A battle of the Reconquista from the Cantigasde Santa Maria

ReconquistaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Reconquista ("reconquest")[a][b] is a period of approximately 781 years in thehistory of the Iberian Peninsula, from the first Islamic invasion in 711 to the fall ofGranada, the last Islamic state on the peninsula, in 1492.

The Reconquista corresponds to, and is named for, a period of expansion of theChristian states of the peninsula at the expense of the Muslim states, collectivelyknown as al-Andalus. It comes after the period of the Visigothic kingdom, whichhad collapsed under pressure from the armies invading from Africa. These twoperiods together constitute the Middle Ages of Iberian history. It comes before theperiod of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires after the discovery of theNew World.

Traditionally, the Reconquista begins with the Battle of Covadonga (in either 718 or722), in which a Visigothic élite, Pelagius, defeated an Islamic army and establishedhis authority over a region in the north of the peninsula, the Kingdom of Asturias.

Contents

1 Concept and duration2 Background

2.1 Islamic conquest of Christian Iberia2.2 Islamic rule2.3 Beginning of the Reconquista2.4 Franks and Al-Andalus

2.4.1 Charles Martel2.4.2 Pepin the Younger and Charlemagne

3 Military culture in medieval Iberia3.1 Cavalry3.2 Technological changes

4 Expansion into the Crusades and military orders5 Northern Christian kingdoms

5.1 Kingdom of Galicia (409–1833)5.2 Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)5.3 Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620)5.4 Kingdom of León (910–1230)5.5 Kingdom of Portugal (1139–1910)5.6 Kingdom of Castile (1037–1230)5.7 Kingdom of Aragon (1035–1715)

6 Christian In-fighting7 Christian repopulation of the Iberian Peninsula8 Muslim decline and defeat

8.1 Fall of the Caliphate8.2 The Almoravids8.3 The Almohads8.4 Granada War and the end of Muslim rule in Iberia

9 Conversions and expulsions9.1 Spanish Inquisition

10 Classifications and consequences post-Reconquista11 Legacy

11.1 Reconquista recreations in modern Spain12 Timeline of major dates13 Notes14 References15 Bibliography16 External links

The Reconquista, 790-1300

Concept and duration

Twentieth-century traditional Spanish and Portuguese historiographystressed the existence of a continuous phenomenon by which the ChristianIberian kingdoms opposed and conquered the Muslim kingdomsunderstood as a common enemy from the early eighth century to the latefifteenth century.[1] However, the ideology of a Christian reconquest of thepeninsula started to take shape at the end of the 9th century.[2]

A landmark was set by the Christian Chronica Prophetica (883-884), adocument stressing the Christian and Muslim cultural and religious divide inIberia and the necessity to drive the Muslims out. However, Christian andMuslim rulers commonly became divided and fought amongst themselves.Co-existence and alliances were as prevalent as frontier skirmishes andraids, especially in the eighth and ninth centuries.[2] Blurring distinctions evenfurther were the mercenaries from both sides who simply fought forwhoever paid the most.

The Crusades, which started late in the eleventh century, bred the religious ideology of a Christian reconquest, confronted at that timewith a similarly staunch Muslim jihad ideology in Al-Andalus: the Almoravids and even to a greater degree, in the Almohads. In factprevious documents (10-11th century) are mute on any idea of "reconquest".[3] Propaganda accounts of Muslim-Christian hostility cameinto being to support that idea: most notably the Chanson de Roland, a highly mythical 12th-century French re-creation of the Battle ofRoncevaux Pass (778) dealing with the Iberian Saracens and taught unquestioned in the French educational system as of 1880.[4][5]

Background

Islamic conquest of Christian Iberia

Further information: Umayyad conquest of Hispania and Battle of Guadalete

In 711, Muslim Moors, mainly North African Berber soldiers with some Arabs, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began their conquestof the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania. After their conquest of the Visigothic kingdom's Iberian territories, the Muslims crossedthe Pyrenees and took control of Septimania in 719, the last province of the Visigothic kingdom to be occupied. From their stronghold ofNarbonne, they launched raids into the Duchy of Aquitaine.

At no point did the invading Islamic armies exceed 60,000 men.[6] However, those armies established an Islamic rule that would last 300years in much of the Iberian Peninsula and 781 years in Granada.

Islamic rule

Main articles: Berbers and Islam and Berber Revolt

After the establishment of a local Emirate, Caliph Al-Walid I, ruler of the Umayyad caliphate, removed many of the successful Muslimcommanders. Tariq ibn Ziyad, the first governor of the newly conquered province of Al-Andalus, was recalled to Damascus andreplaced with Musa bin Nusair, who had been his former superior. Musa's son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently married Egilona,Roderic's widow, and established his regional government in Seville. He was suspected of being under the influence of his wife, accusedof wanting to convert to Christianity, and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Aziz'sassassination. Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. Sulayman seems to havepunished the surviving Musa bin Nusair, who very soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In the end Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa's cousin,Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi became the emir of Al-Andalus.

The conquering generals were necessarily acting very independently, due to methods of communication available. Successful generals inthe field and in a very distant province would also gain the personal loyalty of their officers and warriors and their ambitions wereprobably always watched by certain circles of the distant government with a certain degree of concern and suspicion. Old rivalries andperhaps even full-fledged conspiracies between rival generals may have had influence over this development. In the end, the oldsuccessful generals were replaced by a younger generation considered more loyal by the government in Damascus.

A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the ethnic tension between Berbers and Arabs.[7] The Berbers wereindigenous inhabitants of North Africa who only recently had been converted to Islam; they had provided most of the soldiery of theinvading Islamic armies but sensed Arab discrimination against them.[8] This latent internal conflict jeopardized Muslim unity.

Coat of arms ofAlcanadre. La Rioja,Spain. Depicting heads ofslain Moors

After the Islamic Moorish conquest of nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula in 711-718 and the establishment of the emirate of Al-Andalus,an Umayyad expedition suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Toulouse and was halted for a while on its way north. Odo of Aquitainehad married his daughter to Uthman ibn Naissa, a rebel Berber and lord of Cerdanya (maybe of all current Catalonia too), in an attemptto secure his southern borders in order to fend off Charles Martel s attacks on the north. However, a major punitive expedition led byAbdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the latest emir of Al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman, and the Muslim governor mustered an expeditionnorth across the western Pyrenees, looted areas up to Bordeaux and defeated Odo in the Battle of the River Garonne in 732.

A desperate Odo turned to his archrival Charles Martel for help, who led the Frankish and leftover Aquitanian armies against theMuslims and defeated them at the Battle of Tours in 732, killing Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi; this proved to be the high-water mark of theIslamic conquests in western Europe and of the expansion of Al-Andalus.[citation needed] Moorish rule began to recede, but it wouldremain in parts of the Iberian peninsula for another 760 years.

Beginning of the Reconquista

Main article: Kingdom of Asturias

The year 722 saw the first Asturian victory against the Muslims. In late summer, a Muslim army overran much of Pelayo's territory,forcing him to retreat deep into the mountains. Pelayo and a few hundred men retired into a narrow valley at Covadonga. There, theycould defend against a broad frontal attack. From here, Pelayo's forces routed the Muslim army, inspiring local villagers to take up arms.Despite further attempts, the Muslims were unable to conquer Pelayo's mountain stronghold. Pelayo's victory at Covadonga is hailed asthe beginning of the Reconquista.

A drastic increase of taxes by the new emir Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi had provoked several rebellions in Al-Andalus, which a seriesof succeeding weak emirs were unable to suppress. Around 722 a military expedition was sent into the north to suppress Pelayo'srebellion, but his forces prevailed in the Battle of Covadonga. This battle was considered by the Muslims as little more than a skirmish,while the Battle of Toulouse (721), with a death toll of maybe tens of thousands, was mourned for centuries as a large scale tragedy bythe Iberian Muslims. However for Pelayo, the Christian victory secured his independent rule. The precise date and circumstances of thisbattle are unclear. Among the possibilities is that Pelayo's rebellion was successful because the greater part of the Muslim forces weregathering for an invasion of the Frankish empire.

During the first decades, Asturian control over the different areas of the kingdom was still weak, and forthis reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances with other powerful familiesfrom the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, "Ermesinda, Pelayo's daughter, was married to Alfonso,Peter of Cantabria's son. Alphonse's children, Froila and Adosinda, married Munia, a Basque from Alava,and Silo, a local chief from the area of Pravia, respectively." [9]

After Pelayo's death in 737, his son Fafila was elected king. Fafila, according to the chronicles, was killedby a bear during a trial of courage.

Pelayo's dynasty in Asturias survived and gradually expanded the kingdom's boundaries until all ofnorthwest Iberia was included by roughly 775. However, credit is due not to him but to his successors.Alfonso I (king from 739-757) rallied Galician support when driving the Moorish army out of Galicia andan area of what was to become Leon. The reign of Alfonso II (from 791-842) saw further expansion ofthe northwest kingdom towards the south and, for a short time, it almost reached Lisbon.

It was not until Alfonso II that the kingdom was firmly established with Alfonso's recognition as king ofAsturias by Charlemagne and the Pope. During his reign, the holy bones of St. James the Great weredeclared to have been found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela. Pilgrims from all over Europe openeda channel of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond.

The emirate's greatest failing was its inability to eradicate Christian resistance in the Basque country andthe Cantabrian mountains. The two resistances, Basque Navarre and Cantabrian Asturias, despite their small size,demonstrated an abilityto maintain their independence. The resistance in the Cantabrian mountains soon spread to Galicia in the north-west, where theoccupying Moorish army was expelled and the territory was incorporated into Asturias. Because the Umayyad rulers based in Córdobawere unable to extend their power into Frankish territory, they decided to consolidate their power within the Iberian peninsula. Muslimforces made periodic incursions deep into Asturias but failed to make any lasting gains against the strengthened Christian kingdom.

Franks and Al-Andalus

Main articles: Islamic invasion of Gaul and Marca Hispanica

Northeastern al-Andalus, the Pyreneesand southern Gaul at the time of theBerber rebellion (739-742).

After the Umayyad conquest of the Iberian heartland of the Visigothic kingdom, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and gradually tookcontrol of Septimania starting in 719 (Narbonne conquered) up to 725 (Carcassone, Nîmes). From its stronghold of Narbonne, theytried to conquer Aquitaine but suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Toulouse (721).

After halting their advance north, ten years later, Odo of Aquitaine married his daughter toUthman ibn Naissa, a rebel Berber and lord of Cerdanya (maybe of all current Catalonia too),in an attempt to secure his southern borders in order to fend off Charles Martel's attacks onthe north. However, a major punitive expedition led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the latestemir of Al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman.

Charles Martel

The Umayyad governor mustered an expedition north across the western Pyrenees, looted itsway up to Bordeaux and defeated Odo in the Battle of the River Garonne in 732. A desperateOdo turned to his archrival Charles Martel for help, who led the Frankish and leftoverAquitanian armies against the Muslims and beat them at the Battle of Tours in 732, killingAbdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi.

In 737 Charles Martel led an expedition south down the Rhone Valley to assert his authorityup to the lands held by the Andalusian Umayyads. These had been called in by the regional nobility of Provence in a military capacity,probably fearing Charles' expansionist ambitions. Charles went on to attack the Umayyads in Septimania up to Narbonne, but he had tolift the siege of the city and make his way back to Lyon and Francia (at the time north of the lower Loire) after subduing variousUmayyad strongholds (Arles, Avignon, Nîmes,...), not without leaving behind a trail of ruined towns and strongholds.

Pepin the Younger and Charlemagne

After expelling the Muslims from Narbonne in 759 and driving their forces back over the Pyrenees, the Carolingian king Pepin the Shortconquered Aquitaine in a ruthless eight-year war. Charlemagne followed his father by subduing Aquitaine by creating counties, taking theChurch as his ally and appointing counts of Frankish or Burgundian stock, like his loyal William of Gellone, making Toulouse his base forexpeditions against Al-Andalus.

Charlemagne decided to organize a regional subkingdom in order to keep the Aquitanians in check and to secure the southern border ofthe Carolingian Empire against Muslim incursions. In 781, his three year-old son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine, under thesupervision of Charlemagne's trustee William of Gellone, and was nominally in charge of the incipient Spanish March.

Meanwhile, the takeover of Al-Andalus by Abd ar-Rahman I in 756 was not unopposed. Certain local Muslim wālis decided to opposehim, but instead of appealing to the distant Caliph, they decided to enlist the nearby Christian Franks. According to Ali ibn al-Athir, aKurdish historian of the 12th century, Charlemagne received the envoys of Sulayman al-Arabi, Husayn, and Abu Taur at the Diet ofPaderborn in 777. These rulers of Zaragoza, Girona, Barcelona, and Huesca were enemies of Abd ar-Rahman I, and in return forFrankish military aid against him offered their homage and allegiance.

Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity, agreed upon an expedition and crossed the Pyrenees in 778. Near the city of ZaragozaCharlemagne received the homage of Sulayman al-Arabi. However the city, under the leadership of Husayn, closed its gates and refusedto submit. Unable to conquer the city by force, Charlemagne decided to retreat. On the way home the rearguard of the army wasambushed and destroyed by Basque forces at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. The Song of Roland, a highly romanticized account of thisbattle, would later become one of the most famous chansons de geste of the Middle Ages.

Around 788 Abd ar-Rahman I died, and was succeeded by Hisham I. In 792 Hisham proclaimed a jihad, advancing in 793 against theKingdom of Asturias and the Franks. In the end his efforts were turned back by William of Gellone, Count of Toulouse.

Barcelona, a major city, became a potential target for the Franks in 797, as its governor Zeid rebelled against the Umayyad emir ofCórdoba. An army of the emir managed to recapture it in 799 but Louis, at the head of an army, crossed the Pyrenees and besieged thecity for two years until the city finally capitulated on December 28, 801.

The main passes were Roncesvalles, Somport and Junquera. Charlemagne established across them the vassal regions of Pamplona,Aragon and Catalonia (which was itself formed from a number of small counties, Pallars, Gerona, and Urgell being the most prominent)respectively.

Four small realms pledged allegiance to Charlemagne at the start of the 9th century (not for long): Pamplona (to become Navarre) andthe counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza. Pamplona's first king was Iñigo Arista, who allying with his Muslim kinsmen the BanuQasi rebelled against Frankish overlordship, and overcame a Frankish expedition in 824 that led to the setup of the Kingdom ofPamplona. It was not until Queen Ximena in the 9th century that Pamplona was officially recognised as an independent kingdom by the

Forces of Muhammed IX, Nasrid Sultan of Granada, atthe Battle of La Higueruela, 1431

Pope. Aragon, founded in 809 by Aznar Galíndez, grew around Jaca and the high valleys of the Aragon River, protecting the old Romanroad. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon was annexed by Navarre. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza were small counties and had littlesignificance to the progress of the Reconquista.

The Catalan counties protected the eastern Pyrenees passes and shores. They were under the direct control of the Frankish kings andwere the last remains of the Spanish Marches. Catalonia included not only the southern Pyrenees counties of Girona, Pallars, Urgell, Vicand Andorra but also some which were on the northern side of the mountains, such as Perpignan and Foix.

In the late 9th century under Count Wilfred, Barcelona became the de facto capital of the region. It controlled the other counties'policies in a union, which led in 948 to the independence of Barcelona under Count Borrel II, who declared that the new dynasty inFrance (the Capets) were not the legitimate rulers of France nor, as a result, of his county.

These states were small and, with the exception of Navarre, did not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that Asturiasdid, but their mountainous geography rendered them relatively safe from being conquered. Their borders remained stable for twocenturies.

Military culture in medieval Iberia

In a situation of constant conflict, warfare and daily life were stronglyinterlinked during this period. Small, lightly equipped armies reflected howthe society had to be on the alert at all times. These forces were capable ofmoving long distances in short times, allowing a quick return home aftersacking a target. Battles which took place were mainly between clans,expelling intruder armies or sacking expeditions.

In the context of the relative isolation of the Iberian Peninsula from the restof Europe, and the contact with Moorish culture, geographical and culturaldifferences implied the use of military strategies, tactics and equipment thatwere markedly different from those found in the rest of western Europeduring this period.

Medieval Iberian armies mainly comprised two types of forces: the cavalry(mostly nobles, but including commoner knights from 10th century on) andthe infantry, or peones (peasants). Infantry only went to war if needed,which was not common.

Cavalry

Iberian cavalry tactics involved knights approaching the enemy and throwingjavelins, before withdrawing to a safe distance before commencing anotherassault. Once the enemy formation was sufficiently weakened, the knightscharged with thrusting spears (lances did not arrive in Hispania until the 11thcentury). There were three types of knights: royal knights, noble knights (caballeros hidalgos) and commoner knights (caballerosvillanos). Royal knights were mainly nobles with a close relationship with the king, and thus claimed a direct Gothic inheritance.

Royal knights were equipped in the same manner as their Gothic predecessors—braceplate, kite shield, a long sword (designed to fightfrom the horse) and as well as the javelins and spears, a Visigothic axe. Noble knights came from the ranks of the infanzones or lowernobles, whereas the commoner knights were not noble, but were wealthy enough to afford a horse. Uniquely in Europe, these horsemencomprised a militia cavalry force with no feudal links, being under the sole control of the king or the count of Castile because of the"charters" (or fueros). Both noble and common knights wore leather armour and carried javelins, spears and round-tasselled shields(influenced by Moorish shields), as well as a sword.

The peones were peasants who went to battle in service of their feudal lord. Poorly equipped, with bows and arrows, spears and shortswords, they were mainly used as auxiliary troops. Their function in battle was to contain the enemy troops until the cavalry arrived andto block the enemy infantry from charging the knights.

The longbow, the composite bow and the crossbow are the basic types of bows and especially popular in infantary.

Typically armour was made of leather, with iron scales; full coats of chain mail were extremely rare and horse barding completelyunknown. Head protections consisted of a round helmet with nose protector (influenced by the designs used by Vikings who attackedduring the 8th and 9th centuries) and a chain mail headpiece. Shields were often round or kidney-shaped, except for the kite-shapeddesigns used by the royal knights. Usually adorned with geometric designs, crosses or tassels, shields were made out of wood and had aleather cover.

Steel swords were the most common weapon. The cavalry used long double-edged swords and the infantry short, single-edged ones.Guards were either semicircular or straight, but always highly ornamented with geometrical patterns. The spears and javelins were up to1.5 metres long and had an iron tip. The double-axe, made of iron and 30 cm long and possessing an extremely sharp edge, wasdesigned to be equally useful as a thrown weapon or in close combat. Maces and hammers were not common, but some specimens haveremained, and are thought to have been used by members of the cavalry.

Finally, mercenaries were an important factor, as many kings did not have enough soldiers available. The Norsemen, the Flemishspearmen, the Frankish knights, the Moorish mounted archers and Berber light cavalry were the main types of mercenary available andused in the conflict.

Technological changes

This style of warfare remained dominant in the Iberian Peninsula until the late 11th century, when couched lance tactics entered fromFrance, although the traditional horse javelin-shot techniques continued to be used. In the 12th and 13th centuries, soldiers typicallycarried a sword, a lance, a javelin, and either bow and arrows or crossbow and darts/bolts. Armor consisted of a coat of mail over aquilted jacket, extending at least to the knees, a helmet or iron cap, and bracers protecting the arms and thighs, either metal or leather.

Shields were round or triangular, made of wood, covered with leather, and protected by an iron band; the shields of knights and nobleswould bear the family's coat of arms. Knights rode in both the Muslim style, a la jineta (i.e. the equivalent of a modern jockey's seat), ashort stirrup strap and bended knees allowed for better control and speed, or in the French style, a la brida, a long stirrup strap allowedfor more security in the saddle (i.e. the equivalent of the modern cavalry seat, which is more secure) when acting as heavy cavalry.Horses were occasionally fitted with a coat of mail as well.

Expansion into the Crusades and military orders

In the High Middle Ages, the fight against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula became linked to the fight of the whole of Christendom.The Reconquista was originally a mere war of conquest. It only later underwent a significant shift in meaning toward a religiously justifiedwar of liberation (see the Augustinian concept of a Just War). The papacy and the influential Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy not onlyjustified the acts of war but actively encouraged Christian knights to seek armed confrontation with Moorish "infidels" instead of witheach other.

From the 11th century onwards indulgences were granted: In 1064 Pope Alexander II allegedly promised the participants of anexpedition against Barbastro (Tagr al-Andalus, Aragon) a collective indulgence 30 years before Pope Urban II called the FirstCrusade. The legitimacy of such a letter establishing a grant of indulgence has been disputed at length by historians, notably by Ferreiro.Papal interest in Christio-Muslim relations in the peninsula are not without precedent — Popes Leo IV (847-855), John VIII (872-882)and John XIX (1024–33) are all known to have displayed substantial interest in the region. Whilst there is little evidence to invalidate theletter as a whole, both the recipient(s) of the letter and whether such a letter actually nominates Barbastro as the first 'crusade' are still amatter of dispute.[citation needed]

Neither is there evidence to support the contention that the Cluniacs publicised the letter throughout Europe. It was addressed to theclero Vulturnensi. The name has been associated with the castle of Volturno in Campania but even this is not concrete. Baldwin, forexample, stipulates that the name is simply "garbled" and that it was intended for a French bishopric. Not until 1095 and the Council ofClermont did the Reconquista amalgamate the conflicting concepts of a peaceful pilgrimage and armed knight-errantry.

But the papacy left no doubt about the heavenly reward for knights fighting for Christ (militia Christi): in a letter, Urban II tried topersuade the reconquistadores fighting at Tarragona to stay in the Peninsula rather than joining the armed pilgrimage to conquerJerusalem, saying that their contribution for Christianity was equally important. The pope promised them the same indulgences that hehad promised to those who chose to join the First Crusade.

Later military orders like the Order of Santiago, Montesa, Order of Calatrava and the Knights Templar were founded or called to fight inIberia. The Popes called the knights of Europe to the Crusades in the peninsula. After the so-called Disaster of Alarcos, French,Navarrese, Castilian, Portuguese and Aragonese armies united against the Muslim forces in the massive battle of Las Navas de Tolosa(1212). The big territories awarded to military orders and nobles were the origin of the latifundia in today's Andalusia and Extremadura,in Spain, and Alentejo, in Portugal.

Northern Christian kingdoms

Kingdom of Galicia (409–1833)

Main article: Kingdom of Galicia

Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)

The Islamic Almohad dynasty andsurrounding states, including theChristian Kingdoms of Portugal,León, Castile, Navarre, and Aragon c.1200.

Santiago the Moor-slayer

Main article: Kingdom of Asturias

See also: Duchy of Cantabria

The Kingdom of Asturias was located in the Cantabrian Mountains, a wet and mountainous region in the north of the Iberian Peninsula.

By the end of the 15th century there was a myriad of autonomous Christian kingdoms andprincipalities. The first Christian power was Asturias. The kingdom was established by anobleman, Pelagius (Pelayo), who possibly had returned to his country after the Battle ofGuadalete in 711, where he was elected leader of the Asturians and laid the foundations forthe Kingdom of Asturias. However, Pelayo's kingdom initially was little more than a gatheringpoint for the existing guerilla forces.

During the first decades, the Asturian dominion over the different areas of the kingdom wasstill lax, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial allianceswith other powerful families from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Ermesinda, Pelayo'sdaughter, was married to Alfonso, Dux Peter of Cantabria's son. Alfonso's son Fruela marriedMunia, a Basque from Álava, after crushing a Basque uprising (probably resistance). Their sonis reported to be Alfonso II, while Alfonso I's daughter Adosinda married Silo, a local chieffrom the area of Flavionavia, Pravia.

Alfonso's military strategy was typical of Iberian warfare at the time. Lacking the meansneeded for wholesale conquest of large territories, his tactics consisted of raids in the border regions of Vardulia. With the plunder hegained further military forces could be paid, enabling him to raid the Muslim cities of Lisbon, Zamora, and Coimbra. Alfonso I alsoexpanded his realm westwards conquering Galicia.

During the reign of King Alfonso II (791–842), the kingdom was firmly established, and a series of Muslim raids caused the transfer ofAsturian capital to Oviedo. The king is believed to have initiated diplomatic contacts with the kings of Pamplona and the Carolingians,thereby gaining official recognition for his kingdom and his crown from the Pope and Charlemagne.

There, the bones of St. James the Great were proclaimed to have been found in Iria Flavia (present day Padrón) in 813 or probably twoor three decades later. The cult to the saint was transferred later to Compostela (from Latin campus stellae, literally "the star field"),possibly in the early 10th century when the focus of Asturian power moved from the mountains over to León, to become the Kingdom ofLeón or Galicia-León.

Santiago's were just one of the many saint relics proclaimed to have been found across north-western Iberia. Pilgrims started to flow infrom other Iberian Christian realms, sowing the seeds of the later Way of Saint James (11-12th century) that sparked the enthusiasm andreligious zeal of continental Christian Europe for centuries.

Despite numerous battles, neither the Umayyads nor the Asturians had sufficient forces tosecure control over these northern territories. Under the reign of Ramiro, famed for the highlylegendary Battle of Clavijo, the border began to slowly move southward and Asturian holdingsin Castile, Galicia, and León were fortified and an intensive program of re-population of thecountryside began in those territories. In 924 the Kingdom of Asturias became the Kingdomof León, when León became the seat of the royal court (it didn´t bear any official name).

Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620)

Main article: Kingdom of Navarre

The Kingdom of Pamplona was one of the important Christian powers of Iberia during theReconquista. The kingdom was formed when local leader Íñigo Arista led a revolt against theregional Frankish authority and was elected or declared King in Pamplona (traditionally in824), establishing a kingdom inextricably linked at this stage to their kinsmen the muwalladBanu Qasi of Tudela.

Although relatively weak up until the early 11th century under the Sancho III (1004–1035),Navarre took up a more active Christian role after the accession to the throne of the Jimenezlineage (905). The Kingdom of Pamplona (after 12th century, Navarre), was a Christian kingdom extending after the 13th century (andbriefly in the early 11th century) at either side of the Pyrenees alongside the Atlantic Ocean.

Throughout the early history of the Navarrese kingdom, there were frequent skirmishes with the Carolingian Empire, from which itmaintained its independence, a key feature of its history until 1513. The reign of Sancho the Great not only expanded the Navareseterritories when they absorbed Castile, Leon, and what was to be Aragon in addition to other small counties which would also unite and

The Moors request permission fromJames I of Aragon

Statue of Gerald the Fearless.A Portuguese folk warriordecapitating a Moor.

become the Principality of Catalonia, but it also helped form the Galician independence as well as getting overlordship on Gascony.

The conquest of Leon did not consume Galicia, as the Leonese king retreated and was left to temporary independence. Galicia wasconquered soon after (it was conquered by Sancho's son Ferdinand around 1038). However, this small period of independence meantthat it was fashioned as its own kingdom and the subsequent kings named their titles as king of Galicia and León, instead of merely kingof León, even though Galicia was never to be independent again.

Kingdom of León (910–1230)

Main articles: Kingdom of León, Kingdom of Galicia, and County of Portugal

Alfonso III of Asturias repopulated the strategically important city León and established it ashis capital. From his new capital, King Alfonso began a series of campaigns to establishcontrol over all the lands north of the Douro. He reorganized his territories into the majorduchies (Galicia and Portugal) and major counties (Saldaña and Castile), and fortified theborders with many castles. At his death in 910 the shift in regional power was completed asthe kingdom became the Kingdom of León. From this power base, his heir Ordoño II wasable to organize attacks against Toledo and even Seville.

The Caliphate of Córdoba was gaining power, and began to attack León. Navarre and kingOrdoño allied against Abd-al-Rahman but were defeated in Valdejunquera, in 920. For thenext 80 years, the Kingdom of León suffered civil wars, Moorish attack, internal intrigues andassassinations, and the partial independence of Galicia and Castile, thus delaying thereconquest, and weakening the Christian forces. It was not until the following century that the Christians started to see their conquests aspart of a long-term effort to restore the unity of the Visigothic kingdom.

The only point during this period when the situation became hopeful for Leon was the reign of Ramiro II. King Ramiro, in alliance withFernán González of Castile and his retinue of caballeros villanos, defeated the Caliph in Simancas in 939. After this battle, when theCaliph barely escaped with his guard and the rest of the army was destroyed, King Ramiro obtained 12 years of peace, but had to giveGonzález the independence of Castile as a payment for his help in the battle. After this defeat, Moorish attacks abated until Almanzorbegan his campaigns.

It was Alfonso V in 1002 who finally regained the control over his domains. Navarre, though attacked by Almanzor, remained.

Kingdom of Portugal (1139–1910)

Main article: Kingdom of Portugal

In 1139, after an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique against the Almoravids, AfonsoHenriques was proclaimed the first King of Portugal by his troops. According to legend Afonsoestablished the first of the Portuguese Cortes at Lamego, where he was crowned by the Archbishopof Braga.

At the Treaty of Zamora in 1143, Alfonso VII of León and Castile recognized Portugueseindependence from the kingdom of León.

In 1147, Portugal captures Santarém, and seven months later the city of Lisbon is also brought underPortuguese control after the Siege of Lisbon.

By the papal bull Manifestis Probatum, Pope Alexander III recognized Afonso Henriques as King in1179.

With Portugal finally recognized as an independent kingdom by its neighbours, Afonso Henriques andhis successors, aided by Crusaders and military monastic orders like the Knights Templar, the Orderof Aviz or the Order of Saint James, pushed the Moors to the Algarve. After several campaigns, thePortuguese side of the Reconquista came to an end with the definitive capture of the Algarve on thesouthern coast of Portugal in 1249.

With Portugal entirely conquered, under Afonso III of Portugal command, the Portuguese kingdom saw an homogenization of religious,cultural and ethnic propinquity.

After the completion of the Reconquista, the Portuguese territory was a Roman Catholic realm. Nonetheless, Denis of Portugal saw ashort war with Castile during his reign, for the possession of the towns of Serpa and Moura. After this, Denis avoided war. Denis signedthe Treaty of Alcanizes with Ferdinand IV of Castile in 1297, establishing its present-day borders.

Cross of the Order of Christ

During the suppression of the Knights Templar all over Europe, under the influence of Philip IV of France and Pope Clement Vrequesting its annihilation by 1312, King Denis re-instituted the Templars of Tomar as the Order of Christ in 1319. Denis believed thatthe Order's assets should for their nature stay in any given Order instead of being taken by theKing, largely for their contribution to the Reconquista and the reconstruction of Portugal as acountry, after the wars.

Kingdom of Castile (1037–1230)

Main article: Kingdom of Castile

Ferdinand I of León was the leading king of the mid-11th century. He conquered Coimbra andattacked the taifa kingdoms, often demanding the tributes known as parias. Ferdinand's strategywas to continue to demand parias until the taifa was greatly weakened both militarily andfinancially. He also repopulated the Borders with numerous fueros. Following the Navarresetradition, on his death in 1064 he divided his kingdom between his sons. His son Sancho II ofCastile wanted to reunite the kingdom of his father and attacked his brothers, with a young nobleat his side: Rodrigo Díaz (later known as El Cid Campeador). Sancho was killed in the siege ofZamora by the traitor Bellido Dolfos (also known as Vellido Adolfo) in 1072. His brother Alfonso VI took over León, Castile andGalicia.

Alfonso VI the Brave gave more power to the fueros and repopulated Segovia, Ávila and Salamanca. Then, once he had secured theBorders, King Alfonso conquered the powerful Taifa kingdom of Toledo in 1085. Toledo, which was the former capital of the Visigoths,was a very important landmark, and the conquest made Alfonso renowned throughout the Christian world. However, this "conquest"was conducted rather gradually, and mostly peacefully, during the course of several decades. It was not until after sporadic andconsistent population resettlements had taken place that Toledo was decisively conquered.

Alfonso VI was first and foremost a tactful monarch who chose to understand the kings of taifa and employed unprecedented diplomaticmeasures to attain political feats before considering the use of force. He adopted the title Imperator totius Hispaniae ("Emperor of allHispania", referring to all the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, and not just the modern country of Spain). Alfonso's moreaggressive policy towards the Taifas worried the rulers of those kingdoms, who called on the African Almoravids for help.

Kingdom of Aragon (1035–1715)

Main article: Kingdom of Aragon

See also: Catalan Counties, Count of Barcelona, and Marca Hispanica

Christian In-fighting

The clashes and raids on bordering Andalusian lands did not keep the Christian kingdoms from battling among themselves or allying withMuslim kings. Some Muslim kings had Christian-born wives or mothers.

Also some Christian champions like El Cid were contracted by Taifa kings to fight against their neighbours. Indeed, El Cid's first battleexperience was gained fighting for a Muslim state against a Christian state, at the Battle of Graus in 1063, where he and other Castiliansfought on the side of al-Muqtadir, Muslim sultan of Zaragoza, against the forces of Ramiro I of Aragon. There is even an instance of aCrusade being declared against another Christian king in Iberia.[10]

Following the disastrous defeat of Alfonso VIII, King of Castile, at Alarcos, Kings Alfonso IX, of Kingdom of León, and Sancho VII, ofNavarre, entered an alliance with the Almohads and invaded Castile in 1196. By the end of the year Sancho VII had dropped out of thewar under Papal pressure. Early in 1197, at the request of Sancho I, King of Portugal, Pope Celestine III declared a Crusade againstAlfonso IX, and released his subjects from their responsibilities to the king, declaring "the men of his realm shall be absolved from theirfidelity and his dominion by authority of the apostolic see."[10]

Together the Kings of Portugal, Castile, and Aragon invaded León. In the face of this onslaught combined with pressure from the Pope,Alfonso IX was finally forced to sue for peace in October 1197.

In the late years of Al-Andalus, Castile had the might to conquer the remains of the kingdom of Granada, but the kings preferred toclaim the tribute of the Muslim parias. The trade of Granadan goods and the parias were a major means by which African gold enteredmedieval Europe.

Christian repopulation of the Iberian Peninsula

Further information: Medieval demography and Repoblación

The Reconquista was a process not only of war and conquest, but also repopulation. Christian kings took their own people to locationsabandoned by Muslims, in order to have a population capable of defending the borders. The main repopulation areas were the DouroBasin (the northern plateau), the high Ebro valley (La Rioja) and central Catalonia.

The repopulation of the Douro Basin took place in two distinct phases. North of the river, between the 9th and 10th centuries, the"pressure" (or presura) system was employed. South of the Douro, in the 10th and 11th centuries, the presura led to the "charters"(forais or fueros). Fueros were used even south of the Central Range.

The presura referred to a group of peasants who crossed the mountains and settled in the abandoned lands of the Douro Basin. Asturianlaws promoted this system with laws, for instance granting a peasant all the land he was able to work and defend as his own property.Of course, Asturian and Galician minor nobles and clergymen sent their own expeditions with the peasants they maintained. This led tovery feudalised areas, such as León and Portugal, whereas Castile, an arid land with vast plains and harsh climate only attracted peasantswith no hope in Biscay. As a consequence, Castile was governed by a single count, but had a largely mostly non-feudal territory withmany free peasants. Presuras also appear in Catalonia, when the count of Barcelona ordered the Bishop of Urgell and the count ofGerona to repopulate the plains of Vic.

During the 10th century and onwards, cities and towns gained more importance and power, as commerce reappeared and thepopulation kept growing. Fueros were charters documenting the privileges and usages given to all the people repopulating a town. Thefueros provided a means of escape from the feudal system, as fueros were only granted by the monarch. As a result, the town councilwas dependent on the monarch alone and had to help their lord (auxilium). The military force of the towns became the caballerosvillanos. The first fuero was given by count Fernán González to the inhabitants of Castrojeriz in the 940 s. The most important towns ofmedieval Iberia had fueros or forais. In Navarre, fueros were the main repopulating system. Later on, in the 12th century, Aragon alsoemployed the system; for example, the fuero of Teruel, which was one of the last fueros, in the early 13th century.

From the mid-13th century on no more charters were granted, as the demographic pressure had disappeared and other means ofrepopulation were created. While presuras allowed Castile to have the only nonfeudal peasants in Europe other than Scandinavians andFrisians[citation needed], fueros remained as city charters until the 18th century in Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia and until the 19thcentury in Castile and Navarre. Fueros had an immense importance for those living under them, who were prepared to go to war todefend their rights under the charter. In the 1800s the abolition of the fueros in Navarre would be one of the causes of the Carlist Wars.In Castile disputes over the system contributed to the war against Charles I (Castilian War of the Communities).

Muslim decline and defeat

Fall of the Caliphate

The 9th century saw the Berbers return to Africa in the aftermath of their revolts. During this period, many governors of large citiesdistant from the capital (Córdoba) planned to establish their independence. Then, in 929 the Emir of Córdoba (Abd-ar-Rahman III), theleader of the Umayyad dynasty, declared himself Caliph, independent from the Abbasids in Baghdad. He took all the military, religiousand political power and reorganised the army and the bureaucracy.

After regaining control over the dissident governors, Abd-ar-Rahman III tried to conquer the remaining Christian kingdoms of the Iberianpeninsula, attacking them several times and forcing them back beyond the Cantabric range.

Christian political forces then accused Abd-ar-Rahman III of pederasty with a Christian boy who was later canonized Saint Pelagius ofCordova for his refusal of Abd-ar-Rahman's advances. As part of a pattern of portraying Islamic morality as inferior,[11][12] the storyprovided political strength and popular support to the Reconquista for centuries.

Later Abd-ar-Rahman's grandson became a puppet in the hands of the great Vizier Almanzor (al-Mansur, "the victorious"). Almanzorwaged several campaigns attacking and sacking Burgos, Leon, Pamplona, Barcelona and Santiago de Compostela before his death in1002.

Between Almanzor's death and 1031, Al-Andalus suffered many civil wars which ended in the appearance of the Taifa Kingdoms. Thetaifas were small kingdoms, established by the city governors establishing their long wished-for independence. The result was many (upto 34) small kingdoms each centered upon their capital, and the governors, not subscribing to any larger-scale vision of the Moorishpresence, had no qualms about attacking their neighbouring kingdoms whenever they could gain advantage by doing so.

This split into the taifa states caused Islamic presence to be greatly weakened in the face of the strengthening Christian kingdoms to thenorth. When Alfonso VI brought Toledo under his authority in 1085. Mortified by the concept of being surrounded by the enemy taifarulers sent a desperate appeal to the Berber chieftain Yusuf b. Tashufin leader of the Almoravids.

The Almoravids

The Battle of the Puig at El Puig deSanta Maria in 1237

Extent of the Reconquista intoAlmohad territory as of 1157.

The Surrender of Granada byFrancisco Pradilla Ortiz

Main article: Almoravid dynasty

The Almoravids were a Muslim militia, their ranks mainly composed of Berber and African Moors, and unlike the previous Muslimrulers, they were not so tolerant towards Christians and Jews. Their armies entered the Iberian peninsula on several occasions (1086,1088, 1093) and defeated King Alfonso at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086, but initially their purpose was to unite all the Taifas into asingle Almoravid Caliphate. Their actions halted the southward expansion of the Christian kingdoms. Their only defeat came at Valenciain 1094, due to the actions of El Cid.

Meanwhile, Navarre lost all importance under King Sancho IV, for he lost Rioja to Sancho II of Castile, and nearly became the vassal ofAragon. At his death, the Navarrese chose as their king Sancho Ramirez, King of Aragon, who thus became Sancho V of Navarre and Iof Aragon. Sancho Ramírez gained international recognition for Aragon, uniting it with Navarre, expanding the borders south, conqueringWasqat Huesca deep in the valleys in 1096 and building a fort, El Castellar, 25 km away from Saraqustat Zaragoza.

Catalonia came under intense pressure from the taifas of Zaragoza and Lérida, and also from internal disputes, as Barcelona suffered adynastic crisis which led to open war among the smaller counties; but by the 1080s, thesituation calmed, and the dominion of Barcelona over the smaller counties was restored.

The Almohads

Main article: Almohad dynasty

After a brief period of disintegration (second Taifa period), the rising power in North Africa,the Almohads, took over most of Al-Andalus. But they would be decisively defeated at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) by a Christian coalition, losing almost all the remaininglands of Al-Andalus in the following decades. By 1252 only the Kingdom of Granadaremained as sovereign Muslim state in the Iberian peninsula.

Granada War and the end of Muslim rule in Iberia

Main articles: Granada War and Treaty of Granada (1491)

Ferdinand and Isabella completed the Reconquista with a war against the Emirate of Granadathat started in 1482 and ended with Granada's complete annexation in early 1492. The Moorsin Castile previously numbered "half a million within the realm." By 1492 some 100,000 haddied or been enslaved, 200,000 had emigrated, and 200,000 remained in Castile. Many of theMuslim elite, including Granada's former Emir Muhammad XII, who had been given the areaof the Alpujarras mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable andemigrated to Tlemcen in North Africa.[13]

Conversions and expulsions

Main articles: Treaty of Granada (1491), Alhambra decree, and Expulsion of theMoriscos

During the Islamic administration, Christians and Jews were allowed to retain their religions bypaying a tax (jizya). Penalty for not paying it was imprisonment. During the time of theAlmoravids and especially the Almohads some were treated badly, in contrast to the policiesof the earlier Umayyad Caliphs and later Emirs.[citation needed]

The new Christian hierarchy demanded heavy taxes from non-Christians and gave them rights,such as in the Treaty of Granada (1491) only for Moors in recently Islamic Granada. Itexpelled the Jews. In 1492 the Alhambra decree under Archbishop Hernando de Talaveradismissed the Treaty of Granada and now the Muslim population of Granada was forced toconvert or be expelled. In 1502, Queen Isabella I declared conversion to Catholicismcompulsory within the Kingdom of Castile. King Charles V did the same to Moors in theKingdom of Aragon in 1526, forcing conversions of its Muslim population during the Revolt ofthe Germanies.[14] Despite the monarchs' wishes, many local officials took advantage of thesituation to seize property.

Spanish Inquisition

Main article: Spanish Inquisition

Moros y cristianos celebrated in manytowns and cities of Spain, tocommemorate the battles ofReconquista.

Most of the descendants of those Muslims who submitted to conversion to Christianity rather than exile during the early periods of theSpanish and Portuguese Inquisition, the Moriscos, were later expelled from Spain after serious social upheaval, when the Inquisition wasat its height. The expulsions were carried out more severely in eastern Spain (Valencia and Aragon) due to local animosity towardsMuslims and Moriscos where they were seen as economic rivals by local workers who saw them as cheap labor undermining theirbargaining position with the landlords. A major Morisco revolt happened in 1568 and the finalExpulsion of the Moriscos from Castile in 1609, and from Aragon in 1610.

Making things more complex were the many former Muslims and Jews known as Moriscos,Marranos Conversos and shared ancestors in common with many Christians, especiallyamong the aristocracy, causing much concern over loyalty and attempts by the aristocracy tohide their non Christian ancestry. Those that the Spanish Inquisition found to be secretlypracticing Islam or Judaism were executed, imprisoned or expelled. Those descended fromMuslims or Jews practicing at the time of the Reconquista's close were perpetually suspectedof various crimes against the Spanish state including continued practice of Islam or Judaism,and any survivors were finally all expelled by the close of the next century.

Classifications and consequences post-Reconquista

The many advances and retreats created several social types:

The Muladi: Christians under Islamic rule who converted to Islam after the arrival of the Moors.

The Mozarabs: Christians in Muslim-held lands. Some of them migrated to the north of the peninsula in times of persecutionbringing elements of the styles, food and agricultural practices learned from the Moors, while they continued practicing theirChristianity with older forms of Catholic worship and their own versions of the Latin language.

The Marranos: Jewish conversos. Jews who either voluntarily or compulsorily converted to Catholicism. Some were Crypto-Jews who continued practicing Judaism secretly. All remaining Jews were expelled from Spain in Treaty of Granada of 1492, andfrom Portugal in 1497. Converso Jews often became victims of the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions.

The Mudéjar and Moriscos: Muslim conversos. Muslims who were compulsorily converted to Catholicism. Most were Crypto-Muslims who continued practicing Islam secretly. They ranged from successful skilled artisans, valued and protected in Aragon, toimpoverished peasants in Castile. After the Alhambra Decree the entire Islamic population was forced to convert or leave, andwithin a century most, if not all, were expelled.

Legacy

See also: History of Spain, History of Portugal, and Portugal in the period of discoveries

Real, legendary, and fictional episodes from the Reconquista are the subject of much of medieval Galician-Portuguese, Spanish, andCatalan literature such as the cantar de gesta.

Some noble genealogies show the close relations (although not very numerous) between Muslims and Christians. For example, Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir, whose rule is considered to have marked the peak of power for Moorish Al-Andalus Iberia, married Abda,daughter of Sancho Garcés II of Navarra, who bore him a son, named Abd al-Rahman and commonly known in pejorative sense asSanchuelo (Little Sancho; in Arabic: Shanjoul).

After his father's death, Sanchuelo/Abd al-Rahman, as a son of a Christian princess, was a strong contender to take over the ultimatepower in Muslim al-Andalus. A hundred years later, King Alfonso VI of Castile, considered among the greatest of the Medieval Spanishkings, designated as his heir his son (also a Sancho) by the refugee Muslim princess Zaida of Seville.

It can be questioned due to the Portuguese Reconquista that had ended in 1249, and both the Castillian and Portuguese kingdoms mayhave begun profiting from maritime expansion along Africa before the Jews and Moors were expelled. The huge wealth from theAmericas was still to arrive after Columbus's first voyage and the surrender of Granada in 1492.

The Reconquista was a war with long periods of respite between the adversaries, partly for pragmatic reasons and also due to infightingamong the Christian kingdoms of the North spanning over seven centuries. Some populations practiced Islam or Christianity as their ownreligion during these centuries, so the identity of contenders changed over time.

Reconquista recreations in modern Spain

Currently, the festivals of moros y cristianos (Castilian), moros i cristians (Catalan), mouros e cristãos (Portuguese) and mouros ecristiáns (Galician), these meaning "Moors and Christians", recreate the fights as colorful parades with elaborate garments and lots offireworks, especially on the central and southern towns of the Land of Valencia, like Alcoi, Ontinyent or Villena.

Timeline of major dates

Main article: Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula

711: Conquest of Iberia by Umayyad Arab-Berber armies begins.717: First Umayyad foray over the Pyrenees into Visigothic Gaul.718: Islamic Umayyad rule in Iberia at its widest, covering almost all of the Iberian Peninsula and the fringes of the Pyrenees.718 or 722: Battle of Covadonga in the north-west of Iberia, establishing a Christian principality in Asturias.742: Berber garrisons give up their positions in Galicia and north of the Duero River (join the Berber rebellion).759: Pepin the Short conquers the last Muslim strongholds in present-day France.801: The Carolingians led by Louis the Pious conquer Barcelona, sack Lleida, and establish the Spanish March.809: The Carolingians fail to take and hold Tarragona and Tortosa, retreating to their Ebro marches.[15]:124

868: Conquest of the city of Porto, leading to the establishment of the County of Portucale (Latin for later Portugal).871: Capture of Coimbra by the Asturians, County of Coimbra established.914: Iberian Muslims briefly retake Barcelona.1085: Landmark conquest of Toledo by Castilian forces. Over half of Iberia conquered by Christian-ruled kingdoms.1097: First Crusade, two-thirds of the Iberian peninsula conquered by Christian-ruled kingdoms.1118: Navarro-Aragonese troops capture the Muslim strongholds of Tudela and Zaragoza.1147: Siege of Lisbon, where Second Crusade and the Kingdom of Portugal defeat the Almoravids.1195: The Battle of Alarcos establishes Almohad authority in the south of the Iberia.1212: The key battle of Navas de Tolosa heralds the steady political decline of the Iberian Muslim kingdoms.1236: Cadiz and the former capital of the caliphate Córdoba are conquered by Castilian forces.1249: King Afonso III of Portugal takes Faro (in the Algarve), ending the Portuguese Reconquista in 1249.[16]

1250: The lowercased Emirate of Granada remains the only Muslim state in Iberia.1300s and 1400s: Marinid Muslims seize control of some towns on the southern coast but are soon driven out, now only a fewisolated towns in the south of Granada was still controlled by the Moors.1491: Treaty of Granada (signed on 25 November), completes the Reconquista.

Notes

a. ^ While spelled largely the same, the pronunciation differs among the different Iberian languages, mostly in accordance with the soundstructures of the respective languages. The pronunciations are as follows:

Spanish: [rekoŋˈkista]Portuguese: [ʁɛkõˈkiʃtɐ]Galician: [rekoŋˈkista]Asturian: [rekoŋˈkista]Catalan: [rəkuŋˈkestə] or [rekoŋˈkesta], spelled Reconquesta. Colloquially also known and spelled as Reconquista (pron. [rəkuŋˈkistə] or [rekoŋˈkista]).Basque: [erekoŋkista], spelled Errekonkista.

b. ^ In Arabic language, the Reconquista (Reconquest) of Muslim Iberia is also referred to as االسترداد (trans. al-Istirdād, [æl ɪstɪrˈdæːd], theRecapturing).

References

1. ^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2003). Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (http://books.google.com/?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 19.ISBN 0812236963. Retrieved February 15, 2012.

2. a b McKitterick, Rosamond; Collins, R. (1990). The New Cambridge Medieval. History 1 (http://books.google.com/?id=ZEaSdNBL0sgC&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=the+basques+roger+collins#v=onepage&q=the%20basques%20roger%20collins&f=false). Cambridge University Press. p. 289. ISBN 9780521362924. Retrieved July 26, 2012.

3. ^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2003). Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (http://books.google.com/?id=4gVIt5u0U5wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 18.ISBN 0812236963. Retrieved August 26, 2012.

4. ^ Kinoshita, Sharon (2001-01-31). ""Pagans are wrong and Christians are right": Alterity, Gender, and Nation in the Chanson de Roland"(http://www.tmnlib.ru:82/files/3/!!!inanalyzata/__%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5%20%D1%81%D0%BE%20%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%20%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B6/%D0%90%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%91%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%A2/%D0%91%D0%98%D0%91%D0%9B%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%A2%D0%95%D0%9

A%D0%90%20%D0%9F%D0%94%D0%A4/Pagans%20are%20wrong%20and%20Christians%20are%20right.htm). Duke UniversityPress. Retrieved 12 February 2013.

5. ^ DiVanna, Isabel N. (2010). "Politicizing national literature: the scholarly debate around La Chanson de Roland in the nineteenth century".Historical research (Institute of Historical Research) 84 (223): 26. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00540.x(http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2281.2009.00540.x).

6. ^ Fletcher, Richard (2006). Moorish Spain. Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-520-24840-6.7. ^ Chris Lowney, A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain, (Oxford University Press, 2005), 40.8. ^ Roger Collins, Early Medieval Spain, (St.Martin's Press, 1995), 164.9. ^ (quote from 'The making of medieval Spain'),

10. a b Joseph O'Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain, (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press 2003), 62.11. ^ Walter Andrews and Mehmet Kalpakll, The Age of Beloveds, Duke University Press, 2005; p. 2.12. ^ Greg Hutcheon "The Sodomitic Moor: Queerness in the Narrative of the Reconquista" in Glen Burger and Stephen Kruger (eds.)

Queering the Middle Ages: Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press: 2001.13. ^ Kamen, Henry. "Spain 1469 - 1714 A Society of Conflict." Third edition. pp. 37-3814. ^ Censorship and Book Production in Spain During the Age of the Incunabula (http://www.lehman.cuny.edu/ciberletras/v06/tofino.html),

Ignacio Tofiño-Quesada. Graduate Center, CUNY.15. ^ Collins, Roger (1990). The Basques (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. p. 104. ISBN 0631175652.16. ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer, A History of the Crusades: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, (University of Wisconsin Press, 1976),

432.

Bibliography

Bishko, Charles Julian, 1975. The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095–1492 in A History of the Crusades, vol. 3:The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, edited by Harry W. Hazard, (University of Wisconsin Press) online edition(http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusThree)Fletcher, R. A. "Reconquest and Crusade in Spain c. 1050-1150", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 37, 1987. pp.García Fitz, Francisco, Guerra y relaciones políticas. Castilla-León y los musulmanes, ss. XI-XIII, Universidad de Sevilla,2002.Lomax, Derek William: The Reconquest of Spain. Longman, London 1978. ISBN 0-582-50209-8Nicolle, David and Angus McBride. El Cid and the Reconquista 1050-1492 (Men-At-Arms, No 200) (1988), focus onsoldiersO´Callaghan, Joseph F.: "Reconquest and crusade in Medieval Spain", Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002,ISBN 0-8122-3696-3Payne, Stanley, "The Emergence of Portugal (http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne6.htm)", in A History of Spain and Portugal:Volume One.Reuter, Timothy; Allmand, Christopher; Luscombe, David; McKitterick, Rosamond (eds.), " The New Cambridge MedievalHistory", Cambridge University Press, Sep 14, 1995, ISBN 0-521-36291-1.Riley-Smith, Jonathan, The Atlas of the Crusades. Facts On File, Oxford (1991)Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain. Edinburgh University Press (1992).Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. (Edinburgh 1972).Villegas-Aristizabal, Lucas, 2013, "Revisiting the Anglo-Norman Crusaders’ Failed Attempt to Conquer Lisbon c. 1142’,Portuguese Studies 29:1, pp. 7–20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007Villegas-Aristizabal, Lucas, 2009, "Anglo-Norman Involvement in the Conquest and Settlement of Tortosa, 1148-1180",Crusades 8, pp. 63–129. http://www.academia.edu/1619392/Anglo-Norman_Intervention_in_the_Conquest_and_Settlement_of_Tortosa_Crusades_8_2009_600_dpi_black_and_white_with_OCR

External links

Timeline of the Reconquista (http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/timeline.html); University of Calgary website.Exiles from Andalusia (http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/RIVERS01.ART); Millersville University website.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reconquista&oldid=586148078"Categories: Battles of the Reconquista Reconquista Al-Andalus Christian terms History of Spain

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