Recovery Plan for the Mountain Pygmy-possum

May 2002

Recovery Plan for theMountain Pygmy-possum(Burramys parvus)

Approved Recovery Plan

NSWNATIONALPARKS ANDWILDLIFESERVICE

© NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2002.This work is copyright however, material presented in this plan may be copied forpersonal use or published for educational purposes, providing that any extracts arefully acknowledged. Apart from this and any other use as permitted under theCopyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced without prior written permissionfrom NPWS.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service43 Bridge Street(PO Box 1967)Hurstville NSW 2220Tel: 02 95856444

www.npws.nsw.gov.au

Requests for information or comments regarding the recovery program for theMountain Pygmy-possum are best directed to:

The Mountain Pygmy-possum Recovery Team coordinatorThreatened Species Unit,NPWS Southern DirectoratePO Box 2115Queanbeyan, NSW 2620Ph: (02) 6298 9700

Or

The ManagerReserve Conservation Unit,NPWS Southern DirectoratePO Box 2228Jindabyne, NSW 2627Ph: (02) 6450 5555

Cover: An adult female Mountain Pygmy-possum Burramys parvus and the endemicMountain Plum-pine Podocarpus lawrencei, with �fruit� (actually a modifiedrecepticle) and seed. Both are included in the possums� diet.Photographer: Linda Broome.

This plan should be cited as:

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2002) Approved Recovery Plan for theMountain Pygmy-possum, Burramys parvus. NSW National Parks and WildlifeService, Hurstville NSW.

ISBN 0731364732

Approved Recovery Plan The Mountain Pygmy-possum

Recovery Plan for the MountainPygmy-possum (Burramys parvus)Executive SummaryThis document constitutes the formal New South Wales State Recovery Plan for the Mountain Pygmy-possumBurramys parvus, and as such considers the conservation requirements of the species across its known range inNew South Wales. It identifies actions to be undertaken to ensure the long-term viability of the species in natureand the parties who will carry these out.

The Mountain Pygmy-possum is listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) on the NSW Threatened SpeciesConservation Act 1995, and Endangered (Schedule 1, Part 1) on the Commonwealth�s Environment Protectionand Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Unlike other small possums it is ground-dwelling, living inboulderfield patches in subalpine and alpine areas of the Snowy Mountains of south-eastern NSW and the highcountry of Victoria. It is the largest of the pygmy possums, weighing approximately 40 grams in summer butreaching up to 80 grams in autumn, when it fattens for winter and hibernates under an insulating cover of snow,which blankets its habitat for up to 5 months of the year. It is the only Australian mammal that depends onwinter snow cover for its survival, and is an icon species for the Australian Alps. In NSW it occurs within a tinyarea of habitat in Kosciuszko National Park, extending from near Thredbo in the south to Gungartan, 30 km tothe north. Within this area it lives in small boulderfield patches, with a total habitat area of less than 4 km2.Research shows that local population dynamics differ between these patches, and suggests that the totalpopulation on the Kosciuszko plateau is interdependent and functioning as a metapopulation. To conserve sucha system, particularly because the population size is so small (less than 500 adults), all habitat must be givenhigh priority for protection. The greatest threat to the continued viability of the Mountain Pygmy-possum ishabitat loss and marginalisation, which is expected to increase with the predicted effects of climate change. Thetwo largest, most stable, likely source populations occur within ski resort lease areas at Mt Blue Cow andCharlotte Pass. These populations are genetically distinct and are likely to be significant refugia under the threatof global warming. Their protection is paramount.

This Recovery Plan summarises the current knowledge of the Mountain Pygmy-possum and details a recoverystrategy that aims to maintain and enhance the viability of the species in the wild. The primary objective is toprotect all populations and habitat in Kosciuszko National Park. To avoid specific local impacts resulting fromdevelopment activities and high recreational use, particularly in ski resorts, a number of recovery actions involveski resort operators working closely with the NPWS and Planning NSW. These actions aim to assess andprevent impacts of ski slope activities on Mountain Pygmy-possum populations and their habitat within skiresorts. Where knowledge is lacking, a precautionary approach is taken. Other actions involve assessing andmonitoring the effects of climate change, which has the potential to impact seriously on Mountain Pygmy-possums and other alpine species. Because predicted loss of snow cover and marginalisation of habitat fromclimate change will be difficult to combat, other objectives involve increasing present population growth ratesby restoring movement corridors where damage has occurred in the past, and by controlling feral predators.Other actions include (i) finalising documentation of all populations and habitat within Kosciuszko NationalPark, (ii) monitoring populations and habitat within ski resorts and other areas to detect responses tomanagement and variation in climate, (iii) modelling population dynamics and habitat change, (iv) research onthe Bogong Moth, hibernation and other factors affecting its distribution, and (vi) developing a communityinformation and conservation participation program.

This recovery plan will be implemented over a five-year period. Actions will be implemented using existingresources of the NSW NPWS and ski resort lease agreement contributions, and a private grant through theFoundation for National Parks and Wildlife. An additional $741,200 will be required to implement currentlyunfunded actions.

BRIAN GILLIGAN BOB DEBUSDirector-General Minister for the Environment


Acknowledgments

Perisher Blue Pty Ltd, NPWS Snowy Mountains Region Resorts Division, the Foundation for National Parksand Wildlife and David Archer are thanked for funding previous and ongoing research and monitoring; IainEdgar, Charlotte Pass Area Manager for discussions of ski resort operation and assistance with research atCharlotte Pass; Michael Fearnside Perisher Blue Mountain Manager, and Bob Jack Perisher Blue GeneralManager of Operations, for discussions of resort operation, habitat management and restoration work at Mt BlueCow; Andrew Thornhill, NPWS for researching historical information and providing definitions of ski slopeterminology; NPWS Snowy Region Heritage Unit for administering monitoring programs; Ken Green, NPWSfor population and snow depth monitoring, predator control program; Jenny Wright, NPWS for conductingannual seed monitoring; Phil Boreham, Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Authority for providing snow depthdata; Lyn Finch NPWS and Lorraine Oliver NPWS for assistance with Figures, Gerhard Körtner, University ofNew England for permission to use Fig. 3; Ted Edwards, CSIRO Division of Entomology for discussions onBogong Moths; Merril Halley, Healesville Sanctuary for discussions of breeding programs at HealesvilleSanctuary; Ian Mansergh, Dept. Natural Resources and Environment and Dean Heinze, Latrobe University, forunpublished information on populations of Mountain Pygmy-possums in Victoria; Michael Saxon, Manager,Threatened Species Unit and Miles Boak, Environmental Planning Unit, NPWS Southern Directorate for adviceand comments on the plan.

The following members of the Recovery Team, and where applicable their respective agencies, are thanked forinput into drafts of this Recovery Plan: Linda Broome, Graeme Enders, Ken Green, Penny Spoelder, AndrewThornhill, Dave Darlington, Cameron Leary (all NPWS), Henry Nix (Australian National University), DavidHogg (representing Perisher Blue Pty. Limited) and Iain Edgar (Charlotte Pass Area Manager).

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service Page 3


1. IntroductionThe Australian snow country includes the alpine areaabove the treeline and the subalpine zone 300-500 mbelow the treeline. It comprises a tiny (0.15%) andunique part of the Australian continent. Much of thebiota in this area is endemic, having been isolatedfrom other alpine environments for many millions ofyears. Australian alpine species became furtherisolated as the climate warmed following the lastglacial period. At its peak 20,000 years ago, theAustralian snow country extended over much of themountains and tablelands of south-eastern Australiaand Tasmania. Now, this ecosystem is restricted tothe Kosciuszko Plateau of south-eastern New SouthWales and the Bogong High Plains and isolatedmountain peaks in Victoria and Tasmania. TheSnowy Mountains region is the most extensive ofthese areas (Costin et al. 1979).

The Mountain Pygmy-possum was first described in1896 from mandible and other skull fragments foundin a fossil deposit at Wombeyan Caves, NSW(Broom 1895, 1896). Further fossils were found atBuchan Caves, Victoria, in the early 1960s and later,at Jenolan Caves, NSW. It was regarded as extinctuntil 1966, when the first live animal was found in aski lodge at Mt Hotham, in Victoria. However,having assumed that the animal had been brought tothe lodge in a load of firewood the Mt Hotham areawas not trapped. The species was first trapped inKosciuszko National Park in 1970 (Calaby et al.1971). It was subsequently trapped at Mt Hotham in1971 and other areas in Victoria (Mansergh andBroome 1994, Heinze and Williams 1998).

Since the late 1970�s a large amount of survey andresearch has been focused on the Mountain Pygmy-possum, particularly because of its occurrence withinski resorts at Mt Hotham, Falls Creek and Mt Bullerin Victoria, and at Mt Blue Cow and Charlotte Passin NSW. Its high profile and dependence on snowcover has led to it becoming an Australian snowcountry icon.

Survival of this species depends not only on itsimmediate environment, but also on regionalmigratory patterns of its major food source, theBogong Moth, and global influences of humanactivities on alpine climates. Alpine environmentsworld wide are increasingly being recognized asunder threat from invasive species, escalating visitorimpact and global climate change. These are majorthreats to the continued survival of the MountainPygmy-possum.

This document constitutes the formal New SouthWales State Recovery Plan for the Mountain Pygmy-possum. It considers the conservation requirementsof the species across its known range in NSW and

identifies the actions to be taken to maximise thelong-term viability of the Mountain Pygmy-possumin nature and the parties who will carry out theseactions. The attainment of the objectives of thisrecovery plan is subject to budgetary and otherconstraints affecting the parties involved. ThisRecovery Plan may be amended as new informationbecomes available or following recommendedchanges to the Recovery Program by the RecoveryTeam. The information in this Plan is accurate toMay 2002.

2. Legislative Context

2.1. Legal StatusIn New South Wales the Mountain Pygmy-possum islisted as an Endangered Species on Schedule 1 of theThreatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (TSCAct). It is listed as Threatened under the VictorianFlora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 andEndangered nationally under the CommonwealthEnvironment Protection and BiodiversityConservation Act 1999. It is also classified asEndangered in the IUCN's Red List of ThreatenedAnimals (Baillie and Groombridge 1996), and in the1996 Action Plan for Marsupials and Monotremes(Maxwell et al., 1996).

Among the consequences of listing as a threatenedspecies on the TSC Act are:• that a recovery plan must be prepared ;• that consideration be given to the species in

assessing the impacts of developments andactivities with the aim of minimising adverseimpacts; and

• that other actions that are likely to result in theharming or picking of that species or damage toits habitat are licensed.

2.2. Recovery Plan PreparationThe TSC Act establishes a legislative framework toprotect and encourage the recovery of threatenedspecies, populations and communities in NSW.Under this legislation the Director-General ofNational Parks and Wildlife has a responsibility toprepare Recovery Plans for all species, populationsand ecological communities listed as endangered orvulnerable on the TSC Act schedules.

The TSC Act includes specific requirements for thematters to be addressed by recovery plans and theadministrative process for preparing recovery plans.This plan satisfies these provisions.

2.3. Recovery Plan ImplementationThe TSC Act requires that a government agency mustnot undertake actions inconsistent with a recovery



plan. The government agency relevant to this plan isthe NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service(NPWS). Consequently, the actions outlined for thisagency must be implemented as described in the plan.

2.4. Relationship to other legislationThe lands on which Mountain Pygmy-possums occurinclude those that are owned or managed by theNSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. Relevantlegislation includes:

• Snowy Hydro Agreements Act 1958• National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974• Environmental Planning and Assessment Act

1979• Wilderness Act 1987• Endangered Species Protection Act 1992• Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995• Rural Fires Act 1997• Environment Protection and Biodiversity

Conservation Act 1999

The interaction of these Acts with the TSC legislationis varied. The most significant implications aredescribed below and in Section 2.6.

2.5. Critical HabitatThe TSC Act makes provision for the identificationand declaration of critical habitat for species,populations and ecological communities listed asendangered. Once declared, it becomes an offence todamage critical habitat (unless the TSC Actspecifically exempts the action) and a species impactstatement is mandatory for all developments andactivities proposed within critical habitat.

Critical habitat has not been declared for this speciesunder the TSC Act.

2.6. Environmental AssessmentThe TSC Act amendments to the environmentalassessment provisions of the Environmental Planningand Assessment Act 1979 (EP&A Act) require thatconsent and determining authorities and the Director-General of the NPWS, as a concurrence authority,consider relevant recovery plans when exercising adecision making function under Parts 4 & 5 of theEP&A Act. Decision makers must consider knownand potential habitat, biological and ecologicalfactors, and the regional significance of individualpopulations.

The Director General of the NPWS is the soledetermining authority for activities carried out underPart 5 of the EP&A Act in relation to the MountainPygmy-possum outside ski resort areas. Under theKosciuszko Resorts State Environmental PlanningPolicy, Planning NSW will become the consent

authority for all resort development under Part 4 ofEP&A Act. Planning NSW will be required toconsider the Recovery Plan when administering theconsent process.

Any other activity not requiring development consentor activity approval under the EP&A Act, and whichis likely to have a significant impact on the MountainPygmy-possum, requires a Section 91 licence fromNPWS under the provisions of the TSC Act. Such alicence can be issued with or without conditions, orcan be refused.

3. Species Information

3.1. DescriptionThe Mountain Pygmy-possum (Burramys parvusBroom 1895) (Marsupialia: Burramyidae) is thelargest member of the family Burramyidae (averageadult weight 40 g) and the only extant member of thegenus. It has dense, fine fur, which is grey-brownabove, and sometimes darker in the mid-dorsal areacontinuing to the top of the head; pale grey-brown tocream below, developing to bright fawn-orange inthe ventral area and flanks of adults, especiallyduring the breeding season. The tail is long, thin,scaly and prehensile, with sparse, short hairs. Thereis no significant sexual dimorphism in body size orweight. The head-body length of adults averages 111mm, with a tail length of 137 mm. Adult weightaverages 40 g but varies from 30 g in spring up to 82g in autumn, prior to hibernation.

3.2. DistributionUnlike other members of the Family Burramyidaewhich are arboreal or scansorial, the MountainPygmy-possum is terrestrial (ground-dwelling) and isconfined in its distribution to areas above the wintersnowline (approximately 1370 m above sea-level onthe south east Australian mainland, Davis 1998).The fossil evidence suggests that the MountainPygmy-possum occurred throughout south-easternAustralia at the height of the last Pleistocene glacialperiod (ca. 20,000 years bp). Since that time, itsrange has contracted with rising temperatures and thereceding snowline and it now occurs as 3 genetically-isolated populations separated by low lying rivervalleys, in the alpine areas of south-eastern NewSouth Wales and Victoria (Mansergh and Broome1994, Heinze and Williams 1998, Osborne et al.2000).

In New South Wales, the Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulation is distributed among small patches ofhabitat in alpine and subalpine areas of KosciuszkoNational Park. These patches are confined to an areameasuring approximately 30 km by 8 km, betweenSouth Ramshead near Thredbo in the south and



Gungartan Pass to the north (Caughley 1986, Broomeet al. unpubl data) (Figure 1). The species mostlyoccurs at elevations above 1650 m in NSW(Caughley 1986, Broome 1992). However, Dimpeland Calaby (1972) recorded one individual, probablya dispersing juvenile (J. Calaby pers. comm. 1994),at 1372 m.

J. Caughley (1986) estimated the total population sizeof the Mountain Pygmy-possum in KosciuszkoNational Park to be about 500 adults with amale:female ratio of 1:3, in approximately 8 km2 ofhabitat. This estimate was increased to 1300 adultsin 1989, based on comparison of densities in some ofthe same areas trapped by Broome (Broome andMansergh 1989). However, preliminary results froma recent, stratified survey of Mountain Pygmy-possum population size and distribution of habitat inKosciuszko National Park (Broome et al. unpubl.data) indicates that the extent of potential habitatmapped by Caughley (1986) had been greatlyoverestimated, particularly on the western scarp fromCootapatamba, through Mt Townsend to SchlinkPass. Under revised estimates the total amount ofhabitat is likely to be less than 4 km2 and the totalpopulation size less than the original estimate of 500adults.

The largest currently known local populations occurat Mt Blue Cow (average 38 breeding females, 16males in approximately 9 ha of habitat) and CharlottePass (average 26 breeding females, 18 males in 4.5ha of habitat) (Broome 2001b, Broome et al. unpubl.data.). Other, similarly-sized populations occur overa wide area on the western slopes of Mt Kosciuszko(minimum 34 females, 16 males) and Mt Townsend(up to 30 females). Elsewhere, population sizes aregenerally small (less than 10 adult females) andpatches of habitat (often smaller than half a hectare)are separated by distances of up to 3 km (Figure 1).Preliminary estimates indicate that together, the tworesort areas support between 30-50% of the totalpopulation (Broome et al. unpubl. data.).

Genetic analysis (Osborne et al. 1999) indicated thepresence of 2 haplotypes among 17 habitat patchesexamined in Kosciuszko National Park. Twosubpopulations with limited dispersal between them,were inferred. One is in the south-east, centered onthe Summit Road, Charlotte Pass and Spencers Creekpopulations, the other is in the north-west, includingMt Blue Cow and the main range. Mixed haplotypes,indicating genetic mixing zones, occurred at RamsHead, Mt Kosciuszko and Paralyser (Figure 1).

In Victoria, approximately 1500 breeding ageindividuals occur within 2 km2 of habitat. Thelargest population occurs between Mt Higginbothamand Mt Lock, with genetically similar populations onthe Bogong High Plains and Mt Bogong. Mt Bullersupports a third, genetically distinct population of

around 150-200 adults (Mansergh et al. 1989, Heinzeand Williams 1998, Osborne et al. 2000, D. Heinzepers. comm. 2002).

3.3. Land TenureThe entire Mountain Pygmy-possum population inNew South Wales occurs within Kosciuszko NationalPark. Significant populations occur within and closeto ski resort lease areas. Under preliminaryestimates, the lease areas at Mt Blue Cow andCharlotte Pass support 30-50% of the entire NSWpopulation. Populations also occur close to andwithin the northwest boundary of Thredbo ski resort(Figure 1).

3.4. HabitatThe Mountain Pygmy-possum inhabits rocky areaswith associated shrubby heathland, particularlyboulder deposits (Caughley 1986, Mansergh et al.1989, Broome 1992). Technically described asblockfields (broad piles of boulders accumulatedbelow mountain peaks) and blockstreams (gullydeposits), these boulderfields were formed duringPleistocene interglacial periods, when rock outcropswere subjected to freezing and thawing processes(Rosengren and Peterson 1989). Rock tors andblocks caused by in situ weathering are also used byMountain Pygmy-possums, but generally do notprovide the deep boulder deposits that are preferredhabitat. The boulders ameliorate temperatureextremes and provide deep, insulated hibernacula andprotected nesting sites. Temperatures at ground levelduring winter remain between 0-2o C (Broome 1992,Broome and Geiser 1995, Walter and Broome 1998).The boulderfields, as well as large tors on high peaks,are also used as summer aestivation sites by themigratory Bogong Moth Agrotis infusa, which formsa major part of the diet of the Mountain Pygmy-possum (Common 1954, Mansergh et al. 1990, Smithand Broome 1992).

The shrubby heathland associated with MountainPygmy-possum habitat is characterised by theMountain Plum-pine Podocarpus lawrencei (seecover photo), the distribution of which is closelycorrelated with the boulderfields. Other shrubswhich grow within or adjacent to the boulderfieldsinclude the Snow beard-heath Leucopogon montanus,Dusty daisy bush Olearia phlogopappa, Alpine ricebush Pimelia ligustrina, Mountain baeckea Baeckeautilis, Alpine pepper Tasmannia xerophila, andseveral Epacris species. Grasses (e.g., SnowgrassPoa spp, Ribbony grass Chionochloa frigida) sedgesand ferns Polystichum proliferum grow in theintervening spaces (Gullan and Norris 1984,Caughley 1986). Caughley (1986) found that in latesummer and autumn more Mountain Pygmy-possumswere trapped at sites which had a diverse assemblageof shrubs (on average 5 but up to 10 species) than onsites which had P. lawrencei alone.





Figure 1. The known distribution of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat in New South Wales.Adapted from J. Caughley (1986) with information from a recent survey byBroome et al. (unpubl. data.). This map will be finalised upon completion of Action 1.



Radiotracking at Mt Blue Cow (Plates 1-3) hasshown that adult Mountain Pygmy-possums arelargely confined to well defined and easilyrecognisable boulderfields. However, they alsoforage, and sometimes nest, in the shrublands withscattered boulders in between and adjacent to themain boulderfields. Nesting and hibernation siteshave also been located in areas where there are no, oronly scattered, surface rocks up to 200 m from themain boulderfields (Walter 1996, Broome 1992).Juveniles, presumably dispersing individuals, havebeen trapped in heathlands with few or no rocks.Mountain Pygmy-possums occur in areas above thetreeline, and in this respect trees cannot be regardedas an essential component of the habitat. However,where they do occur, the seeds of Snow GumsEucalyptus pauciflora are included in the diet andindividuals have been found nesting low down in oldboles with hollows (Broome 1992). Trees may alsocontribute to snow and hydrologic dynamics inhabitat areas and provide access points to the snowsurface through snow melt circles (Green andOsborne 1994). Mountain Pygmy-possums have notbeen recorded in open areas of snow grass, oncleared ski runs or in monospecific stands of shrubssuch as Kunzea muelleri, Prostanthera cuneata orHovea purpurea (Broome 1992).

The quality of the habitat varies with depth ofboulders, elevation and substrate. These factorsinfluence the quality of nesting and hibernation sitesand the abundance of food resources. In New SouthWales all the boulderfields are derived fromgranodiorite. They are far less productive andsupport far lower densities of Mountain Pygmy-possums than basalt-derived boulderfields in Victoria(e.g., 6.5 individuals / ha average on Mt Blue Cowcompared to 69 / ha at Mt Higginbotham). However,the total amount of habitat in NSW is greater. Thehighest quality habitats have in common deep,extensive boulderfields, high elevations, abundantBogong Moths and a nearby seed source (Manserghand Broome 1994, Broome 2001a).

3.5. EcologyReproductive Biology

Mountain Pygmy-possums generally have one litterper year, following snowmelt in spring (November-December in NSW). The usual litter size is four, dueto the production of supernumary neonates i.e., moreyoung than the number of nipples (4) are born.However the species is polyoestrus and can producea second litter in the wild if the first is lost (Manserghand Scotts 1990, Broome 1992). Successive littershave been produced in captivity (Merril Halley, pers.Comm.). There is recent evidence from Mt Buller ofsome females producing 2 litters in a season whensnow melt was very early (D. Heinze pers. comm.

2001). In New South Wales, where only one litterper year has been recorded, young are born fromearly November to mid December, depending on thetime of snow melt. Births are usually synchronisedover a period of about two weeks within any year(Broome 1992, unpubl. data).

Growth and Longevity

Pouch life lasts 4 - 5 weeks, young are left in a nestfor another 4 - 5 weeks with the mother returning tosuckle them, and are weaned at 9 - 10 weeks of age(Kerle 1984, Mansergh and Scotts 1990). Whenjuveniles were first trapped on Mt Blue Cow, onaverage in late January, they weighed between 15-22grams. They gain weight rapidly during autumn andreach 40-60 grams by May. Most juveniles breed atone year of age, but they do not attain adult weightuntil the end of their second summer (Broome 1992).

By comparison with most small mammals, MountainPygmy-possums have long life spans (Cockburn etal. 1990). Maximum life spans of 11 years havebeen recorded for a female Mountain Pygmy-possumin Kosciuszko National Park and 12 years on MtHigginbotham. The oldest males at both Kosciuszkoand Mt Higginbotham were five years old. Mostindividuals at Kosciuszko (69% of females and 78%of males) were trapped in one year only but up to20% were trapped in two years and 10% over aperiod of three or more years (Mansergh, pers.comm. 1998, Heinze, pers. Comm 2001, Broome2001b).

Survivorship and Recruitment

Survival varied between study sites in KosciuszkoNational Park. Annual survival was higher forfemales than males on the high quality sites (Mt BlueCow and Charlotte Pass), where resulting breedingseason sex ratios were female biased, but there waslittle difference in survival or sex ratios on the othersites. Survival over winter differed less between thesexes, suggesting that male mortality was greaterduring snow-free months, but was higher for adultsthan for juveniles. Winter survival for juveniles(Broome 2001a) and adults (Mansergh and Scotts1989) has been shown to be highest for individualswith the heaviest autumn weights.

Recruitment of both sexes and survival of femaleswere strongly density-dependant on all study sites inKosciuszko National Park. However, the time offormation of permanent winter snow cover to depthsgreater than 50 cm, the duration of snow cover andthe time of snow melt also influenced survival andrecruitment. Survival and recruitment were reducedin years of very long snow cover duration and latemelt, in years of very short snow cover duration andearly melt, and when extreme temperatures were



experienced before the formation of insulating snowcover in early winter (Broome unpubl. data.).Hibernation

Mountain Pygmy-possums undergo a period ofwinter hibernation, which is similar in all respects tothat shown by small placental mammals of thenorthern hemisphere (Lyman et al. 1982, Geiser andBroome 1991, 1993, Broome and Geiser 1995,Körtner and Geiser 1998). Hibernation is precededby a period of late summer - autumn fattening, duringwhich body weight is approximately doubled, withadults reaching weights of up to 80 grams. Adultscommence hibernation earlier and hibernate longer(about seven months) than juveniles (five - sixmonths). In the study sites in Kosciuszko NationalPark, adult Mountain Pygmy-possums beganhibernation around late March to April (dependingon seasonal conditions), while juveniles may notcommence hibernation until May or June.

Controlled lowering of the body temperature andmetabolic rate is termed torpor and many smallmammals use this physiological capacity to conserveenergy and survive periods of cold. Torpor can occuropportunistically at any time of year. By contrast,hibernation is a seasonal response to changes inclimate and food availability (Lyman et al. 1982).Hibernating mammals undergo extended periods oftorpor, during which the body temperature,metabolism and other metabolic functions aresubstantially reduced. During hibernation, torporbouts are interspersed by short periods of arousal atnormal body temperatures, of usually less than oneday (Lyman et al. 1982). These arousal periods,undertaken by all hibernators, are energetically veryexpensive because a large number of calories arerequired for the animal to warm up. The reasons forthem are not entirely clear, but are presumablyconnected to the need to raise blood pressure in orderto metabolise body wastes and, in some cases, to eatand drink.

Hibernating Mountain Pygmy-possums reduce theirbody temperatures from the normal activetemperature of 36 0 C to around 2 0 C during torporbouts. Torpor bouts last up to 20 days during mid-hibernation, interspersed by short, normothermicarousal periods of less than one day. In laboratorystudies, the minimum body temperature of adultmales during mid-hibernation was significantlyhigher (2.7 0 C) than it was for females (2 0 C) andthe length of torpor bouts was shorter (Geiser andBroome 1991). These observations, also recorded infield studies, correspond with their choice ofhibernation sites at lower elevations or on warmermicrosites on more northerly and westerly aspectsthan those used by females (Broome and Geiser1995, Walter 1996, Körtner and Geiser 1998).

Choice of insulated hibernacula appears to be crucialfor survival of Mountain Pygmy-possums overwinter, because air temperature has a strong effect onthe efficiency of hibernation and energy expenditure(Geiser and Broome 1993). A decrease inhibernaculum temperature below the criticalminimum body temperature results in an increase inmetabolism, while increases in temperature result inmore frequent, energy-expensive arousals, bothresulting in increased expenditure of fat reserves.

Home Range

Mountain Pygmy-possums are largely restricted todiscrete patches of habitat, but individuals oftentravel long distances between patches to meet theirdaily or seasonal requirements. The size of femalehome ranges on Mt Blue Cow during summer variedwith elevation. Females which lived on the peak ofMt Blue Cow (BCP Plate 1, Fig 2) were relativelysedentary with small home ranges (0.12 ha). Nightlymovements and home range size increased on themid slopes (UBC - A13, Fig 2; mean home range size2.7 ha) and were greatest for individuals whichnested on the lower slopes (A7 Fig 2; 7.7 ha). Bothsexes made nightly excursions over distances of 1 kmfrom low to high elevations to prey on BogongMoths, which congregate on the high peaks betweenNovember and March. Males were generally moremobile than females, frequently travelling up to 3 kmin a night e.g., from BCP to Guthega (GTH1 &2) andback, Fig. 2. Males and some females (generallyjuveniles) also moved between the two Paralysertrapping sites (1 km) and males often travelledbetween the Charlotte Pass and Summit Roadtrapping areas (2 km) (Figure 1) (Broome 2001a,b).

In late December - mid January, at the time pouchyoung are left in the nest, many of the males leavethe habitats of females and Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations become to a large extent sexuallysegregated. At Mt Blue Cow, females and theiryoung remained in the high quality �breedinghabitats�, mostly at high elevations on southerlyaspects, while males reduced their home range sizesand stayed at the lower elevational limits of theirranges or moved to more northerly or westerlyaspects. At Charlotte Pass and Paralyser where therewas little elevational gradient, these 'dispersalhabitats' consisted of shallower or smallerboulderfields on more northerly or westerly aspectse.g., CP2, Plate 4; Fig. 3. Juvenile dispersal, mostlyby males, follows a similar pattern in late February-March. Much of this movement is a seasonalmigration but life-time dispersal distances of at least6 km have been recorded (Broome 1992, Walter1996, Körtner and Geiser 1998).

When Mountain Pygmy-possums cross betweenboulderfield patches, they travel through areas ofshrub cover. Radio tracking on Mt Blue Cow



(Broome 1992, 2001a) and studies at Mt Hotham(Mansergh and Scotts 1989) have shown that roadsand open ski runs can inhibit or prevent thesemovements.

Movements between boulderfield areas are mostlyrestricted to the snow-free season. During the periodof deep winter snow cover, radiotracked MountainPygmy-possums seldom left their nest sites. On thefew occasions when individuals were observedmoving they travelled through the boulderfields orshrubs under the snow. Juveniles appeared to movemore than adults, but usually not more than 20 - 30 mfrom the nest. The longest distance observed waseighty metres. These movements were possiblyrelated to the need to access food caches. Individualsalso occasionally changed hibernation sites duringwinter, possibly in response to changes in airtemperature (Broome 1992, Walter 1996, Körtnerand Geiser 1996, 1998).

Both male and female Mountain Pygmy-possumsused several nest sites within their home ranges,spending one or more days at each and oftenreturning to the same nest on different occasions(Broome unpubl. data).

Temporal Activity

Mountain Pygmy-possums are mostly nocturnal.Some late afternoon activity was noted in deepboulderfields during the summer months, possiblydue to individuals eating Bogong Moths that oftentake flight at dusk. Between November and Februaryonly females spent time at nest sites during the nightwhen they had pouch and later nestling young. InApril, both sexes spent an increasing amount of timeinactive in nests at night and by late May-early June70% of the time was spent at the nest sites, with theheavier individuals increasingly undergoing bouts oftorpor. After the formation of snow cover,radiotracked individuals hibernated and seldom lefttheir nest sites (Broome 2001a, unpubl. data).

Diet

The diet of Mountain Pygmy-possums in KosciuskoNational Park was found to consist of 71% frequencyof occurrence by surface area of arthropods, 27%seeds and berries and 2% other materials (Smith andBroome 1992). The diversity of arthropod prey waslow, with only six major prey groups represented(moths, caterpillars, beetles, grasshoppers, spidersand millipedes). Only two arthropod groups, Bogongmoths Agrotis infusa (17%) and caterpillars (18%),made a substantial contribution to Mountain Pygmy-possum diet. The diversity of seed and berry intakewas high (8 species) and dominated by the seed and�fruit� of Podocarpus lawrencei and fruit ofLeucopogon montanus. Other species included P.ligustrina, O. phlogopappa, E. pauciflora and three

unidentified species. Two additional species, Kunzeamuelleri and Prostanthera cuneata, were identified inonly single faecal samples. This is consistent withthe distribution of these shrubs predominantlyoutside boulderfields. Arthropods comprised themajority of the diet in spring and early summer,while seeds and berries, particularly of Podocarpuslawrencei and Leucopogon montanus, becameincreasingly important components of the diet duringthe late summer-autumn fattening period, especiallyfor juveniles and males. Females had a higher intakeof arthropod than males in all seasons, consistentwith their higher protein and fat requirements forreproduction and their greater preferences for highelevation boulderfields. The tendency for males touse vegetated boulderfield habitats more than females(Broome 2001a) was reflected in a greater proportionof seeds in their diet (Smith and Broome 1992). Thiseffect was independent of season and habitat,occurring across all study areas in KosciuszkoNational Park where diet was sampled.

Social Behaviour

Male Mountain Pygmy-possums have extensivelyoverlapping home ranges and frequently share nestsites, with up to 6 individuals using the same nestduring the late breeding season (Broome 2001a).Although they are not territorial, a dominancehierarchy and competition for sexually receptivefemales may occur in the better habitats. This issuggested by strong density dependent recruitmentamong males at sites in NSW (Broome 2001b) andthe observation that where female densities are highnot all males attain breeding condition (Manserghand Scotts 1990). Nest sharing among males mayfacilitate establishment of social hierarchies, assuggested for Antechinus spp. (Lazenby-Cohen1991). Social facilitation, or a specific dietarystimulus, e.g., from seeds, may also be necessary toinitiate breeding in young males, as suggested by thefailure of any captive-bred male to attain sexualmaturity (Merril Halley, Healesville Sanctuary, pers.comm. 2000). Continuation of close associationbetween males and sharing of nests after they migrateindicates long-term bonds unusual in a male smallmammal (Broome 2001a).

Females appear to be intra and inter-sexuallyterritorial at nesting and nursery sites but haveoverlapping foraging ranges (Kerle 1984, Manserghand Scotts 1990, Broome 2001a) and may form kinclusters in high quality habitats (Mansergh 1989,Broome 2001a).

The mating system has been described as polygynousin Victoria, where sex ratios were heavily biasedtoward females at all sites (Mansergh et al. 1989,Mansergh and Scotts 1989, 1990, D. Heinze, pers.comm. 2000). However, the extent of polygyny, aswith mating systems in general (Lott 1984, Clutton-



Brock 1989) may vary between sites and with habitatquality. In NSW sex ratios were often unbiased oronly slightly female biased with the extent of biasvarying in different years (Broome 2001b).Synchronised breeding and the association of maleswith females during oestrous (Kerle 1984, Manserghand Scotts 1990) may further reduce the potential forpolygyny and increase promiscuity.

Mansergh (1989) and Mansergh and Scotts (1989,1990) suggested that sexual segregation, seasonalmovements and dispersal by male Mountain Pygmy-possums was induced by intra-sexual dominance byaggressive females in defence of food resources, or toavoid a second pregnancy which would compromisethe winter survival of themselves and their offspring.They suggested the social system could therefore bedescribed as matriarchal resource defence polygyny.However, Broome (2001a) argued that segregationmay be due to sexual dimorphism in hibernationstrategies. Because males have lower energyrequirements after breeding it could be to theirbenefit to migrate, either to advantage their offspringand / or to utilise different hibernation sites whichwould give them a reproductive advantage. Selectionof a slightly warmer hibernaculum would enablethem to arouse earlier in spring than females, as inground squirrels. They would then have time tofacilitate spermatogenesis and mate with females asthey aroused from hibernation. Earlyspermatogenesis may also ensure early reproductionoverall, and thus maximum time for development ofjuveniles during the short, alpine summer (Körtnerand Geiser 1998).

It is not clear whether sexual segregation is a productof female aggression and / or scramble competitionor is simply a reproductive strategy (Broome 2001b).Because this has implications for captive-breeding(see Action 6.8), further research on social behaviouris needed.

Population demography

Four populations of Mountain Pygmy-possums(study sites 1-4 on Fig. 1) have been monitoredannually in Kosciuszko National Park from 1986 (MtBlue Cow) or 1987 (remaining sites) until 1999.Analysis of the 11-12 year data sets showed thatthere were strong differences in demographicparameters (sex ratios, annual and over-wintersurvival, recruitment, site persistence, longevity andspring weights) between these sites. Regional trendswere evident in some years, due for example to deepsnow cover or extreme temperatures. However,yearly population fluctuations and demographictrends on the four sites were generally unrelated.The asynchronous population dynamics, differencesin site quality, structure, aspect and populationstability on these sites, combined with a smallamount of migration between these and other

patches, indicates that a metapopulation approach toMountain Pygmy-possum conservation on theKosciuszko plateau is required to maximise long-term stability (Broome 2001b).

Metapopulation dynamics implies that the long-termpersistence of the population depends on re-population occurring between habitat patches.Theoretically and as the study by Broome (2001b)suggests, local extinctions are least likely to occur inlarge populations, which additionally have the mostimpact on metapopulation persistence (Harrison andTaylor 1997). Large, stable, demographicallyproductive populations like Charlotte Pass and MtBlue Cow, where emigration exceeds immigration,are also likely to act as source populations forsurrounding less stable habitat patches (Pulliam1988, Howe et al. 1991).

Many of the habitat patches on the Kosciuszkoplateau are much smaller and have smaller populationsizes than those studied (Broome et al. unpubl. data.).The dynamics of the other two relatively largepopulations, on the west side of Mts Kosciuszko andTownsend, are unknown, but the westerly aspect andlow percent vegetation cover is likely to contribute tolow population stability. The highest quality sites, interms of patch size, population size and stabilityappear to be those within the Charlotte Pass and MtBlue Cow ski resort lease areas.

Heterogeneity in site structure and aspect maycontribute to metapopulation persistence. In years ofdeep snow cover, breeding occurred earlier on thewesterly-facing site on Summit Road than the south-easterly-facing sites. It is possible that if hibernatinganimals run out of fat reserves before snow-meltduring very long winters, recruitment will come fromsites on westerly aspects. Thus source populationson the Kosciuszko plateau may be dynamicdepending on yearly environmental conditions(Broome 2001b).

Limiting factors and Population Regulation

Strongly density-dependent annual survival offemales, and recruitment of both sexes in thebreeding season at the four study sites in KosciuszkoNational Park indicates habitat is limiting andsuggests social factors are largely responsible forregulating these populations (Broome 2001b,McCarthy and Broome 2000). The data availablesuggest that in most years the numbers of BogongMoths are super-abundant and are not limiting athigh elevations. However, because Bogong Mothsare a major component of the diet in summer, anyfactors which severely reduce Bogong Mothpopulations are likely to impact on Mountain Pygmy-possums. Seed abundance varies between locations(Fortune 1997), but the amount of variation betweenyears is currently unknown. Females move large



distances from nest sites at low elevations to areas ofhigh moth abundance at high elevations on Mt BlueCow, and hibernating animals appear to cluster inwell-insulated sites (Körtner and Geiser 1998,Broome 2001a). This suggests that habitat limitationat high elevations may be due to availability ofsuitable nesting and hibernation sites. At lowelevations, food, lack of snow cover and competitionor predation from other species may limitpopulations.

At Mt Blue Cow, radiotracked individuals mostlyforaged within boulderfields but several femalesforaged in surrounding areas of heathy shrubland(Broome 2001a). At Mt McKay in Victoria, wherethere is very little boulderfield habitat, foragingprobably occurs mostly in heath (D. Heinze, pers.comm. 2001). It is possible that predation from theintroduced European Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) iscontributing to population regulation and restrictingMountain Pygmy-possums to boulderfield habitatswhere they occur. Female-biased sex ratios may beinfluenced by fox predation on males as they movebetween isolated habitat patches. On the basalt areasof the Bogong High Plains in Victoria, where there islittle shrub cover between habitat patches, sex ratiosare very highly female-biased (Mansergh et al. 1989,D. Heinze, pers. comm. 2001).

Although Mountain Pygmy-possum populationsappear to be largely self- and perhaps predator-regulated, climatic factors also influence thesepopulations. Regional population trends wereattributed to years with extremes in snow cover andearly winter temperatures. These effects wereparticularly influential in the smaller, lower qualityand westerly-facing sites (Broome 2001b).

Females are polyoestrus (Mansergh and Scotts 1990)and are able to produce successive litters in captivityat temperatures around 18oC (Merril Halley,Healesville Sanctuary, pers. comm. 2000).Hibernation does not occur at warm temperatures incaptivity, and captive-bred individuals appear to losetheir ability to hibernate (Geiser et al. 1990). Thespecies is physiologically intolerant of hightemperatures, becoming hyperthermic at ambienttemperatures above 28 oC (Fleming 1985). However,such temperatures are unlikely to be experienced inboulderfields in many montane sites below its presentdistribution. Lack of insulative snow cover and lowtemperatures in winter appears to influence survival,but the lower altitudinal limit of the speciesdistribution does not appear to be entirely due to itsphysiological abilities.

Competition or predation from co-occurring smallmammal species may be sufficient to explain itsrestriction to habitats above the winter snowline.Bush Rats Rattus fuscipes consume seeds and insects,including Bogong Moths in boulderfield habitats. It

is possible that Antechinus spp. could prey uponMountain Pygmy-possum nestlings. Particularly thesmaller A. agilis which is largely restricted to belowthe treeline (Green 1989) but would be able to accessnest sites more readily than the larger A. swainsoniiwhich is present in the boulderfields. The uniqueability of the Mountain Pygmy-possum to survivewinter by hibernating may provide it with acompetitive advantage over these species in areas ofsnow cover, which suffer local extinctions andweight loss at high elevations during winter (Green1989, Mansergh et al. 1990). This advantage may belost in areas that lack extended periods of snowcover.

3.6. Extent of declineThe Mountain Pygmy-possum occurs naturally insmall populations within a very restricted area ofhabitat. Some of these areas were destroyed,fragmented or modified before the species wasknown to exist. This occurred mainly in snowfielddevelopment areas, and by construction of the road toMt Kosciuszko, which crosses habitat at the SummitRoad study site and on the western side of MtKosciuszko, and passes between habitat patches atCharlotte Pass and Mt Guthrie. A similar situationoccurs along the road from Whites River to SchlinkPass (Fig. 1.).

The Charlotte Pass ski resort was established in the1930s and has been operating at its current capacitysince the mid to late 1970s (Freeman 1997). The MtGuthrie ski tow crosses prime habitat of breedingfemales on the north side of the valley (CP1 on Fig.3, Plates 4, 5), where some disturbance to theboulderfield has occurred. The village access roadalso crosses part of the habitat at the eastern end. Upto 20% of the habitat of males and dispersingjuveniles on the south side of the valley (CP 2 on Fig.3, Plate 4) has been disturbed, covered or modifiedby construction of roads and buildings. Likelymovement corridors between this site and thebreeding site on the north side of the valley havebeen modified by removal of shrub cover from anadditional 3 ski tows, a chair lift and associated skiruns. A small amount of recent damage from snowgrooming has been observed to Mountain Plum-pinevegetation on the principal breeding site on the northside of the valley, but how much occurred in the pastis unknown. A preferred hibernation site of maleswas found to be under the unsealed road from thevillage to the sewage depot, which crosses the habitaton the south side of the valley (Plate 4). A male alsohibernated under the car park near the KosciuszkoChalet (Körtner and Geiser 1998, Körtner pers.comm. 1998). The soil covering these sites probablycontributed to insulation from extreme ambienttemperatures (Walter and Broome 1998).



Ski resort development at the western end of Mt BlueCow began in the late 1950s, with the construction ofseveral lodges and ski lifts at Guthega, and theclearing of ski runs. The main impact of ski resortdevelopment on the Mountain Pygmy-possum habitatof Mt Blue Cow resulted from the construction of theseparate Blue Cow Resort, which began in 1986.The operator of the Blue Cow Resort purchased theGuthega resort in 1991, which led to the operation ofthese resorts becoming integrated in 1992 under themanagement of the Alpine Australia Group. In 1995,a merger took place between the Blue Cow �Guthega resort and the Perisher � Smiggin Holesresort to form Perisher Blue Ski Resort, which nowcontains the habitat on Mt Blue Cow.

The development of the Blue Cow Ski Resortfollowed the preparation by NPWS of anenvironmental impact statement (NPWS 1985) whichrecognised the existence of this Mountain Pygmy-possum population. At this time, the full extent andquality of the habitat was not recognised, although itemphasised the need to initiate further monitoringand research into the species, and incorporatemeasures to protect its habitat, within the resortdevelopment.

Despite such measures, the establishment of skislopes and tracks in 1986 and 1987 led to removal ofshrubs and snow gums, some damage toboulderfields and blasting of isolated rocks.Approximately 10% of the feeding and dispersalhabitat on the south-east face of Mt Blue Cow hasbeen lost to what are now known as �Zalis� and�Sidesaddle� ski runs (habitat on the latter cleared inFebruary 1994) which fragmented prime habitat(Plates 1, 2, Fig. 2). The effects of fragmentation hasbeen partly compensated for by constructing boulder-filled culverts across these ski runs, which allows theextensive nightly and seasonal movements ofMountain Pygmy-possums to continue (Broome1992, 2001a). The �Summit� chairlift crosses abovethis habitat for approximately 60% of its length (Fig.2, Plate 1) with localised disturbance in the vicinityof lift towers.

Damage to vegetation within the habitat arising fromwinter snow grooming machinery occurred rapidlyduring the first few years of resort operation (1987-1989), when emergent branches that covered highboulders were broken off. This continued at a slowerrate both within the boulderfields and in surroundingheath in subsequent winters. Since the 1995 merger,winter grooming practices have been modified with aview to avoiding further vegetation damage andlimiting grooming operations over prime habitat(Perisher Blue Pty Limited, 2000).

Mountain Pygmy-possum population numbers havebeen monitored at Mt Blue Cow since 1986 andCharlotte Pass since 1987. At Mt Blue Cow, there

was no evidence of declines in population size orchanges in demographics above natural variation upto 1999 (Broome, 2001b, unpubl. data), although fewdata were gathered before the resort was constructedand none before the access road to the site was built.However, a substantial decline occurred in 2000 (12females compared to an average of 28 up until 1999)and has continued through 2001 (Broome,unpubl.data). Of particular concern was the loss ofall but 2 of the previously tagged adults. Numbers ofBogong Moths were low in 2000 (Broome unpubl.data). This may have explained the sharp decline onthe peak of Mt Blue Cow, where there is littlealternative food, from an average of 17 to 3 femalesin 2000. However, numbers on the lower, vegetatedslopes had also declined. Low snow cover and heavyskier, and increasingly snowboarder use occurredover this habitat during the last several years, withvisible damage to vegetation. Feral cats have alsobeen seen frequently in the habitat areas andsurrounds.

There are no pre-development data for CharlottePass. The population of adult females at CharlottePass was relatively stable between 1987-2001.However, there was a continuing decline in the totalpopulation from 1997-2000. It is concerning that thishas coincided with large amounts of man-made snowbeing used on the habitat area since 1997, along witha series of years with low natural snow cover. It wasinteresting to note that a slight recovery occurred in2001, coinciding with closure of the ski resort thatwinter due to failure of the sewage treatment plant.Research is needed to determine whether ski slopeactivities have significant impacts on the under-snowenvironment and whether the thermodynamics ofman-made snow differs substantially from naturalsnow.

In theory, because the populations in these two skiresorts are believed to be density dependant, �source�populations (Broome 2001b), declines are not likelyto be readily observed. Any reductions in populationnumbers are likely to be quickly filled by recruitmentfrom lower quality �sink� patches in surroundingareas where it is more likely declines will beobserved. Population declines in source populationsare likely to be catastrophic once thresholds ofhabitat integrity are exceeded, and they cease toprovide a reproductive excess (Pulliam 1988). Suchthresholds may be reached if damage to vegetation inthe boulderfields and in surrounding heaths,fragmentation of the habitat, (Plate 2), loss ofinsulating snow cover, predation and a decline in theBogong moth food source continues.

Cattle and sheep grazing, prior to the establishmentof Kosciuszko National Park in 1944, caused severeerosion in the alpine area. How much damage thisdid to habitat, by infilling boulderfields withsediment as well as a reducing vegetation cover



between habitat patches, is unknown. The extent ofimpact from feral predators, and several large firesthat occurred in the area during the 1930�s is alsounknown.

3.7. Ability of Species to RecoverThe total population on the Kosciuszko plateau (lessthan 500 adults) is very small and most localpopulations of breeding females are much smallerthan 20, which has been cited as the number belowwhich demographic stochasticity is a real threat(Soule 1987, Hanski 1991). However, McCarthy andBroome (2000) suggest that local populations ofgreater than 15 females are theoretically relativelysafe from extinction from stochastic processes undercurrent conditions. Unless these populations havebeen severely reduced by recently introducedpredators, they are likely to have persisted largelyunchanged since the end of the last Pleistoceneglaciation, around 10,000 years ago (Mansergh andBroome 1994). The fact that this is a naturallyfragmented landscape, with a high level of densitydependence at the local population level suggests thatthis system is likely to persist in the face of instabilityin local dynamics under its current structure.However, this is likely to be the case only as long asregional stochasticity does not increase (e.g., fromreduced snow cover due to global warming), existinghabitat is not degraded or destroyed, or long-termsuccession does not lead to loss of habitat e.g, byinfilling of boulderfields, (Hanski 1990, 1991,Mansergh and Broome 1994, Harrison and Taylor1997).

While it might be expected that genetic malfunctionmay occur in such small populations (e.g., Lynch etal., 1995), field evidence for possible effects ofinbreeding depression is generally lacking (Lande1988, Caughley 1994). Further, Lande (1988) andHarrison (1994) argue on theoretical grounds thatspecies that naturally exist in small populations ormetapopulations should not be prone to inbreedingdepression.

McCarthy and Broome (2000) illustrated thatMountain Pygmy-possums are vulnerable toreductions in population growth rate. With a 15%reduction in current survival and recruitment rates,the probability of decline of equilibrium populationsof 20 females to 5 females or fewer within 100 yearsis about 90%. With reductions of 20% thepopulation would certainly decline to 5 females orfewer within 100 years, while reductions of 40%would very likely result in extinction. Localpopulations with fewer than 20 females (untilrecently all populations except Charlotte Pass, BlueCow, Kosciuszko and Townsend, Broome et al.

unpubl. data.) will have higher risks of extinction.Climate change is expected to diminish growth ratesand the area of suitable habitat (Whetton 1998,Broome unpubl. data). It is therefore essential thatcurrent growth rates are maximised by protecting allhabitat, and increased where possible byreconnecting any disrupted movement corridors,rehabilitating habitat which has been disturbed andcontrolling foxes and cats.

Observations of Mountain Pygmy-possums usingconstructed movement corridors at Mt Blue Cow andMt Hotham, and of Bogong Moths clustering in thesehabitats (Broome unpubl. data), suggests MountainPygmy-possums are capable of successfullycolonising man-made habitat. If current populationsdo decline because of global warming, a possiblemanagement consideration would be to provideadditional habitat on south-easterly aspects and toconsider increasing the amount of winter insulationby snow-making over habitat within ski resort areas.

4. Management Issues

4.1. Habitat loss and degradationMetapopulation theory predicts that the probability ofpopulation persistence increases with the number ofhabitat patches and local populations, and that theremust be adequate migration between patches toaccount for the possibility of population re-establishment following local extinctions (Hanski1991, Hanski and Simberloff 1997, Harrison andTaylor 1997). Conversely, elimination of patches, orisolation of patches by blocking migration anddispersal routes, is likely to be detrimental to themetapopulation as a whole. The effects on theviability of a metapopulation of eliminating patchesare difficult to verify (Hanski and Simberloff 1997).However, reconnection of movement corridors at theMt Hotham ski resort was shown to increase wintersurvival of breeding females in disturbed patches byaround 40% (Mansergh and Scotts 1989).

Loss and degradation of habitat are the greatestpotential threats to the continued viability of theMountain Pygmy-possum. Habitat loss andmarginalisation is expected to increase with climatechange (Whetton 1998). Because of this, the smalltotal population size, the likely metapopulationstructure and possible dynamic nature of �source�habitats, it is essential that all areas of habitat areprotected. In particular under the predicted effects ofglobal warming, the few sites with south and south-easterly aspects (which include Mt Blue Cow,Charlotte Pass and Paralyser 1) are likely to becomeincreasingly important as warm climate refugia. Thegenetically-distinct populations at Mt Blue Cow andCharlotte Pass are the largest populations of eachhaplotype on south-easterly aspects, and because oftheir size and stability, they are each likely to



function as key source populations. This, combinedwith their additional value as possible warm climaterefugia, means that protection of the MountainPygmy-possum populations and habitat at CharlottePass and Blue Cow must be given highest priority inthe management of these ski resorts.Acceptance of a reduction in carrying capacity atsites within management areas, or �sacrifice� even ofapparent �sink� patches which may contribute tometapopulation size and stability (Howe et al. 1991)or act as dispersal stepping stones (Burgman et al.1993), cannot be considered as management optionsdue to the risk of system collapse (Lindenmayer andPossingham 1994). Even if all the patches were notconnected by dispersal, it is important to conservepatches as a means of �spreading the risk� therebyreducing the impact of local catastrophes on theentire population, and to maintain genetic diversity(Den Boer 1968, Soule and Simberloff 1986).

Degradation of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat canoccur by direct damage to boulderfields andvegetation, by siltation or by changing snowdynamics over hibernation sites. Many of theboulderfields are located on steep slopes, lie belowsteep slopes or mountain peaks, or have stream-bedsrunning through them. It is important that theboulderfields are not filled in with soil and siltdeposition from surrounding areas of erosion. Thisparticularly applies to man-made earthworks or as aresult of loss of vegetation cover from fires,trampling or other mechanical disturbances such assnow grooming. Damage to heathland vegetationcan also occur very rapidly from human visitorswalking across areas of habitat during summer. Dueto the short growing season, damage to alpine heathvegetation, including P. lawrenceii which may attainages of several hundred years, tends to be cumulativeand rates of recovery are very slow (Bell and Bliss1973, Costin et al. 1979).

4.2. Disruption of movement corridorsRoads caused social dysfunction at Mt Higginbothamin Victoria (Mansergh and Scotts 1989), and �slopegrooming� i.e., clearing rocks, shrubs and othervegetation and replanting with a low cover ofgrasses, would have the same effect. Radiotrackedindividuals did not cross �groomed� ski runs duringsummer or winter at Mt Blue Cow (Broome 1992).Habitat at Mt McKay in Victoria, has also beendissected by roads, and evidence to date shows atleast one group of females did not breed in 1998,presumably because of the low numbers of males inthe area and their inability to access that patch (D.Heinze, pers. comm. 2001).

4.3. Snow sports, snow grooming, snowfarming and snow fences.Snow sports include skiing, snow boarding,tobogganing, snow shoeing and snow play. Snowgrooming involves the use of snow groomingmachines to smooth the snow surface on ski areas,for the use and enjoyment of skiers. On Australianski fields the majority of skiers prefer to ski ongroomed slopes (I. Edgar, Area Manager CharlottePass, pers. comm. 2000). The term snow farming isused when snow is transferred or �harvested� fromareas of deep accumulation or areas not used forskiing and distributed on ski areas, particularly inproblem spots of low natural accumulation and areasof concentrated skier use such as lift access areas.Stockpiles of snow may come from naturalaccumulation areas, or from snow building up behindman-made snow fences.

Prime areas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat havebeen heavily used for skiing and snow boarding atCharlotte Pass and Blue Cow (Plates 3, 5). In someareas snow grooming and snow farming is necessaryfor skier safety, and to maintain snow depths andprotect vegetation. Vegetation damage has occurredin the past by snow grooming when snow depthswere too shallow to provide protection, and by snowfarming from areas of habitat.

Compacting snow results in decreased insulation dueto an increase in snow density (Fuller et al. 1969).While compaction takes place through naturalprocesses such as by wind and rain, it can also takeplace during recreational activities and through use ofsnow grooming machinery and snow mobiles. Insituations where there has been no base formedthrough snow-melt cycles, such activities cancompact snow and decrease or eliminate thesubnivean space (Schmid 1971, Broome unpubl.data). Mountain Pygmy-possums occasionally movebetween hibernation sites, most frequently duringearly winter or during snow-melt cycles, when thesnow would be most prone to mechanicalcompaction. Compression of the subnivean spacemay affect these movements.

Snow compression may also affect the health of theunderlying vegetation (Chrind 1971, Baiderin 1983).In preliminary studies Broome (1992) found thatsnow densities in the upper 50-100 cm of the snowprofile on groomed ski runs were greater than onungroomed areas. The subnivean space wascompletely compressed on ski runs where thevegetation consisted of low heath or snow grass, andwhere snow grooming occurred at depths less than 50cm. Snow temperatures at the ground interfaceremained at the optimal 2o C for hibernatingMountain Pygmy-possums when snow depths weregreater than 80-100 cm. Walter (1996) and Walterand Broome (1998) also showed that surface



temperatures stabilised under snow depths greaterthan 1 metre.

The accumulation of sufficient body fat, minimumexpenditure of energy and a well-insulatedhibernation site are crucial for over-winter survival ofhibernating Mountain Pygmy-possums (Geiser andBroome 1993, Körtner and Geiser 1998, Walter andBroome 1998). As a consequence, depletion ofenergy reserves by excessive arousals, which may becaused by external factors such as noise, vibration ordecreased insulation, may prove fatal. The degree ofdisturbance on hibernating Mountain Pygmy-possums in ski areas from noise and vibration fromskiing, snow boarding and snow grooming, and theeffects of changing depths and compacting snow onthe physical characteristics of hibernation sites, hasnot yet been directly assessed.

At Charlotte Pass, skiing and snow grooming occurover the principal breeding site and surroundingheathland on the north side of the valley and MtGuthrie every winter (CP1 Fig. 3, Plates 4, 5), but notover the male dispersal site on the south side of thevalley (CP 2). Snow farming and snow making isused to supplement snow cover, especially on theheavily used Guthrie surface tow which traverse thebreeding site, and on lift access areas. Snow makingoccurs outside the habitat and is farmed onto the site,while snow grooming does not occur until snowdepths reach at least 1 metre when the largestboulders are covered by snow (I. Edgar, pers. comm.2000).

At Mt Blue Cow between 1988 and 1995, skiing andsnow grooming occurred intensively over theprincipal areas of habitat on the south-east slopes(Plate 2). Since 1996, after Perisher Blue becamemanagers of the area, snow grooming has beenrestricted to the Zali�s and Side-saddle ski runs, withone traverse across habitat from the lower part ofSide-saddle to the Summit and Terminal ski lifts(Plate 1, Fig. 2). Although not snow groomed, thehabitat area between the two ski runs was heavilyused by skiers and snow boarders up until winter2001 (M. Fearnside, Mountain Manager, pers.comm., February 2000; pers. obs.).

Damage to vegetation in areas of habitat used forskiing at Mt Blue Cow has occurred in the past andevidence of damage, whether past or recent, can stillbe seen despite significant changes in slope groomingpractices in recent years aimed at minimising suchimpacts. Damage is most likely to occur undermarginal snow conditions and has the potential to becumulative because of slow recovery rates. Whensnow cover was thin in 2001 damage to vegetationand compression of the snow by skiers andparticularly snow boarders was quite evident in someareas of the habitat between Zali�s and Sidesaddle skiruns. Marginal snow conditions are predicted to

increase with climate change (Whetton 1996, 1998).Diminished insulating value of snow cover overhibernation sites, which is likely to be exacerbated bysnow grooming or snow sports activities at shallowsnow depths, may have increasing impact onMountain Pygmy-possum populations and habitat.Impacts may be compounded if hibernating animalsare stressed by other factors or enter the hibernationperiod with low body weights.

At Mt Blue Cow, snow fences have been placed onthe lee side of much of the habitat (Plate 2), includingabove an important hibernation area on LBC (Fig. 2)where snow naturally accumulates as a cornice. Thishas been done to increase snow cover and protectvegetation on the heavily used ski traverse (�Side-saddle�) above the site. It also provides analternative to snow farming from the areas of habitat(M. Fearnside, pers. comm. 2000). Whether this, andthe practice under former management of distributingthe snow from the cornice to the area below, affectsthe insulating value of snow over the hibernation areahas not been assessed. However, it appears that thesnow fences are now enhancing snow cover on theupper parts of this habitat. This technique couldpossibly be used more widely to increase snowdepths on other areas of habitat when snow cover islow.

4.4. SnowmakingSnow making involves the production of human-made snow from a mixture of water and compressedair. The addition of �Snowmax�, irradiated bacteriathat act as nuclei for snow, has been permitted withinKNP, subject to annual licence renewal (NPWS1994). The Perisher Blue and Thredbo resortscurrently utilise �Snowmax� but it is not used atCharlotte Pass. Thredbo also use �Supersnow�, anamorphous form of silicon dioxide, at lowtemperatures. Snow making is used to supplementsnow cover on heavily used or low-elevation ski runsand lift access areas. It could be used to protectvegetation from resort activities and as an alternativeto snow farming. Man-made snow has been used tosupplement snow cover on Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat at Charlotte Pass since 1993, with largeamounts made from 1997-1999 (I. Edgar, pers.comm. 2000). The density of man-made snow ishigh due to a high % water content, therefore itsinsulating value is initially likely to be lower thanthat of natural snow cover. The effects of man-madesnow on the physical properties of hibernation sites,and the effects of extending the continuity andduration of the snow season, which in some casesmay be beneficial to the Mountain Pygmy-possum,are unknown.

4.5. PredationPredation upon Mountain Pygmy-possums by native



predators has not been observed but potentialpredators include Quolls Dasyurus maculatus, snakesand owls. Evidence of Mountain Pygmy-possumshave been found in fossilised owl pellets. However,owls are seldom seen in the alpine area at Kosciusko(Green and Osborne 1994) and were never heardduring all the years of radiotracking at Mt Blue Cow.Nor have owl pellets been found in current areas ofMountain Pygmy-possum habitat. However, it ispossible that owls do occur at lower elvations, belowthe treeline, as they do at Mt Buller (Dean Heinze,pers. Comm. 2000). Mountain Pygmy-possums areknown to be preyed upon by feral foxes and,occasionally, dogs. Evidence of predation by foxesin Kosciuszko National Park is relatively lowcompared to that for the Broad-toothed RatMastacomys fuscus, perhaps because of theprotection afforded by boulderfields (Green andOsborne 1981, Bubela et al. 1991, 1998, Broome1992, Bubela and Happold 1993, Bubela 1995, Greenunpubl. data). However, fox predation may influencerestriction of Mountain Pygmy-possums to thishabitat and may contribute to local extinctions ofsmall populations. Males and dispersing juvenilesare most at risk as they travel between habitat patchesand it is possible that foxes affect the sex ratio ofMountain Pygmy-possum populations (see limitingfactors). Feral cats were observed in increasingnumbers between 1986-1990 at Mt Blue Cow(Broome 1992) and a litter of kittens was found inthe lower Blue Cow boulderfield in 1999 (K. Green,pers. comm.). In November 2001, a cat was sightedthere on several occasions. Signs of bird remains(Pipit and Rosella) and dead skinks with teethpuncture marks were evident. Cats have been seenfrequently along Perisher Creek and around Guthegaduring summer and winter. Although it is usuallydifficult to find evidence of cat predation, oneradiotracked Mountain Pygmy-possum from Mt BlueCow was taken in 1986 by a cat resident at a PerisherValley ski lodge. It is highly likely that feral cats area significant predator on Mountain Pygmy-possumsboth within boulderfields and when they are movingbetween them.

4.6. Exotic speciesRabbits are sometimes abundant in the sub-alpinearea of Kosciuszko National Park, particularlyaround the ski resorts. At Charlotte Pass they havebeen common in the boulderfield near the sewagetreatment plant. Rabbits were not noted in any greatnumbers at Mt Blue Cow until 1995, when they werefrequently seen feeding on introduced grasses andclover on the roadside verges and ski runs. Largenumbers of juvenile rabbits were noted at Mt BlueCow during February 1996 (Broome, pers. obs.).Rabbits may damage native vegetation and mayattract predators, particularly cats, to the area. Haresmay have a similar impact. Black rats (Rattus rattus)and house mice (Mus musculus) have not been

observed in the habitat of Mountain Pygmy-possumsin NSW but have been detected in Victoria, thoughtto have been brought to alpine areas in bales of hayused for soil stabilisation works. They are potentialcompetitors of Mountain Pygmy-possums.

4.7. Litter and garbageLitter and garbage is a significant issue in areas ofMountain Pygmy-possum habitat, particularly inResort Lease areas and the summit area of MtKosciuszko, which receive heavy use. One MountainPygmy-possum, for example, was found drowned ina plastic garbage bin which was in the mainboulderfield at Charlotte Pass. Such items are nowwind-secured. The boulderfields are also aconvenient place to hide refuse, including drinkbottles which could pose a similar hazard toMountain Pygmy-possums throughout the alpinearea. Uncovered garbage is a particular problembecause it attracts predators (foxes and cats) to theresort areas and provides a supplementary, winterfood supply to predator populations (Bubela 1995).

4.8. Rat traps and poisonMountain Pygmy-possums sometimes enter skilodges and other buildings within the resortconcession areas at Mt Blue Cow, Charlotte Pass andThredbo. They are susceptible to rat traps and poisonsuch as �Ratsack� which have been used (illegally) tocontrol rats and mice in these buildings. One maleMountain Pygmy-possum is known to have beenkilled in a rat trap which was set at Mt Blue Cow in1988 (Broome pers. obs.).

4.9. FireAlpine vegetation communities are fire sensitive andslow to regenerate. The Mountain Plum-pine P.lawrencei is particularly flammable and sensitive tofire (Costin et al. 1979, Gullan and Norris 1981).This is possibly one of the reasons why old stands ofMountain Plum-pine are seldom found away fromboulderfields. Because of this, fire must beconsidered a threat to Mountain Pygmy-possums.Although fire history records show a low incidenceof fire in the alpine and subalpine areas, one fire isknown to have occurred in summer 1987/88 withinMountain Pygmy-possum habitat on Mount BlueCow as a result of blasting activities.

4.10. Global WarmingThere is mounting evidence for a long-term globalwarming trend. The 6 warmest years since 1880occurred in the 1990�s, with 1998 and 1997 recordedas the warmest this century (US NationalOceanographic Atmospheric Administration, 2000).This is expected to profoundly affect the extent andduration of snow cover in the Australian alps(Galloway 1988, Whetton et. al. 1996, Whetton1998) and with it, the ecology of alpine-dependent



species including Mountain Pygmy-possums (Busby1988, Brereton et al. 1995). Climatic variability isalso expected to increase. From 1970 to 1996, thereappeared to be a decreasing trend in the number ofdays on which snow was recorded in the SnowyMountains, particularly at the beginning of the snowseason in May and during the deep season in August.This correlated during some winter months withincreases in upper air temperatures measured atWagga Wagga, as well as with the increasing trendof the average annual temperatures over Australiaduring this period (Davis 1998). However, as a�snow day� records only the fact that some snow hasfallen somewhere within the mountains, and does notindicate the amount of snow on each day, the numberof snow days does not necessarily correlate with totalprecipitation or the length of the snow season.Nevertheless, a strongly decreasing long-term trendin annual snow cover in metre-days (the integral ofweekly snow depth measurements taken by the SMAat the Spencers Creek snow course) is evident atSpencers Creek between 1959 � 1999 (Green 2000).

Whetton et al. (1996) and Whetton (1998) predictunprecedented reductions in the spatial extent andduration of snow cover in the Australian Alps withinthe next 30 - 70 years. At best, an increasedfrequency of short-duration snow years is likely tolead to higher population turnover and a younger agestructure within Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations (Broome unpubl. data). Based on currentCSIRO global climate change scenarios, warming inthe Australian alpine area of 0.3 - 1.3 oC is expectedby 2030 and 0.6 oC - 3.4 oC by 2070, with majorreductions in snow cover duration, particularly atlower elevations. In 1998, the shortest snow coverduration experienced during the 12 year study ofMountain Pygmy-possums in Kosciuszko NationalPark, survival was 19% and recruitment 28% belowthe mean (Broome, unpubl. data). McCarthy andBroome (2000) predict that long-term reduction ofcurrent survival or recruitment rates by more than15% is likely to lead to severe population declines.A change in climate would most likely increasewinter mortality of Mountain Pygmy-possumsbecause of decreased insulation and frequent changesin hibernacula temperatures; as well as reducing theamount of available habitat, particularly at lowerelevations and on westerly aspects. It may also leadto increased competition from other species in thehabitat.

4.11. Threats to Bogong Moths

Bogong Moths form a major part of the diet of theMountain Pygmy-possums during spring and summer(Mansergh et al. 1990, Smith and Broome 1992). Insome areas where there is little shrubby vegetation(e.g., Mt Kosciusko and Mt Townsend they appear tobe the prime source of food even through the autumn

fattening period, as they are on the peak of Mt BlueCow (Smith and Broome 1992, Broome unpubl.data). Without this rich source of fat and protein it islikely that most local populations of MountainPygmy-possums at high elevations in the Kosciuszkoarea would become extinct.

There has been very little research conducted on theBogong Moth since the study by Common (1954)and very little is known about the populationdynamics of the species. The component of thepopulation that migrate to the alps apparentlyoriginate mainly in the Murray-Darling basin,throughout inland Victoria, NSW and the DarlingDowns in southern Queensland. They arrive in thealps around September and spend the summermonths aestivating in cool rock crevasses amongboulderfields and rock tors at high elevations.Around March they return to their breeding grounds,where each female lays up to 2000 eggs and theadults die. The larvae, known as cutworms (whichinclude a number of other Agrotis species), feed onthe stems of broad-leafed and herbaceous plants andshelter in the top layer of soil in native grasslands, inpastures and crops where they are often regarded aspests. They will feed in cotton fields and on theseedlings of crops but are probably a relatively minorcrop pest (Common 1954, T. Edwards, CSIRO Div.Entomology, pers. comm. March 2001).

Potential threats to Bogong Moths include loss ofinland native grassland habitat, agricultural chemicalsused on pastures and crops and increased droughtconditions or environmental variability caused byglobal warming. Ultraviolet light can upset themoth�s navigation system and large numbers ofmoths may be diverted from their migration routes bycity lights, or by storms.

Recent evidence suggests that Bogong Moths carryheavy metals such as arsenic and possibly pesticideresidues to the alps where they may accumulate infood chains. Arsenic compounds have been detectedin Bogong Moths, the scats of Mountain Pygmy-possums and other small predators, but not in thoseof the herbivorous Broad-toothed Rat (Green et al.2001). It is not yet known what implications this hasfor the Mountain Pygmy-possum.

5. Previous recovery actions

• Research and annual monitoring of MountainPygmy-possum populations at Mt Blue Cow,Charlotte Pass and two sites outside ski resorts(Summit Road and Paralyser) has occurred since1986. Diet, hibernation, home range andmonitoring research until 1998 have beenpublished (see papers by Broome, Geiser,Körtner, Smith). Data on survival and



recruitment in relation to snow cover is in theprocess of preparation for publication.

• At Mt Blue Cow, habitat fragmentation was

reduced by constructing two movement corridors(boulder-filled culverts) across and around thebottom station of the former �Stampede� (now�Zali�s�) ski run when the resort was constructed.An additional movement corridor was constructedbetween the UBC and BCP boulderfields (seeFig. 2, Plate 3) on what is now the �Side-saddle�ski run after the habitat was damaged in February1994. Following the resort merger in 1995, thecurrent resort operator has exhibited an awarenessof the need to avoid damage to Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat.

• Five transects for monitoring vegetation condition

were established on Mt Blue Cow in January1988. Each transect consists of 20 plots, each 1mx 1m, spaced at 5 m intervals. They have beensampled three times; in January 1988, two winterslater in December 1989 and in January - February1995. File photographs were also taken at anumber of locations on Mt Blue Cow duringJanuary 1988. However, these transects did notrepresent all areas of habitat. For example,damage to Mountain Plum-pine vegetation inMountain Pygmy-possum habitat was evidentfrom snow grooming and snow farming on thesouth-western side of the boulderfield on BlueCow Peak.

• Movement corridors have been constructed across

sections of the Summit Road to Mt Kosciuszkoand the road to Schlinks Pass.

• The relative abundance of Bogong Moths has

been monitored annually in late November-earlyDecember at Mt Blue Cow since 1986 (with a gapfrom 1990-1993) and at Charlotte Pass since1994. Aestivation sites on South Ramshead havebeen monitored for the last 10 years.

• Monitoring of annual seed productivity of the

Mountain Plum-pine at the four MountainPygmy-possum monitoring sites was establishedin 1997 (Fortune 1997).

• A project to re-assess the total population size of

Mountain Pygmy-possums, and to map thedistribution and measure the quality of theirhabitat throughout their range in KosciuszkoNational Park, is currently being carried out. Thisproject is due for completion by 2003 and ispresently being funded by the Foundation forNational Parks and Wildlife.

• Genetic analyses have been conducted on hair

samples collected during the wide area survey ofMountain Pygmy-possum populations in

Kosciuszko National Park (Osborne et al. 1999).Some analyses remain to be carried out. Hairsamples are also being examined from all theVictorian populations.

• A fox control and monitoring program was

initiated at Charlotte Pass in winter 1997. Baitingtransects using �FOXOFF� prepared compound1080 (sodium fluoroacetate) baits (AnimalControl Agencies Pty Ltd, Brooklyn, Victoria)were conducted for 3 months during winter 1997and 1998. These were extended in 1999 to coverthe top of Thredbo, through Charlotte Pass,Perisher Valley, Smiggin Holes, Guthega and upWhites River valley from Guthega to SchlinksHut (K. Green, pers. comm.). This project isongoing.

• Perisher Blue have decreased the extent of snow-

grooming within the high-quality MountainPygmy-possum habitat on the south-east face ofMt Blue Cow. Since 1996, snow groomingwithin this area has been restricted to a 40-50 mstrip down the �Zali�s� and �Side Saddle� ski runs,crossing habitat from the lower part of �SideSaddle� to the �Summit� chairlift (M. Fearnside,Mountain Manager, Perisher Blue, pers. comm.February, 2000). Further proposed conservationprocedures are detailed in the Ski Slope Plan(PerisherBlue Pty. Limited, April 2000).

• The locations of travel corridors under the Blue

Cow access road and additional crossings werediscussed with Perisher staff and examined on-site in December, 1999 and March 2000. Theseinclude reconstructing the major travel corridorunder the �Summit� bottom station, and placingnew corridors across the �Boot Hill� ski run, theresort access road, the pipeline road betweenPump Station 3 and the �Ridge� chairlift and thesewage line between Blue Cow and Guthega.

• Charlotte Pass have issued maps of

environmentally sensitive areas, operationmanuals and instructions to their 2 snowgrooming machinery operators to avoid damageto vegetation during snow grooming and snowfarming operations.

• Following the decline in the Mountain Pygmy-possum population in 2000 and 2001, Perisher-Blue have made an undertaking to fence off thearea of habitat between Zali�s and Sidesaddle skiruns, and provide signage asking skiers,snowboarders and hikers not to enter the fencedarea. Closure of this area to winter and summerrecreational use will commence from winter2002.



Fig. 2. The distribution of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat and travel corridors on Mt Blue Cow. The major boulderfields are identified(see Broome 2001a for population densities in each of these areas).



Fig. 3. The distribution of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat at Charlotte Pass.The major boulderfields are identified. CP1 is prime breeding habitat, CP2 ismale and juvenile dispersal habitat but occasionally contains some females.Travel corridors yet to be identified. (After Körtner and Geiser 1998).



Plate 1. Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat at Mt Blue Cow, with 'Zalis' ski run and the bottom stations of �TheSummit� and �Terminal� ski lifts, February 1989. The lower �possum crossing� is to the right mid-view (infront of the Summit bottom station), the upper �possum crossing� is on the mid slope of the groomed ski run(indicated by arrows). Boulderfields are designated BCP (Blue Cow Peak), UBC (Upper Blue Cow), LBC(Lower Blue Cow), A6 (Area 6), A13 (Area 13).

A13

A6

LBC

UBC

BCP

A13



Plate 2. The south-eastern face of Mt Blue Cow in November 2000. All of the rocky areas and interspersedshrubby heath above the saddle from the peak and to the right are high quality Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat. This extends out of view to mid right alongside �Zalis� ski run, to above and below the �Summit� chairlift bottom station (see Plate 1). The upper �possum crossing� can be seen across �Zalis� ski run on the right.�Side saddle� ski run in centre (on right of Blue Cow Peak) (arrows). �Milkrun� in foreground. Eight snowfences are distributed along the saddle, mid view.

Plate 3. The south-eastern face of Mt Blue Cow in winter (August 2000), with �Milkrun� in the foreground.

Blue Cow Peak



Plate 4. Charlotte Pass village in summer (December 1988), showing the main Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat areas. CP1 is prime breeding habitat, CP2 and the Dam boulderfield are male and juvenile dispersalhabitat but occasionally supports some females.

Plate 5. Charlotte Pass village in winter (August 2000), looking on to the main boulderfield (CP1) from thevillage. Mt Guthrie, with the Guthrie ski tow is on top right.

CP1

CP2

CP1

DAM



6. Proposed Recovery Objectives, Actions and Performance Criteria for 2001-2006

The overall objective of this Recovery Plan is tomaintain and improve the conservation status of theMountain Pygmy-possum in New South Wales andmaximise the opportunity for viability of this speciesin the wild in the long-term.

6.1. Specific Objective 1: Completemapping and and re-assessment of the totalpopulation size of Mountain Pygmy-possumsand the distribution and quality of theirhabitat in Kosciuszko National Park.

See previous recovery actions.

Action 1.1 Complete trapping and on-site habitatsurveys.

Many patches of habitat were surveyed for MountainPygmy-possums and habitat variables at each sitewere measured during the summers of 1997/98 to2000/01. Some possible habitat areas within or closeto the Perisher Blue ski resort lease remain to besurveyed including Mt Perisher, Farm Creek andBlue Cow Creek. Some possible habitat areas remainto be surveyed on the upper slopes of the Thredbolease area.

Performance Criterion 1.1

Trapping surveys and measurement of habitatvariables completed within 1 year.

Action 1.2 Derive snow cover duration variables foreach surveyed site.

Research at Mt Blue Cow indicates that physical sitevariables such as boulder field depth, elevation andaspect (measured under Action 1.1) contribute tohabitat quality for Mountain Pygmy-possums. Snowdepth and duration also influence survival andrecruitment rates (Broome unpubl. data.). Whileaspect, elevation and exposure to prevailing windsare correlates for snow cover variables, these arelikely to provide imprecise indices. A more preciseapproach is to derive snow cover duration indices foreach site from satellite imagery taken at intervalsthroughout several winters, with yearly variationobtained from imagery taken over a span of years.


Snow cover duration variables derived for allsurveyed Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat siteswithin 1 year.

Action 1.3 Produce habitat maps, analyse data andderive revised population size estimates forKosciuszko National Park.

Most habitat patches have been identified on airphotos. These require digitising onto a DEM (DigitalElevation Model) compatible with the NPWS GIS.This will enable the total area of habitat in KosciuskoNational Park to be calculated. The results fromActions 1.1 and 1.2 will be analysed to stratify allhabitat patches by quality and to derive a totalpopulation size estimate.


An accurate map of the distribution and quality ofhabitat and a revised estimate of total MountainPygmy-possum population size for KosciuszkoNational Park is submitted for publication within 2years.

6.2. Specific Objective 2: Protect allexisting Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations and habitatIn protecting Mountain Pygmy-possum populationsand habitat within Kosciuszko National Park it isnecessary to focus attention on developmentactivities and high recreational use areas, particularlyin ski resorts, where the risks of impacts are greater ifspecific attention is not paid to future planning andmanagement practices. The overall aim is to ensurethat human activities do not damage habitat ordecrease the viability of Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations.

Action 2.1 Management areas for MountainPygmy-possum populations and habitat, andprovisions for their protection will be identifiedwithin the Ski Resort Development plans (SRDP)and subsidary plans for each resort.

The SRDP, as identified in the Kosciuszko NationalPark Plan of Management, will require theconsideration of threatened species issues. Related tothis is the requirement to prepare a detailed ski slopeplan (SSP) for each resort area. Provisions to protectMountain Pygmy-possums and their habitat will beincluded in these plans. The Perisher Blue Ski SlopePlan has been submitted and is under review byNPWS. Provisions to protect Mountain Pygmy-possums in ski slope plans for Charlotte Pass andThredbo will also be a requirement.




Management areas for Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations and habitat identified within all ski resortlease areas and provisions for their protectionincorporated in Ski Resort Development Plans andrelated Ski Slope Plans as they are developed.

Action 2.2. A proposed schedule of works withinMountain Pygmy-possum management areas, forthe duration of all ski slope plans, will be providedby each ski resort that supports Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat.

This will ensure consideration of cumulative impacts,and coordination of developments proposed withinMountain Pygmy-possum management areas. Thisaction is consistent with the Kosciuszko NationalPark Plan of Management Amendment 1994 (NPWS1994) in regard to Alpine Skiing Management andthe Mountain Pygmy-possum. Under NaturalEnvironment Surveys (page 28) it is stated that:�Protection of the habitat of the MountainPygmy-possum Burramys parvus (and othersignificant features) will be highest priority� Theresorts involved are Perisher Blue, Charlotte Pass andThredbo.


Developments proposed within Mountain Pygmy-possum management areas are detailed in all skislope plans as they are developed.

Action 2.3 Derive detailed maps identifying knownand potential habitat and travel corridors withinmanagement areas for Mountain Pygmy-possumsin each ski resort lease area.

To protect habitat in ski resorts on an operationallevel, maps showing details of all known andpotential habitat and travel corridors within MountainPygmy-possum management areas need to beavailable to managers and operators.


Maps of known and potential Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat and travel corridors within thePerisher-Blue and Charlotte Pass ski resort leaseareas derived within 1 year. Maps available forThredbo lease area within 2 years.

Action 2.4 Where snow sports, snow grooming,snow farming, snow fencing and snow makingactivities interact with Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations, develop protocols which will provideprotection to these populations and habitat.

The most effective way to prevent damage to habitatby these activities is to avoid using areas of MountainPygmy-possum habitat, especially when snow depthsare shallow. Protocols necessary to prevent damageto habitat and maintain the integrity of hibernationsites within resort operation areas will be formalisedbetween NPWS, Planning NSW and ski resortoperators. Considerations will include which areascontaining Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat,including boulderfields, feeding and dispersal habitatand travel corridors, are to be subject to ski slopeactivities and under what conditions these activitieswill be carried out. Procedures for the monitoring ofadherence to protocols will be developed. Relevantconsiderations will include the amount of disturbancelikely to result from the activities (this may be sitespecific depending on the site geography), whethersnow depth and density are sufficient to protect theunderlying vegetation and insulation over hibernationsites, and whether a �base� has formed which willprevent compression of the subnivean space inhabitat areas outside boulderfields. For snowgrooming, the experience of snow groomingoperators, the way in which snow groomingmachinery is used, and the frequency of groomingwill be considered.

As a general principle, and until completion ofAction 2.5, snow grooming will be kept to aminimum over Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat andwill generally not be carried out over habitat areaswhen snow is less than 1 metre deep. Where thereare defined ski runs (e.g., �Zali�s and �Side Saddle� atMt Blue Cow) or lift access areas over MountainPygmy-possum habitat, grooming at shallower depths(0.5 - 1m) may be necessary. However, this shouldbe undertaken in a way which avoids damage tounderlying vegetation, or loss of extended areas ofsubnivean space in situations where protectedmovement corridors are not provided.

Removal of snow for snow farming (or any other)purposes will not occur from within 20 m ofboulderfields, identified foraging habitat oradditional areas identified as hibernation sites orlikely Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat. Where it isnecessary to protect habitat or maintain cover on skiruns crossing habitat, snow may be moved onto areasof habitat.


Protocols for ski slope activities within areas ofMountain Pygmy-possum habitat formalised betweenNPWS and ski resort operators and put into practicewithin 1 year. Protocols will be audited annually andreviewed if necessary.



Action 2.5 Determine the effects of snow sports,snow grooming, snow farming, snow fencing, snowmaking and ski lift operation on the thermaldynamics, gas exchange, noise and vibration levelsat the ground surface and potential hibernationsites, the underlying vegetation and the subniveanspace.

In areas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitatidentified for ongoing ski slope activities, themanagement of these activities to protect the integrityof hibernation sites, the underlying vegetation andthe subnivean space should be based on objectivescientific information. To this end, a researchprogram will be established to determine the extentand effect of compaction which occurs during skislope activities and the effects of such compactionand of artificial snow on the physical and gasexchange characteristics and noise and vibrationlevels at the ground surface and within potentialhibernation sites, as well as on the underlyingvegetation and subnivean space. Such informationwill be used, as it becomes available, to review thedepth of snow required to protect Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat, and related management practices.


Research on the effects of ski slope activites on thedynamics of snow, potential hibernation sites, thesubnivean space and underlying vegetation initiatedwithin 1 year.

Action 2.6 Relevant lessees to investigate means forreducing environmental pressures or risks resultingfrom ski slope activities in areas of MountainPygmy-possum habitat.

The scope for implementing planning, design andoperational measures which would reduce oreliminate the potential impacts of ski slope use inareas of habitat will be investigated. Any significanteconomic or social consequences of implementingsuch measures will be identified.


Measures to reduce or eliminate ski slope use andimpacts on all areas of Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat to be identified, and significant economic orsocial consequences to be assessed within 2 years.

Action 2.7 Update Mountain Pygmy-possumprotection measures as new information becomesavailable.

Procedures for protecting Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations and their habitat may need to bereconsidered upon completion of Actions 2.5 and 2.6,

or depending on the results of future monitoring ofMountain Pygmy-possum populations and habitat.


Procedures for protecting Mountain Pygmy-possumpopulations and their habitat updated as necessary.

Action 2.8 Identify Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat on fire protection plans and advise need forrapid fire suppression.

Maps showing the location of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat will be attached to all firemanagement plans and manuals for KosciuszkoNational Park. The location of water hydrants,including those for snow making supply lines atCharlotte Pass and Blue Cow that can be used for firesuppression, will be noted. Rapid suppression offires in the vicinity of these sites will be flagged as apriority. Chemical fire retardants will not be used inareas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat. Local firebrigades will be fully informed and provided withthis information.


Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat identified on fireprotection plans and rapid fire suppression, withoutchemical retardants, flagged as a priority within 1year.

6.3. Specific Objective 3: Restoremovement corridors and habitat.The integrity of some areas of previously disturbedhabitat can be restored by the provision of movementcorridors.

Action 3.1 Restore movement corridors.

Movement corridors are required across theKosciuszko Road and village access road at CharlottePass. Possibilities for facilitating movementsbetween habitats on the north and south side of thevalley will be investigated. At Mt Blue Cow, theexisting corridor and underground crossing at the�Summit� chairlift bottom station needs upgrading.Additional crossings are required across the lowerpart of the �Boot Hill� ski run, near the �Terminalchairlift, the resort access road, the pipeline roadfrom pump station 3 to the �Ridge�, the sewage linefrom Guthega to Blue Cow and the �Parachute� skirun at Guthega. Restoration of these corridors isbeing progressively implemented by Perisher Blue inconjunction with upgrading of roads and tracks(Perisher Blue Pty. Limited, 2000). The need forfurther movement corridors across existing roads andski runs throughout Kosciuszko National Park will beinvestigated and their positions and constructiondetails indicated as necessary.



The Charlotte Pass Area Manager has offered toconstruct any necessary movement corridors betweenareas of habitat within the Charlotte Pass lease area,once suitable locations are determined.


Habitat is restored to a point where only lowmaintenance is required where damage orinterruption to movement corridors has occurred,as ski slope plans are implemented.

6.4. Specific Objective 4: Control feralpredators and exotic species.

Action 4.1 Undertake fox control.

The existing monitoring and control program forfoxes will be extended to cover the range of theMountain Pygmy-possum, and will continueannually.


Ongoing monitoring shows that fox numberswithin the alpine area remain substantially belowpre-control levels.

Action 4.2 Undertake cat control.

Methods for detecting, monitoring numbers andremoval of feral cats in areas of MountainPygmy-possum habitat, including within skiresorts, will be initiated and continued asnecessary. Cat control will be initiated at MtBlue Cow commencing February 2002. A foxand feral cat hotline will be established at theJindabyne NPWS office to assist reporting ofsightings.


Feral cat (and fox) hotline established atJindabyne NPWS office within 1 year. Catnumbers in resort areas are controlled within 3-5years.

Action 4.3 Undertake rabbit control.

Control of rabbits will proceed in all area ofMountain Pygmy-possum habitat where they arepresent.


Rabbit numbers remain at low levels.

6.5. Specific Objective 5: MonitorMountain Pygmy-possum populations andhabitatThe objective of monitoring is to detect anypopulation and habitat responses to managementincluding ski resort activities and predator control,and to assess the effects of climatic variability andthe predicted long-term impacts of climate change.Care must always be taken to minimise damage tovegetation in the habitat by trampling whenconducting monitoring programs.

Action 5.1 Population monitoring at current studysites.

The current monitoring program of MountainPygmy-possum populations on four study sites,initiated in 1986, will continue annually duringlate November-early December. Scat collectionscurrently taken for determining annual variationin diet will be extended to include analysis ofchemical residues.


Population monitoring proceeds annually(ongoing).

Action 5.2 Develop and initiate a monitoringstrategy for the whole population.

A monitoring strategy for the whole MountainPygmy-possum population in KosciuszkoNational Park, will be developed and initiated.This will include areas of habitat in the SchlinkPass area and the western aspects of the MainRange, which are likely to show effects of climatechange more rapidly than the currently monitoredpopulations at Mt Blue Cow, Charlotte Pass andthe Paralyser. Marginal habitats at Blue Cow andCharlotte Pass will also be included.


A monitoring strategy for the entire MountainPygmy-possum population in KosciuszkoNational Park is developed and implementedwithin 2 years.Action 5.3 Finalise and implement procedures formonitoring vegetation condition in MountainPygmy-possum habitat within ski resort operationareas and at other monitoring sites.

The existing transect and photographic data from MtBlue Cow will be collated. However, this method istime-consuming and does not sample all areas of



habitat. Future procedures will involve photopointmonitoring and sampling a subset of these sites, aswell as visual assessment and photographic recordingeach spring of any damage or change to vegetationwithin Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat.


Procedures for monitoring vegetation condition inMountain Pygmy-possum habitat implementedwithin 2 years.

Action 5.4 Monitor Bogong Moth abundance andarsenic / pesticide residues.

Monitoring of Bogong Moth population numbers willcontinue annually. Samples of Moths will beanalyzed for arsenic and pesticide residues andbackground levels in the environment will beestablished.


Bogong Moth numbers and pesticide residues aremonitored annually. Whether excessive chemicalresidues are carried by Moths to the Alps will bedetermined within 3-5 years.

Action 5.5 Monitor Mountain Plum-pine seedproductivity.

Monitoring of Mountain Plum-pine seed productivityat the 4 long-term monitoring sites will continueannually.


Seed productivity is monitored annually(ongoing).

Action 5.6 Snow depth monitoring

To asses the effects of snow depth and duration onMountain Pygmy-possum population dynamics,snow depth monitoring is required at populationmonitoring sites on southerly and northerly aspects.Snow depth monitoring has been conducted by theSnowy Mountains Electric-Authority at variouslocations throughout Kosciusko National Park sincethe 1950s. The closest station to areas of MountainPygmy-possum habitat that is monitored weekly is atSpencers Creek. However, this is a snowaccumulation area and does not accurately reflectconditions on areas of Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat. Several other sites, including Cootapatamba,Wilkinsons, Charlotte Pass, Whites River and DuckCreek are monitored monthly. NPWS established aweekly monitoring site at Whites River in 1998 (K.Green, unpubl. data). At a minimum, additional

weekly monitoring is required at the four long-termpopulation monitoring sites.

Weekly snow depth monitoring will continue atWhites River throughout the snow season. Snowdepth markers will be established and monitoredweekly throughout the snow season at the 4 long-term study sites, and if resources are available, atother sites to be determined by the recovery team.


Snow depth markers are established and monitoringcommenced within 1 year.

6.6. Specific Objective 6: Modelling andResearch

Action 6.1. Snow dynamics and climate changemodel.

A dynamic model to illustrate habitat suitabilityunder current snow conditions and key refugia forMountain Pygmy-possums under projected impactsof climate change will be developed. Input data willinclude population monitoring data, snow coverduration data obtained from Action 1.2, snow depthdata from Action 5.6 and the Snowy MountainsHydro Electric Authority monitoring sites, andpredictions of snow cover duration based on climatewarming scenarios (e.g., Whetton et al. 1996,Whetton 1998).


Preliminary snow dynamics and climate changemodel developed within 3 years; data included fromAction 5.6 within 5 years.

Action 6.2 Develop a spatially-explicitmetapopulation dynamics model.

With the recent development and testing of apopulation model (McCarthy and Broome 2000), wehave a relatively good understanding of the localpopulation dynamics of Mountain Pygmy-possum.However, this preliminary model ignores effects ofmigration between adjacent habitat patches, and thismay give a misleading impression of the viability ofthe species. The relatively discrete nature ofMountain Pygmy-possum habitat, and the somewhatlimited dispersal ability of females, means that thespatial arrangement of habitat may have a significantinfluence on the population dynamics of the species.In cases where habitat is clearly demarcated andmovement is limited, a metapopulation model islikely to be appropriate (Hanski and Simberloff1997). A metapopulation model of the specieswould:



1) help determine the relative influence of habitatquality and isolation on presence of MountainPygmy-possum in habitat patches;

2) enable a more refined prediction of the long-termfate of the species in response to climate change,and identify sites that are likely to be mostsensitive to such changes;

3) help in the design appropriate monitoringstrategies that are intended to identify sucheffects;

4) enable prediction of effects on populationviability of reduced habitat, or dispersal successdue to, for example, resort and roaddevelopments in or adjacent to habitat patches;and

5) help assess the efficacy of potential managementstrategies to mitigate adverse impacts.

This study is planned to be carried out as part of aPhD project. An appropriately qualified andsupervised student would conduct the necessaryfieldwork to estimate the required dispersalparameters and develop a metapopulation model ofthe species. The fieldwork would involve markingjuveniles in autumn and conducting extensive re-trapping in the following spring to determine thedistribution of dispersal distances. Fieldwork wouldbe conducted over 2 years, and the model would bedeveloped concurrently.


PhD student established on project within 2 years.Field work completed and metapopulation dynamicsmodel developed within 5 years.

Action 6.3. Movement corridors at Charlotte Pass.

As part of the investigation into facilitatingmovements, particularly of males, between the northand south side of the valley at Charlotte Pass, aradiotracking study of male movement patterns willbe conducted. This will commence prior to habitatmanipulation and will continue during and after thecorridors are put in place.


Male movements study at Charlotte Pass completedwithin 2 years.

Action 6.4 Experimental manipulation of snowcover.

The possibility exists of using snow farming or snowfencing to enhance snow cover on areas of MountainPygmy-possum habitat when snow depths shallow.

Following the establishment of snow depthmonitoring, the possibility of experimentallyincreasing the depth and duration of snow on part ofthe habitat at the Summit Road study site andmonitoring population response will be investigated.The Charlotte Pass Area Manager has offered the useof their snow grooming machinery to assist in thesestudies.


An experimental study, on the use of snow farmingas a protective measure for Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat in years of low snow cover, will be initiatedwithin 5 years.

Action 6.5 Bogong Moth population dynamics andmigration patterns.

To understand and manage factors affectingMountain Pygmy-possum populations in the Alps itis necessary to understand more about BogongMoths. Very basic knowledge is needed onmigratory patterns and the proportion of thepopulation that migrates from the breeding groundsto the alps; the environmental factors that influencethis; the origin of source populations for differentaestivation sites and whether this is fixed; locationand variation in population numbers at aestivationsites; effects of environmental conditions andagricultural practices, such as drought, loss ofgrassland habitat, cropping, cotton growing andchemical applications on population numbers; andthe likely effects of climate change and lightpollution on Bogong moth populations and migrationpatterns. The source of arsenic contamination andthe implications this has for the Mountain Pygmy-possums requires investigation.


Research Bogong Moth population dynamics,migration patterns and heavy metal / chemicalcontamination initiated within 3 years.

Action 6.6 Hibernation research.

Geiser et al. (1990) found that, in contrast to wild-caught individuals, laboratory-bred MountainPygmy-possums failed to fatten or enter hibernationin two consecutive winters. It was concluded that theartificial conditions of the laboratory did not providethe appropriate environmental cues for the species toinduce hibernation. It is not known whether captive-bred individuals would subsequently hibernate ifreleased into the wild. This has implications for theusefulness of captive breeding programs, should theybecome necessary for the conservation of the speciesfor release in the future. Further research will beencouraged on: (1) Environmental cues which initiate



and end hibernation, (2) Factors affecting hibernationpatterns (including, following completion of Action2.5, considering further radiotracking to directlyassess effects of ski slope activites on hibernationpatterns), and (3) Radiotracking of captive-bredindividuals released into the wild to determine theirability to hibernate. In addition to providinginformation for conservation and managementpurposes, a greater understanding of hibernation inMountain Pygmy-possums is needed to assess thepossible consequences of climate change on thespecies.


Funding sought for projects 1 and 2 within 5 years,and for project 3 following successful captivebreeding.

Action 6.7 Competition with other species.

The distribution and population size of MountainPygmy-possums may be limited by competition forfood, and even predation, from co-occurring nativesmall mammal species. The most likely competitorsand predators are the Bush Rat R. fuscipes, the DuskyAntechinus A. swainsonii, and at lower elevations ofMountain Pygmy-possum distribution, the AgileAntechinus (A. agilis). Hibernating MountainPygmy-possums may be particularly susceptible topredation if they have not found safe hibernacula. Itwould be worth testing the competition/predationhypothesis in view of the possibility that MountainPygmy-possum population sizes may reach criticallevels because of other population pressures, such asglobal warming or a decrease in the abundance ofcritical food resources, such as Bogong Moths.


The possibility of establishing a university graduatestudy on competition and predation investigatedwithin 4 years.

Action 6.8 Undertake detailed study of socialdynamics and male reproductive success as aprelude to captive breeding.

Previous attempts at captive breeding have not beenhighly successful. No captive-bred males haveattained breeding condition, although some firstgeneration females have produced young with wild-caught males held in captivity for 2-3 years (MerrilHalley, Healsville Sancturay, Vic., pers. comm.).Given the close association observed between males(Broome 2001a), it is possible that social and orhormonal facilitation is necessary to promotebreeding in young males. A specific dietary sourceor other environmental cues may also be involved.

As a prelude to developing a captive-breedingprogram, detailed research on social behaviour andmale reproductive success is required. This researchwould involve a combination of field studies andDNA analysis to establish paternity in the wild, andlaboratory-based breeding trials.

Performance Criterion 8

Research on social dynamics and male reproductivesuccess initiated within 2 years. Successfulhusbandry techniques developed and the efficacy ofmaintaining a captive breeding colony of the speciesin New South Wales is assessed within 5 years.

6.7. Specific Objective 7: Promotecommunity awareness

Action 7.1 Media coverage.

Media coverage of Mountain Pygmy-possumrecovery and research issues will be encouraged.


The Mountain Pygmy-possum receives mediaattention (ongoing).

Action 7.2 Revise the Mountain Pygmy-possumbook.

The book �The Mountain Pygmy-possum of theAustralian Alps� (Mansergh and Broome 1994) iscurrently out of print. This book will be revised andreprinted.


Mountain Pygmy-possum book reprinted within 2years.

Action 7.3 Community information strategy

A community information strategy, incorporatingactions 7.4 - 7.7, will be prepared.


Community information strategy developed within 1year.

Action 7.4 Displays, brochures and interpretativesigns.

Displays and brochures, featuring Mountain Pygmy-possums and their management requirements, will beestablished at appropriate locations determined by theRecovery Team (possibilities include the Skitubeterminal building at Mt Blue Cow, Perisher Valley,



Charlotte Pass, Thredbo and the NPWS Jindabyneoffice). The display will outline the ecology ofMountain Pygmy-possums and potential problemsassociated with feral predators, ski slope activitiesand global warming. It should aim to stimulatepublic awareness and empathy for Mountain Pygmy-possums and the alpine environment in general andwill be integrated with material on other sensitivespecies, such as the Broad-toothed Rat Mastacomysfuscus. In particular, the need for visitors to assist inprotecting the small areas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat by avoiding littering, degradation bytrampling and fire in summer, and respectingmanagement controls on ski slope activities in winterwill be explained. The effectiveness of placinginterpretative signs within the ski resorts or in otherareas of habitat (e.g., on Mt Kosciuszko) will also beconsidered by the Recovery Team.


Interpretative displays, brochures and signsestablished within 3 years.

Action 7.5 Momentos and toys.

The sale of momentos and toys featuring MountainPygmy-possums, in the shops at the Blue Cow,Skitube and National Parks and Wildlife ServiceJindabyne office, will be investigated.


The possibility of developing a range of toys andmomentos featuring Mountain Pygmy-possumsinvestigated within 1 year.

Action 7.6 Garbage and predators

All managers of restaurants and ski lodges will beinformed of the need to prevent foxes and cats fromhaving access to garbage or other sources of food.Garbage storage and collection facilities at lodges,restaurants and general collection points will beinspected at intervals to determine whether they meetpredator-access prevention requirements. Provisionof adequate storage facilities will be theresponsibility of the lessee.


Predator proof garbage practices established within 1year.

Action 7.7 Animals in buildings.

Managers of all lodges, and other buildings close toMountain Pygmy-possum habitat will be informed

that it is illegal to use kill traps or poison such as�Ratsack�. If small mammals are perceived as aproblem in buildings (e.g, Bushrats damaging food orproperty), �Elliot� live-capture traps will be madeavailable by a suitably experienced NPWS officer orby a trained and approved delegate, to enable theircapture (or elimination if feral). NPWS will bealerted in the event of any capture. An informationprogram will be prepared to help managers andmembers of lodges identify small mammals andprevent their access into lodges.


Information program in place and Elliot live-capture traps used for capture of problem animalsin buildings within 1 year.

6.8. Specific Objective 8: Management

Action 8. Authorities and managers responsible forthe Mountain Pygmy-possum populations and theirhabitat, and assessing proposed developmentactivities in Mountain Pygmy-possum managementareas, should adhere to the guidelines presented inSection 8.

Performance Criterion 8.

Mountain Pygmy-possum populations and theirhabitat managed according to the objectives of thisRecovery Plan.

7. ImplementationTable 1 outlines the implementation of recoveryactions specified in this plan for the period of 5 yearsfrom publication.

On a planning level, the actions and guidelines forprotection of the Mountain Pygmy-possum set out inthis Recovery Plan will be implemented through theKosciuszko National Park Plan of Management(NPWS 1988, 1994) and its subsidiary plans, skislope lease provisions and ski slope plans for each skiresort. Relevant documents are:Perisher Blue Resorts Development Plan InEnvironmental Planning and Assessment ManualKosciuszko National Park (Draft, NPWS 2000).Perisher Blue Ski Resort Ski Slope Plan (PerisherBlue Pty Ltd, 2000).Thredbo Slope Management Plan 1987-2000.(Margules and Partners Pty. Ltd., 1987).

Guidelines for management of the Mountain Pygmy-possum and its habitat and for assessing potentialimpacts of developments or activities under theEP&A Act, or any other action which may adversely



affect the Mountain Pygmy-possum or its habitat areprovided in Section 8.

8. Guidelines for DevelopmentAssessment and Managementconsistent with the Recovery Plan

8.1. Definition of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitatHabitat includes boulderfields, vegetation withinboulderfields, adjacent heathlands used for foraging,rock tors which support Bogong moths and haveconnectivity with other areas of habitat, isolatedrocks used as hibernation sites, known or likelymovement corridors and the integrity of hibernationsites in winter.

As a working definition, Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat is described as follows (also consultpublications, maps arising from Actions 1 and 2.1e.g., see Fig 2 for Mt Blue Cow, and relevant skislope plans):

(a) Primary boulderfields:Primary breeding habitat: contiguous areas

of boulders greater than 1 m in depth, above 1600 melevation, usually greater than 0.25 ha in area andwith Mountain Plum-pine Podocarpus lawrenceiassociated with at least the perimeter. Averagedensity of adult females 3 or more per hectare.

(b) Secondary boulderfields:Boulderfields which are more shallow,

isolated, or at lower elevations (but above 1400 m)than (a), usually with Podocarpus lawrencei and / orLeucopogon montanus present. Less than 3 adultfemales per hectare; may be male and juveniledispersal sites.

(c) Foraging and dispersal habitat, nesting andhibernation sites:

(i) Scattered surface boulders and shrubbyheathland with the above species present, usuallywithin 200m of a boulderfield. Isolated bouldersmay provide hibernation sites, especially for males.

(ii) Rock tors at high elevation whichsupport Bogong moths, and have known or potentialconnectivity with other habitat.

(iii) Snow gums which have or may develophollows in their boles to provide nesting sites, andwhich may contribute to snow, hydrological and gasexchange dynamics in habitat areas.

(d) Known or likely movement corridorsSome known movement corridors have beenidentified by radiotracking individuals on Mt Blue

Cow. Likely movement corridors can be derived byassessing the extent of cover between knownlocations of individuals (e.g., see Fig. 2).

(e) The integrity of hibernation sites in winter

All habitat which is identified as part of thisRecovery Plan, or which is identified in futuresurveys, should be given highest priority forprotection. Clearing (removal of vegetationincluding shrubs and trees or isolated boulders)should not occur within 20 m of identified habitatunless it can be shown that potential adverse effectson Mountain Pygmy-possums or their habitat can bemitigated.

8.2. Developments or activities withinareas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat ormovement corridorsIt is critical that a precautionary approach is takenwith respect to development or activity approvalswithin any areas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat.If an activity is proposed that could impact on theMountain Pygmy-possum or its known or potentialhabitat, that activity should incorporate measureswhich can be expected to avoid any significantimpacts on Mountain Pygmy-possum populations.Because of the small total population andmetapopulation structure, it is highly likely that anydirect or indirect negative impact which is significantwith respect to a local population of the species willalso be significant in a regional context (sensu s94TSC Act). Local populations of Mountain Pygmy-possums may consist of a single breeding pair andtheir offspring.

Any surveys that are required to assess the presenceor absence of Mountain Pygmy-possums in potentialhabitat need to be conducted between the months ofNovember-December to determine breeding habitat,and between February-March to establish habitat ofjuveniles and dispersing males.

The documentation of proposed developments oractivities which are likely to directly interact withMountain Pygmy-possum habitat or movementcorridors should include photographs, detailed mapsand diagrams of the proposed area of disturbance.The boundaries of all proposed activity areas shouldbe clearly marked in the terrain by flagging. Theproposed ameliorative measures to prevent damage toMountain Pygmy-possum habitat or rectify damageto travel corridors should be clearly documented.

The development / activity application should bereviewed by a suitably experienced NPWS officer orconsultant acting on behalf of NPWS, and anyrecommendations detailed in writing. In the event of



an activity being approved, a suitably experiencedNPWS field officer or consultant acceptable to theNPWS should be employed at nominated stages ofthe work, and at the expense of the applicant, tosupervise any engineering or other works which havethe potential to result in disturbance to MountainPygmy-possum habitat. The cost of any initial or on-going restoration or ameliorative works required toprotect Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat shall befunded by the proponent, unless otherwise agreed.

Any additional management issues which arisewithin development or activity areas should beaddressed through review of the relevant plans listedin Section 7. In the event of the need for urgentaction which is not practicable under the reviewprocesses for these plans, such issues should bereferred through the Director, NPWS SouthernDirectorate, and will be addressed with appropriateguidance from suitably experienced environmentalpractitioners and biologists, and in consultation withother affected parties. Pending the review of therelevant plans, the Director may impose additionalmanagement prescriptions within development /activity areas if it is necessary for the protection ofMountain Pygmy-possum individuals, populations orhabitat. The basis for such prescriptions should bedetailed in writing, together with their potentialbeneficial and adverse effects in relation to both thebiophysical and socio-economic environment.

8.3. Movement corridorsIn situations where activities are likely to disrupt themovement of Mountain Pygmy-possums,connectivity should be maintained between patchesof habitat. At least one known or likely movementcorridor will be retained or provided between anytwo boulderfield patches, or between anyboulderfield patch and adjacent area of known orlikely feeding and dispersal habitat. Where natural,shrubby heath is retained, the corridor should have aminimum width of 10 m.

Where damage to corridors has occurred in the past,connectivity may be re-established by provision ofalternative cover. Where there is no plan toregenerate shrub cover (roads and ski runs) covershould be in the form of a permanent rock-filledcorridor or box culvert. The specifications of these�crossings� may need to vary depending on thephysical environment and will be considered on acase by case basis (also see NPWS, 2000). Allculverts should have steel mesh grills placed acrosstheir ends to prevent access by cats and foxes. Theyshould be aligned with natural vegetation or rockcover, or have cover provided at each end extendingto natural cover, to minimise predator impact.

Flooding by stormwater or snowmelt should beprevented by alignment or by provision of anadditional culvert to take runoff. Where possible,such corridors should have a minimum depth andwidth of 1- 1.5 m.

In areas of disturbance where corridors may bedisrupted, temporary cover not easily accessed bypredators, such as a windrow of shrubs or a suitableman-made structure, should be provided andmaintained adjacent to the proposed corridor until apermanent corridor is established. Temporarystructures should aim to be around 1-2m wide and 1m high.

8.4. Maintenance of movement corridorsLessees or NPWS staff will inspect all constructedmovement corridors annually. Any restoration worksnecessary to maintain the integrity of corridors, suchas drainage works to prevent siltation, maintenanceof steel mesh grills on culvert entrances andmaintenance of cover from predators at the entrancesof corridors, will be carried out by the agencyresponsible.

8.5. Erosion and siltationWithin catchments upstream of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat, any activity that increases the naturalrate of sediment movement into habitat will beconsidered damage to habitat. In the event of anysoil disturbances within the vicinity of MountainPygmy-possum habitat, or within any catchmentsupstream of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat,appropriate drainage works and sediment trapsshould be constructed prior to the disturbance takingplace. Any areas of exposed soil should beimmediately stabilised, with methods approved byNPWS. Activities that disturb vegetation or soil andmay interact with Mountain Pygmy-possum habitatshould be limited to the months of December -March.

8.6. Vegetation managementTo reduce the habitat suitability for feral competitorsand predators, the vegetation in areas within 500 mof Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat, and alongroadways and ski runs which lead into MountainPygmy-possum habitat, should be managed with aview to maintaining or re-establishing species nativeto the local area as far as practicable. If it isnecessary to use introduced grasses to achieve rapidstabilisation of the soil, these should be of non-aggressive species and the seed mix should alsocontain suitable native seed to promote long termnative revegetation.



8.7. Slope groomingSlope grooming should be subject to the provisoslisted above. In addition, as a minimum, necessaryand agreed techniques should be used to prevent fly-rock from any nearby blasting falling into MountainPygmy-possum habitat (see NPWS 2000). Firesuppression equipment must be carried at all timeswhen blasting and other activities which pose a firerisk are carried out in areas within 1 km of MountainPygmy-possum habitat.

8.8. Litter and garbageAll litter generated by activities within areas ofMountain Pygmy-possum habitat, including markerpoles and other ski slope equipment, should becleaned up on a monthly or more frequent basis.However, it is important that care is taken not todamage vegetation during litter removal. Lesseesand NPWS should make all reasonable efforts toencourage the public to use refuse bins. Allreasonable efforts should be made to remove markerpoles and other ski slope equipment before snowmelt in spring. In addition, within heavily used areasof Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat, an annual springclean up following snow melt will be organised usingpersonnel who have been trained to avoid damage tovegetation.

A publicity campaign to prevent littering and will beinitiated as part of the Community Awarenessprogram (Objective 7).

8.9. FireIf fire does occur within areas of Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat and travel corridors, all reasonableattempts should be made to supress fires withoutdisturbing existing vegetation cover. Introduction ofheavy equipment or slashing of shrubby heath is tobe avoided. Any fires that do occur within suchareas, or within areas that may be a source of siltationinto boulderfields, should be immediately controlledby hand held water/CO2 extinguishers or firesuppression mats if at all possible. Water bombingby helicopter is a sensible option if larger fires occur.Chemical fire retardants are not to be used inMountain Pygmy-possum habitat.

Hand-held fire suppressant equipment is to be carriedat all times any blasting activities are carried outwithin catchments supporting Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat.

9. Social and EconomicConsequences

9.1. Cost of Recovery Plan

Cash funding for the action plan implementationand research work identified in this plan isestimated at around $ 889,200.00 (Table 1). Ofthis, $148,000 has been identified or allocated.An additional $741,200 is required over 5 years.An additional $306,250 �in kind� fundingrepresents the salary component of permanentstaff and current resources.

9.2. Other Economic and social costsThe successful implementation of this RecoveryPlan is not expected to place excessive social oreconomic costs on ski resort operators or Parkvisitors. In relation to ski resorts, it is importantfor the Recovery Plan and the respective ski slopeplans to be consistent, and for the Recovery Planto be taken into account in the preparation ofthose plans. The ski slope plans present futuredevelopment and management intentions whichreflect biophysical constraints and social andeconomic costs and benefits, and indicate theacceptance by the respective ski resort operatorsof any social or economic costs associated withconservation of the Mountain Pygmy-possum.

While there are some constraints on skiingopportunities resulting from the Recovery Plan,these are considered acceptable within the contextof the ski slope plans and can be offset by othermeasures which do not impact unduly on theMountain Pygmy-possum or its habitat.

The social costs of protecting Mountain Pygmy-possums in areas of Kosciuszko National Parkother than ski resort lease areas will be slight.This is because the rough and rocky nature of thehabitat does not lend itself to recreational usesapart from skiing and snow boarding.

9.3. Social benefitsThe major social benefit following theimplementation of this recovery plan is arecognition that positive steps are being taken toensure the survival and persistence of an iconspecies for the Australian Alps. Recognition ofthe achievements of the Recovery Plan is relevantboth at the national level and also in aninternational context as an example of practicalconservation in alpine environments that are



under threat world-wide from escalating visitorimpact and global climate change.

10. Biodiversity BenefitsThe protection of Mountain Pygmy-possumhabitat will benefit the Mountain Plum-pinewhich is also an alpine endemic and is extremelyslow growing and easily damaged, as well asother alpine heathland vegetation species.Control of foxes and cats will greatly benefit theBroad-toothed Rat Mastacomys fuscus, anothersmall mammal in Kosciuszko National Parkwhich is listed as Vulnerable under the TSC Act.This species occurs within Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat but more commonly insurrounding, open areas of heath and snowgrassswards, and is highly vulnerable to predation byfoxes. Management objectives for predatorcontrol and monitoring of the two species are inconcordance. Many other native species in thealps rely heavily on Bogong moths, including thethreatened Spotted-tailed Quoll (Dasyurusmaculatus), other small mammals (the Bush RatRattus fuscipes and Dusky Antechinus Antechinusswainsonii), birds such as the Little andAustralian ravens (Corvus coronoides and C.mellori), Australian pipits Anthusnovaeseelandiae, Flame robins Petroicaphoenicea and Needletail swifts Hirundapuscaudacutus, a number of reptiles and the fishGalaxius olidus.

11. Preparation DetailsThis recovery plan was prepared by Dr. LindaBroome, Senior Threatened Species Officer SouthernZone (NPWS). It has been formulated with theadvice and assistance of a Recovery Team. TheRecovery Team is a non-statutory group of expertbiologists, ski resort and NPWS land managers andhas been established by the NSW National Parks andWildlife Service (NPWS) to discuss and resolveissues relating to the conservation and managementof the species.

12. Review DateIn relation to its status as the State endorsedRecovery Plan for The Mountain Pygmy-possum,any major changes to this Recovery Plan will requirethe revised Plan to be placed on public exhibition inNSW and re-approval by the NSW Minister for theEnvironment. The NPWS, Environment Australia orother Recovery Team members should be contactedif it is believed any change to the Recovery Plan or tothe Recovery Program should be considered. This

Recovery Plan is to be formally reviewed by theNPWS in conjunction with the Recovery Teamwithin five years from the date of its publication.

13. References

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Broom, R., 1895. On a new fossil mammal allied toHypsiprymnus but resembling in some points thePlagiaulacidae. Abstr. Proc. Linnean Society ofN.S.W.1 June 26: 11

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Broome, L. S., 1992. Ecology and management ofthe Mountain Pygmy-possum, B. parvus Broom, inKosciusko National Park. Consultants report to theNSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (Sydney,NSW).

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Broome, L. and Mansergh, I., 1989. The MountainPygmy-possum (B. parvus) Broom : an alpineendemic. pp 241-265 In R. Good (ed.), Thescientific significance of the Australian alps.(Australian Academy of Science).

Bubela, T.M., Happold, D.C.D. and Broome, L.S.,1991. Home range and activity of the Broad-toothed Rat, Mastacomys fuscus, in subalpine heath.Wildlife Research 18: 39-48.

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Bubela, T. M., 1995. Social effects of sterilisingfree-ranging vixens (Vulpes vulpes L.) in sub-alpineAustralia. Ph.D Dissertation, University of Sydney,NSW.

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14. Acronyms Used in this DocumentCPV � Charlotte Pass Village.NPWS - New South Wales National Parks andWildlife Service.PB � Perisher Blue Pty. LimitedSMA � Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Authority.SRDP � Ski Resort Development Plan (NPWS).SSP � Ski Slope Plan (each ski resort)


Draft Recovery Plan The Mountain Pygmy-possum

Table 1: Implementation and Costing Table.Estimated costs, funding source and responsible parties for implementing the actions identified in the Mountain Pygmy-possum Recovery Plan.Priority is categorised as 1 (essential), 2 (very highly desirable), 3 (highly desirable) or 4 (desirable); Feasibility assessment reflects estimated chance of success of the action on a scale of 0-100%. In the fund sourceColumn �in kind� indicates the value of contributions that includes officer salary, provision of office space, vehicles. administrative support and management calculated at $300 per day.

Action Action Description Priority Feasibility Responsible party Fund Source Cost Estimate ($000's/year) Total CostNo 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 (000$'s)1.1 (a) Population and habitat survey - Mt Perisher 2 100% NPWS/PB unsecured 8,400 - - - - 8,400

and environs NPWS in-kind 3,000 - - - - 3,000(b) Population and habitat survey - Thredbo 2 100% NPWS unsecured 12,000 12,000

NPWS in-kind 3,000 3,0001.2 Derive snow duration variables 2 NPWS Foundation NPW 9,500 - - - - 9,500

in-kind 3,000 - - - - 3,0001.3 Maps, data analysis, population estimates 2 NPWS Foundation NPW 6,000 - - - - 6,000

in-kind 12,000 - - - - 12,0002.1 Management provisions in ski resort development 1 NPWS - SRDP N/A @ Ψ

and ski slope plans Resorts - SSP N/A @ Ψ2.2 Schedule of works in Mountain Pygmy-possum management

areas1 Resorts Resorts @ Ψ

2.3 Habitat maps within resort management areas 1 100% NPWS/Resorts in-kind 3,000 3,000 - - - 6,000

2.4 Develop and monitor snow activity protocols 1 100% NPWS in-kind 3,000 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 9,000Resorts in-kind 3,000 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 9,000

2.5 Determine effects of ski slope activities 2 NPWS/Resorts unsecured* - 31,000 31,000 25,000 - 87,000on Mountain Pygmy-possums in-kind 1,500 3,000 3,000 3,000 - 10,500

2.6 Investigate means of reducing environmental pressures andrisks in Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat

1 100% Resorts N/A Ψ Ψ Ψ

2.7 Update protection measures as data 1 NPWS/Resorts N/A Ψ Ψ Ψ Ψ Ψ Ψbecome available

2.8 Identify Mountain Pygmy-possum habitat on fire protectionplans

2 100% NPWS/Resorts N/A Ψ - - - - Ψ

3.1 Restore movement corridors 2 90% NPWS unsecured @55,500 55,500Resorts Resorts @51,000 51,000NPWS in-kind @1,200 1,200

4.1 Fox control 1 90% NPWS/Resorts Resorts Env. fund 6,500 6,500 6,500 6,500 6,500 32,500NPWS Fox TAP# 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 50,000

in-kind 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 15,0004.2 Cat control 1 80% NPWS/Resorts unsecured 6,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 18,000

in-kind 1,500 900 900 900 900 5,1004.3 Rabbit control 2 85% NPWS/Resorts unsecured 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 10,000

in-kind 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 7,5005.1 Monitor Mountain Pygmy-possums, 1 100% NPWS Resorts Env. fund 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 50,000

diet and pesticide residues at current sites in-kind 10,800 10,800 10,800 10,800 10,800 54,0005.2 Population monitoring strategy and 3 100% NPWS unsecured 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 25,000

additional monitoring in-kind 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 7,5005.3 Monitor vegetation condition 2 NPWS unsecured 100 100 100 100 100 500


Draft Recovery Plan The Mountain Pygmy-possum

in-kind 3,900 3,900 3,900 3,900 3,900 7,5005.4 Monitor Bogong moth abundance 1 90 NPWS unsecured 1,000 500 500 500 500 3,000

and arsenic / pesticide residues in-kind 800 800 800 800 800 4,0005.5 Monitor Mountain Plum-pine seed productivity 3 100 NPWS in-kind 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 7,500

5.6 Monitor snow depth 3 100 NPWS/Resorts/ unsecured 500 - - - - 500SMHEA in-kind 10,000 9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600 48,400

6.1 Snow dynamics and climate change models 4 100 NPWS unsecured - 5,000 - - 5,000 10,000in-kind - 3,000 - - 3,000 6,000

6.2 Metapopulation dynamics model 4 90 NPWS/universities unsecured* - 31,500 27,000 26,000 - 84,500in-kind - 4,500 1,000 1,000 - 6,500

6.3 Radiotracking and movement corridors 2 NPWS/CPV unsecured - 15,000& - - - 15,000at Charlotte Pass in-kind - 3,000 3,000 - - 6,000

6.4 Experimental manipulation of snow cover 3 NPWS/CPV unsecured - - 600 600 600 1,800in-kind - - 1,250 1,250 1,250 3,750

6.5 Bogong moth population dynamics 2 90 NPWS/universities unsecured* - 51,000 51,000 51,000 - 153,000in-kind - 3,000 3,000 3,000 - 9,000

6.6 Hibernation research 4 100 NPWS/universities unsecured* - - - 31,000 31,000 62,000in-kind - - - 6,000 6,000 12,000

6.7 Competition research 4 90 NPWS/universities unsecured* - - - - 31,000 31,000in-kind - - - - 6,000 6,000

6.8 Social dynamics & reproductive succes 4 100 NPWS / universities unsecured* - - 31,000 36,000 36,000 103,000 / captive breeding zoos in-kind - - 3,000 3,000 3,000 9,000

7.1 Media coverage 2 100 NPWS in-kind 1,800 1,800 1,800 1,800 1,800 9,0007.2 Revise Mountain Pygmy-possum book 2 100 NPWS in-kind - 9,000 - - - 9,000

7.3-7.7 Community information strategy 1 100 NPWS / Resorts unsecured - 10,000 - - - 10,000and subsidary actions in-kind 6,000 7,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 16,800

8 Management 1 100 NPWS/Resorts in-kind Ψ Ψ Ψ Ψ Ψ ΨTotal funds secured secured 42,000 26,500 26,500 26,500 26,500 148,000Total funds required unsecured 35,000 260,600 151,200 180,200 114,200 741,200Total 'in kind' funds committed in-kind 73,800 72,200 50,750 53,750 55,750 306,250Total Annual cost of Mountain Pygmy-possum Recovery Total 150,800 359,300 228,450 260,450 196,450 1,195,450

Key: @ Timing depends on planning/works schedule. Ψ No direct cost because this action is part of the planning process. * Includes 21k per year for PhD student stipend which may be secured as an external scholarship.# Included within the NPWS Fox Threat Abatement Plan with the Broad-toothed Rat Mastacomys fuscus. & Cost of construction of movement corridor not estimated.

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Recovery Plan for the Mountain Pygmy-possum