aform of recovery), however the hydrology of thebreeding habitat and the range of pools available forbreeding may differ in some unknown manner from thepre-European condition (I. Pulsford pers. comm.).Whilst we suggest that it is highly unlikely that thecurrent decline has been brought about by thesechanges (in some locations the frogs have declined orcompletely disappeared from numerous sites with largenumbers of pools present; Hunter and Osborne inprep.), it is prudent to attempt some form of habitatmanipulation to test this hypothesis. This researchcould also be done in association with a translocationprogram should tadpoles be available in the future.Before any habitat manipulation was initiated, chosensites would be checked for possible presence of Carexraleighii (which commonly grows in Sphagnum areas)and other threatened species.

Using an experimental design (yet to be determined butincluding unmanipulated control sites and manipulatedexperimental sites), pools will be created or modified toprovide additional potential breeding habitat atselected sites. In the former instance habitatmanipulation will involve the construction of artificial

pools of different sizes. In the latter the provision ofartificial depressions in existing pools to providerefugia for tadpoles as the pools dry out. Thismanipulation would only take place close to extantpopulations.

If suitable numbers of tadpoles are available fortranslocation, an attempt will be made to re-establishthe Southern Corroboree Frog at a suitable site or sites,or an attempt will be made to increase the populationsize of breeding adults at existing experimental sites.Careful monitoring will be required to determine thesuccess of such habitat manipulation. A research planand appropriate experimental design will be preparedfor this proposal in the near future.


Successful completion of experimental populationtranslocation to known extinction sites in conjunctionwith habitat enhancement (eg. pool construction) andmaintenance of suitable hydrological conditions.

Specific Objective 4: Ameliorate threateningprocesses which have contributed to thedecline of the species, including ensuringthat human activities will not add increasedrisk to remaining populations.

Action 4.1 Implement management of thehabitat of the Southern Corroboree Frogand include habitat managementprescriptions in relevant plans andoperational procedures, with particularemphasis on management of roads, fireand feral pigs.

The main Actions undertaken by NPWS are describedbelow. Many of these Actions are undertakenroutinely during normal park management activities andhave not been costed in this Recovery Plan.

Strict protection of all remaining breeding sitesAll known Southern Corroboree Frog breeding sites inKosciuszko National Park will be given full protectionfrom direct human disturbance. In particular, the largerremaining breeding sites in the Dargals Range, OgilviesCreek, Jagumba Range and Round Mountain regionwill be accorded a very high priority. Sites in thisregion represent the only remaining substantialbreeding aggregations that still maintain somesemblance of a metapopulation structure. Because ofthe possible attraction of the frogs to tourists, or otherpotential collectors, the exact location of breeding sitesin this region will not be made public. The presentclassification of the frogs as 'Significant Natural



Features' (NPWS 1984a) will remain, and will help withthe protection of potential breeding sites in the resortareas and elsewhere.

The Kosciuszko National Park Plan of Managementcurrently provides for the exclusion of fuel reductionburning from Southern Corroboree Frog breeding andnon-breeding habitat (NPWS 1984b). Every effortshould also be made to protect these areas fromwildfire.

Maintain hydrological integrity of sitesSouthern Corroboree Frogs are completely dependenton continued water seepage into the shallow breedingpools. During the lengthy (approximately six-month)period that the tadpoles are developing they arevulnerable to mortality if the pools dry. Consequentlyany activity that reduces water flow into the breedinghabitat is potentially detrimental to the continuedexistence of the frogs at the site. Activities in thecatchments of the breeding sites which may bedeleterious include road construction, the laying ofsurface and sub-surface drains, cables and seweragemains and the construction of aqueducts. Suchactivities, which may intercept and reduce water flowinto breeding sites, are not compatible with theprotection of the breeding habitat.

Vehicle use and excessive human trampling within thebreeding habitat is likely to damage both the pools andthe moss used as breeding sites by the frogs. Suchactivities will be prevented in order to protect thebreeding pools, drainage lines and seepages.

Protection of non-breeding habitatAt the end of the breeding period adult and sub-adultfrogs disperse up to 300 metres or more from thebreeding pools (Osborne 1988). Most individuals leavethe moist breeding habitat and spend winter in thewoodland and drier heathland that surrounds thebreeding sites. In these areas some frogs hibernatebeneath logs but most probably shelter beneath aground layer cover of litter, grass and other vegetation.The frogs can be expected to occur in these drier non-breeding season habitats during much of the periodfrom May to December when the soil in these areas isrelatively moist from autumn and winter rains.

Although Corroboree Frog non-breeding habitat isdispersed and extensive, when compared to thebreeding areas, large scale disturbance from activitiessuch as land clearing and burning would be potentiallydamaging to the frogs. Clearing of vegetation, and inparticular burning of the understorey litter and grasscover, would reduce the shelter available to the frogsand make them more vulnerable to dehydration duringdry weather. Because prescribed burning (control or

fuel reduction burning) has the specific purpose ofgreatly reducing ground litter cover, and because theburns are usually carried out in autumn when the frogshave moved into woodland and heath, such programswill not be implemented near Southern Corroboree Frogbreeding sites (see earlier section on protection ofbreeding sites).

Protection in areas managed by other authoritiesApart from the NSW National Parks and WildlifeService, a number of other organisations andauthorities operate facilities in Kosciuszko NationalPark (details listed in National Parks and WildlifeService 1984b). In particular, the Snowy MountainsHydro-Electric Authority has responsibilities that mayaffect the conservation of Corroboree Frogs. Anumber of Southern Corroboree Frog breeding sitesoccur near aqueducts and roads maintained by SnowyMountains Hydro-Electricity Authority. Although theexisting usage of these areas is unlikely to furtherdamage frog breeding sites, any major newconstruction in areas frequented by the frogs mayadversely affect their breeding habitat and wouldrequire full assessment of potential impacts.

Control of feral animalsDisturbance to vegetation and soil from pig rooting byFeral Pigs (Sus scrofa) in some areas can be extensive,and pools containing Corroboree Frog tadpoles aresometimes used as wallows by the pigs. Although thefrogs may on occasions breed in small pools caused bypig disturbance, the overall impact on CorroboreeFrogs is considered to be harmful. In keeping with thegeneral policy of KNP on feral animal control, pignumbers will be monitored and controlled in areasknown to have Southern Corroboree Frogs.

Recovery Criterion 4

Habitat management prescriptions are implemented,including high priority management protocols toprevent disturbance to remaining occupied breedingsites and adjacent non-breeding habitat; throughmanagement actions, protection of sites from fire,vehicle disturbance and the activities of pest animals,particularly pigs.

Specific Objective 5: Increase communityawareness and involve the community inaspects of the recovery program.

Action 5.1 Provide information to the publicabout the species and training inappropriate management to relevantauthorities.



Extension and media activities will be continued andtargeted at educating teachers, bushwalkers, skiers,campers and the public about the precarious situationof the frog and the importance of the recovery program.Interpretive signs or similar material will be placed atsites where visually conspicuous recovery actions aretaking place near areas visited by walkers or otherusers (eg. at breeding sites where pools have beenmodified or constructed).

Training will be provided for management, field andplanning staff (NPWS, SMHEA, ski resorts, etc.) topromote an understanding of the ecology andmonitoring of the Southern Corroboree Frog, andensure compliance with protection of breeding andnon-breeding habitat. NPWS staff, community groupsand tertiary students will be involved in the monitoring.

Support from conservation organisations and industryin the form of financial and other assistance to therecovery program will be sought.


Community information brochures, interpretation signs,and informative articles prepared and representativesof relevant authorities trained to assist with appropriateresearch and management activities.

Specific Objective 6: Achieve the effectiveimplementation of the Recovery Program

Action 6.1 Ensure the continued operationof the Recovery Team and the carryingout of the Actions identified in theRecovery Plan.

A Recovery Team has been in existence since 1995.The Recovery Team includes participants with therange of skills necessary for determining recoveryactions and for setting priorities associated withrecovery research and management. Expertise on theRecovery Team includes amphibian biology andecology, amphibian husbandry, wildlife management,national park management, human resources andproject development and financial management .

The Recovery Team will be responsible forimplementing the Recovery Plan, including the detailedplanning required for the program, such as theidentification of actions, targets, responsibilities andtime-lines for completion. The Recovery Team will alsomonitor and assess implementation of the RecoveryPlan, and will carry out administrative tasks relating therecovery effort, including preparing contracts for thecomponents of the program, and obtaining relevant

permits to enable work to proceed. The major cost formanagement of the recovery program will be met byNPWS. Other participating agencies will beresponsible for their own costs.


The Recovery Team continues to operate and recoveryactions continue to the implemented.

7 Implementation

Table 1 outlines the implementation of recovery actionsspecified in this plan for the period of five years frompublication.

8 Social and Economic Consequences

This Recovery Plan estimates that the total costs ofimplementing the recommended actions will be $738,750over the five year period covered by the plan. Themain contributors of these funds are the NPWS($251,000), the University of Canberra ($160,000) andthe Amphibian Research Centre ($79,000). The balanceof the costs ($248,750) are unsecured; however,assistance will be sought from the CommonwealthEndangered Species Program which has providedfunding for the past three years. Monitoring, researchand habitat protection account for a substantialproportion of the total costs. Since the remainingpopulations all occur in Kosciuszko National Park thereare no costs associated with land reservation orprotection or foregone opportunities associated withalternative land uses.

Because the populations of the Southern CorroboreeFrog occur entirely in Kosciuszko National Park, itsconservation requirements can be readily incorporatedwith other park management objectives and it isunlikely that significant conflict would arise. It is,therefore, expected that there will be no significantsocial costs.

Whilst it is possible to make estimates of the economiccosts with some degree of accuracy and confidence,economic benefits are much less easy to quantify.They are, nevertheless, real and need to be taken fullyinto account in an assessment of the relative costs andbenefits of recovery planning for the SouthernCorroboree Frog.

The Southern Corroboree Frog is a distinctive andstriking species that has captured public attention. Itsdecline sends a message about the overall deteriorationin the quality of our environment. If we can



successfully bring this species back from the brink ofextinction, there could be significant social benefits interms of how positively we see our environment and itsgeneral health. In the longer term, also, the SouthernCorroboree Frog is a part of Australia’s biodiversity,and therefore deserving of efforts to preserve it for theenjoyment of present and future generations.

9 Biodiversity Benefits

A considerable proportion of the efforts of theRecovery Team are focussed on understanding thereasons for the decline of the species and themanagement actions required to arrest the decline innumbers. It is likely that at least part of this work willbe applicable to other endangered frog species andlead to considerable benefits in terms of improvingtheir prospects for survival. In addition, the habitatmanagement and protection undertaken directly for theSouthern Corroboree Frog will benefit other significantflora and fauna species occurring in the sameenvironments; notably Carex raleighii, an endangeredsedge species which occurs in habitats similar to thoseoccupied by the Corroboree Frog in the headwaters ofthe Tooma and Tumut Rivers in Kosciuszko NationalPark. A Recovery Plan for this species has also beencompleted.

10 Preparation Details

Dr Will Osborne, of The University of Canberraprepared this Recovery Plan.

Dr Stephen Clark and Michael Saxon, ThreatenedSpecies Unit, Southern Directorate NPWS, finalisedand edited the plan.

The plan has been formulated with the advice andassistance of a Recovery Team. The Recovery Team isa non-statutory group of expert biologists,landowners/managers and other stakeholders and hasbeen established by the NSW National Parks andWildlife Service (NPWS) to discuss and resolve issuesrelating to the conservation and management of thespecies.

11 Review Date

Any major changes to this Recovery Plan will requirethe revised Plan to be placed on public exhibition inNSW and re-approval by the NSW Minister for theEnvironment. The NPWS, Environment Australia ormembers of the Recovery Team should be contacted ifit is believed any change to the Recovery Plan or to the

Recovery Program should be considered. ThisRecovery Plan is to be formally reviewed by the NPWSin conjunction with the Recovery Team within fiveyears from its date of publication.



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Table 1: Estimated costs of implementing the actions identified in the recovery plan are provided below.

Action

Action Description *Priority

^Feasibility Responsible Fund Cost Estimate ($’s/year) TotalCost

No. Party source 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 ($’s)1.1 Monitoring 1 100%

NPWSUCAN

UnsecuredIn KindIn Kind

12,00012,0006,000

8,00012,0006,000

8,00012,0006,000

8,00012,0006,000

8,00012,0006,000

44,00060,00030,000

1.2 Determine life-history stage responsible for populationdecline

1 100%NPWSUCAN


9,0003,0006,000

9,0003,0006,000

4,5001,5003,000

22,5007,500

15,0001.3 Establish age structure of adult breeding population 1 100% UCAN In Kind 2,000 2,000 2,000 6,0001.4 Determine sensitivity of eggs, embryos and tadpoles to

ambient UV-B radiation1 100%

NPWSUCAN


14,2503,000

42,000

12,0003,0008,000

12,0003,0008,000

38,2509,000

58,0002.1 Recruitment enhancement through population

supplementation1 100%

NPWSUCANARC

UnsecuredIn KindIn KindIn Kind

5,00012,00012,0008,000

5,00012,00012,0008,000

5,00012,00012,0008,000

tbd8,000

tbdtbd

tbd8,000

tbdtbd

15,00052,00036,00024,000

3.1 Captive husbandry and breeding trials 1 100%NPWSUCANARC

UnsecuredIn KindIn KindIn Kind

10,0001,0001,000

10,000

10,0001,0001,000

10,000

10,0001,000500

10,000

10,0001,000500

10,000

10,0001,000500

10,000

50,0005,0003,500

50,0003.2 Screening for pathogens prior to tadpole release 1 100% ARC/CSIRO

AHLIn Kind 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 5,000

3.3 Breeding pool manipulation 3 100%NPWSUCAN


5,0005,0003,000

10,0003,0003,000

10,0003,0001,000

2,0001,0001,000

2,0001,0001,000

29,00013,0009,000

4.1 Habitat protection 1 100%NPWS

UnsecuredIn Kind

10,00016,000

10,00016,000

10,00016,000

10,00012,000

10,00012,000

50,00072,000

5.1 Stakeholder and community awareness and involvement 3 100% NPWSUCAN

In KindIn Kind

4,500500

4,500500

4,500500

4,500500

4,500500

22,5002,500

6.1 Operation of Recovery Team 3 100% NPWS In Kind 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 10,000Total Unsecure

d65250 64000 59500 30000 30000 248,750

Total In Kind 150000 114000

107000 59500 59500 490,000

Total Annual cost of Recovery Program Unsecured + InKind

215250 178000

166500 89500 89500 738,750


Costings were estimated in 1999. No allowance has been made for inflation*Priority ratings as defined by Commonwealth Recovery plan guidelines: 1 - action critical to prevent extinction, 2 - action prevents negative impact short of extinction,3 – other actions^Feasibility assessment reflects estimated chance of success of the action on a scale of 0-100%.

Documents

Recovery Plan for the Southern Corroboree Frog