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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR ENERGY
1.1 Background An atom has a large amount of energy holding their nuclei
together. Certain isotopes of some elements can be split and will release energy. Part of
their energy as heat. This splitting is called fission. The heat released in fission can be
used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants.
Uranium-235 (U-235) is one of the isotopes that fissions easily. During fission, U-
235 atoms absorb loose neutrons. This causes U-235 to become unstable and split into
two light atoms called fission products. The combined mass of the fission products is lessthan that of the original U-235. The reduction occurs because some of the matter changes
into energy. The energy is released as heat. Two or three neutrons are released along with
the heat. These neutrons may hit other atoms, causing more fission. Thus energy released
in form of heat is used to generate power in nuclear power plant.
The key to capacity nuclear power sector critically depends upon development of
reliable nuclear power station, encompassing complete fuel breeding. So far India has
developed to give three stage nuclear program of Dr. Homi J. Bhabha. The first stageutilizes natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator in pressurized heavy water
reactor. Second stage are based on fast breeder reactors (FBR) which are fuelled by
plutonium obtained by reprocessing of spent fuel of thermal reactors. Fast reactor
produces more fissile material than what they consume and thus multiplication of fissile
inventory and enhancement of installed capacity. Third stage will based on thorium U 233
cycle. Timely implementation of this stage is very crucial for meeting increasing carbon
free energy demand in country. As we have large resource of thorium it is our duty to
design reactor which will implement effectively thorium fuel cycle. Thus research at
BARC developed design of advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR).We have to focus on
auxiliary application, efficiency and innovative technology of nuclear power [1].
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1.2History Ancient Greek philosophers first developed the idea that all
matter is composed of invisible particles called atom. By 1900, physicists knew the
atom contains large quantities of energy. British physicist Ernest Rutherford was
called the father of nuclear science because of his contribution to the theory of atomic
structure. In 1904 he wrote, if it were ever possible to control rate of disintegration of
the radio elements, an enormous amount of energy could be obtained from a small
amount of matter. Albert Einstein developed his theory of the relationship between
mass and energy one year later. The mathematical relation is
(1.1)
E=energy released J/s
m=mass of atom kg
C=velocity of light =3108 m/s
Few milestones in history of development of nuclear power generation are as below.
1.2.1 In the decade 40s December 2, 1942. The first self-sustaining nuclear
chain reaction occurs at the University of Chicago.
July 16, 1943. The U.S. Armys Manhattan Engineer District (MED) tests the first
atomic bomb at Alamogordo, New Mexico, under the code me Manhattan Project.
August 6, 1945. The atomic bomb nicknamed little boy is dropped on Hiroshima,
Japan. Three days later, another bomb, Fat man, is dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. Japan
surrenders on August 15, ending World War II.
August 1, 1946. The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 creates the Atomic Energy
Commission (AEC) to control nuclear energy development and explore peaceful uses
of nuclear energy.
October 6, 1947. The AEC first investigates the possibility of peaceful uses of
atomic energy, issuing a report the following year.
1.2.2 In the decade 50s December 20, 1951. In Arco, Idaho, Experimental
Breeder Reactor I produces the first electric power from nuclear energy, lighting four
light bulbs.
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June 14, 1952. Keel for the Navy's first nuclear submarine, Nautilus, is laid at
Groton, Connecticut.
March 30, 1953. Nautilus starts its nuclear power units for the first time.
August 30, 1954. President Eisenhower signs The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, the
first major meant of the original Atomic Energy Act, giving the civilian nuclear
power program further access to nuclear technology.
January 10, 1955. The AEC announces the power demonstration Reactor Program.
Under the program, AEC and industry will cooperate in constructing and operating
experimental nuclear power reactors.
1.2.3 In the decade 60s August 19, 1960. The third U.S. nuclear power
plant, Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station, achieves a self-sustaining nuclear
reactor.
Early 1960s. Small nuclear-power generators are first used in remote areas to power
weather stations and to light buoys for sea navigation.
1.2.4 In the decade 70s 1970 March 5. The United States, United
Kingdom, Soviet Union, and 45 other nations ratify the Treaty for Non-Proliferation
of Nuclear Weapons.
1971 Twenty-two commercial nuclear power plants are in full operation in the United
States. They produce 2.4 percent of U.S. electricity at this time.
1973 U.S. utilities order 41 nuclear power plants, a one-year record.
1974 The first 1,000-megawatt-electric nuclear power plant goes into service
Commonwealth Edisons Zion 1 plant.
August 4, 1977. President Carter signs the Department of Energy Organization Act,
which transfers ERDA functions to the new.
The nuclear power industry in the U.S. grew rapidly in the 1960s. In the
1970s and 1980s, however, growth slowed. Demand for electricity decreased and
concern grew over nuclear issues, such as reactor safety, waste disposal, and other
environmental consideration. At the end of 1991, 31 other countries also had nuclear
power plants in commercial operation or under construction.
1.2.5 Milestones in development of nuclear power in India
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March 12, 1944 Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha writes to Sir Dorabji Tata Trust for
starting Nuclear Research in India
December 19, 1945 Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai is
inaugurated.
April 15, 1948 Atomic Energy Act is passed
August 04, 1956 Apsara first research reactor in Asia attains criticality at Tomboy,
Mumbai.
January 20, 1957 Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) is started
May 10, 1984 Research Reactor PURNIMA-II, a Uranium-233 fuelled homogenous
reactor, attains criticality.
September 17, 1987 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is formed
by converting the erstwhile Nuclear Power Board.
May 11 & 13, 1998 Five underground nuclear tests are conducted at Pokhran Range,
Rajasthan.
October 31, 2002 Waste Immobilization Plant and Uranium-Thorium Separation
Plant at (both at Tromboy), and the Radiation Processing Plant Krushak at Lasalgaon,
district Nasik, Maharashtra, are dedicated to the Nation.
August 31, 2007 Units 3 and 4 of the Tarapur Atomic Power Station dedicated to the
Nation.
1.3 Basics of nuclear power plant The purpose of a nuclear power plant
is to produce electricity. It should also be obvious that nuclear power plants have
some significant differences from other plants. In a nuclear power plant, many of the
components are similar to those in a fossil-fueled plant, except that the steam boiler is
replaced by a Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS). The NSSS consists of a nuclear
reactor and all of the components necessary to produce high pressure steam, which
will be used to turn the turbine for the electrical generator. Like a fossil-fueled plant,
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a nuclear power plant boils water to produce electricity. Unlike a fossil-fueled plant,
the nuclear plants energy does not come from the combustion of fuel, but from the
fissioning (splitting) of fuel atoms [1].
Fig 1.1 Nuclear power generation.
1.3.1 Fission When high velocity neutron strikes other heavy nucleus at rest it
splits into two or more light nuclei. Unlike a fossil-fueled plant, the nuclear plants
energy does not come from the combustion of fuel, but from the fissioning (splitting) of
fuel atoms. The most common fuel for the electrical producing reactor plants is uranium.
Amount of energy or heat is evolved during fission reaction. Energy release depends on
type of reaction. While reaction give rise to fission fragments radioactive isotope, fissile
atom fast moving neutron for further reaction.
92U235 + 0n
1 56Ba137 +36Kr97 +20n
1 (1.2)
235.0439 + 1.0087 136.906 + 96.921+ 2*1.00867 (1.3)
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236.0526 235.8446 (1.4)
... m= - 0.2080 amu. And
... E =931*- 0.2080 = - 193 Me
Fig 1.2 chain reaction of fission of Uranium -235.
Fig 1.2 tells us that when U235 is collided by free slow moving neutron it gets
splited into fission fragment (Ba. and Kr.) with reduced mass as that of original nucleus.While doing so it reduces energy which is indirectly used for power generation. Chain
reaction equation above tells us that quantity of energy can be generated for give set of
fuel and chain reaction.
1.3.2 Fusion Four nuclei of hydrogen combine together to fuse in series .It gives
combined fused product of two helium atom. During fusion very high temperature.
Hundred million degree has to archive thus large energy is released as compared tofission .Plasma is formed e .g .Sun nucleus exothermic reaction, gain in mass.
41H1
2He2 + 2 1e
0 (1.5)
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1.3.3 Enrichment The most common fuel for the electrical producing
reactor plants in the United States is uranium. The uranium starts out as ore, and
contains a very low percentage (or low enrichment) of the desired atoms (U-235). The
U-235 is a more desirable atom for fuel, because it is easier to cause the U-235 atoms to
fission (split) than the much more abundant U-238 atoms. Therefore, the fuel
fabrication process includes steps to increase the number of U-235 atoms in relation to
the number of U-238 atoms (enrichment process).
i. ii.
Fig 1.3 fuel uranium i) raw ii) pallet
1.3.4 Reactor Fuel Assembly 1.3.4.1 Both boiling water reactor
and pressurized water reactor fuel assemblies consist of the same major components.
These major components are the fuel rods, the spacer grids, and the upper and lower
end fittings. The fuel assembly drawing fig.1.4 shows these major components
(pressurized water reactor fuel assembly).
1.3.4.2 The fuel rods contain the ceramic fuel pellets. The fuel rods are
approximately 12 feet long and contain a space at the top for the collection of any
gases that are produced by the fission process. These rods are arranged in a square
matrix ranging from 17 x 17 for pressurized water reactors to 8 x 8 for boiling water
reactors.
1.3.4.3 The spacer grids separate the individual rods with pieces of sprung metal.
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This provides the rigidity of the assemblies and allows the coolant to flow freely up
through the assemblies and around the fuel rods. Some spacer grids may have flow
mixing vanes that are used to promote mixing of the coolant as it flows around and
though the fuel assembly.
1.3.4.4 The upper and lower end fittings serve as the upper and lower structural
elements of the assemblies. The lower fitting (or bottom nozzle) will direct the
coolant flow to the assembly through several small holes machined into the fitting.
There are also holes drilled in the upper fitting to allow the coolant flow to exit the
fuel assembly.
1.3.4.5 The upper end fitting will also have a connecting point for the refueling
equipment to attach for the moving of the fuel with a crane. For pressurized water
reactor fuel, there will also be guide tubes in which the control rods travel operations.
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Fig. 1.4 Reactor core assembly.
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1.4 Basic types of reactor
1.4.1 Boiling water reactor There are two basic types of reactor plants
being used in the United States to produce electricity, the boiling water reactor
(BWR) and the pressurized water reactor (PWR). The boiling water reactor operates
in essentially the same way as a fossil-fueled generating plant
Fig. 1.5 Boiling water reactor power generation.
Inside the reactor vessel, a steam/water mixture is produced when very
pure water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the ore absorbing heat. The
major difference in the operation of a boiling water reactor as compared to other
nuclear systems is the steam void formation in the core. The steam/water mixture
leaves the top of the core and enters two stages of moisture separation, where
water droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam line.
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The steam line, in turn, directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to turn the
turbine and the attached electrical generator. The unused steam is exhausted to
the condenser where it is condensed into water. The resulting water (condensate)
is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps and back to the reactor
vessel. The recirculation pumps and the jet pumps allow the operator to vary
coolant flow through the core and to change reactor power.
1.4.2 Pressurized water reactor The pressurized water reactor (PWR)
differs from the boiling water reactor in that steam is produced in the steam
generator rather than in the reactor vessel. The pressurizer keeps the water that is
flowing through the reactor vessel under very high pressure (> 2,200 pounds per
square inch) to prevent it from boiling, even at operating temperatures of more than
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600EF.
Fig. 1.6 Pressurized water reactor
In a PWR the primary coolant (water) is pumped under high pressure to the
reactor core where it is heated by the energy generated by the fission of atoms. The
heated water then flows to a steam generator where it transfers its thermal energy to a
secondary system where steam is generated and flows to turbines which, in turn, spins an
electric generator. In contrast to a boiling water reactor, pressure in the primary coolant
loop prevents the water from boiling within the reactor. All LWRs use ordinary light
water as both coolant and neutron and moderator. PWRs were originally designed to
serve as nuclear submarinepower plants and were used in the original design of the
second commercial power plant atShipping port Atomic Power Station. PWRs currently
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operating in the United States are considered Generation II reactors. Russia's VVER
reactors are similar to U.S. PWRs. France operates many PWRs to generate the bulk of
their electricity.
1.4.2.1 PWR reactor design Nuclear fuel in the reactor vessel is engaged
in afission chain reaction, which produces heat, heating the water in the primary coolant
loop by thermal conduction through the fuel cladding. The hot primary coolant is pumped
into a heat exchanger called the steam generator, where it flows through hundreds or
thousands of tubes (usually 3/4 inch in diameter). Heat is transferred through the walls of
these tubes to the lower pressure secondary coolant located on the sheet side of the
exchanger where it evaporates to pressurized steam. The transfer of heat is accomplished
without mixing the two fluids, which is desirable since the primary coolant might becomeradioactive. Some common steam generator arrangements are u-tubes or single pass heat
exchangers
In a nuclear power station, the pressurized steam is fed through a steam turbine
which drives an electrical generatorconnected to the electric grid for distribution. After
passing through the turbine the secondary coolant (water-steam mixture) is cooled down
and condensed in a condenser. The condenser converts the steam to a liquid so that it can
be pumped back into the steam generator, and maintains a vacuum at the turbine outlet so
that the pressure drop across the turbine, and hence the energy extracted from the steam,
is maximized. Before being fed into the steam generator, the condensed steam (referred
to as feed water) is sometimes preheated in order to minimize thermal shock.
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Fig 1.7. Design of pressurized water reactor
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The steam generated has other uses besides power generation. In nuclear ships
and submarines, the steam is fed through a steam turbine connected to a set of speed
reduction gearsto a shaft used forpropulsion. Direct mechanical action by expansion of
the steam can be used for a steam-powered aircraft catapult or similar applications.
District heating by the steam is used in some countries and direct heating is applied to
internal plant applications. Two things are characteristic for the pressurized water reactor
(PWR) when compared with other reactor types: coolant loop separation from the steam
system and pressure inside the primary coolant loop.
In a PWR, there are two separate coolant loops (primary and secondary), which
are both filled with mineralized/deionizer water. A boiling water reactor, by contrast, has
only one coolant loop, while more exotic designs such as breeder reactors use substancesother than water for coolant and moderator (e.g. sodium in its liquid state as coolant or
graphite as a moderator). The pressure in the primary coolant loop is typically 1516
Mpa (150160 bar), which is notably higher than in other nuclear reactors, and nearly
twice that of a boiling water reactor (BWR). As an effect of this, only localized boiling
occurs and steam will re-condense promptly in the bulk fluid. By contrast, in a boiling
water reactor the primary coolant is designed to boil PWR reactor vessel
1.4.2.2 Coolant Light wateris used as the primary coolant in a PWR. It enters the
bottom of the reactor core at about 275 C (530F) and is heated as it flows upwards
through the reactor core to a temperature of about 315 C (600 F). The water remains
liquid despite the high temperature due to the high pressure in the primary coolant loop,
usually around 155bar(15.5 MPa 153atm, 2,250psig). In water, the critical point occurs
at around 647 K(374 C or 705F) and 22.064 MPa (3200 PSIA or 218 atm)
Pressure in the primary circuit is maintained by a pressurizer, a separate vessel
that is connected to the primary circuit and partially filled with water which is heated to
the saturation temperature (boiling point) for the desired pressure by submerged electrical
heaters. To achieve a pressure of 155 bar, the pressurizer temperature is maintained at
345 C, which gives a sub cooling margin (the difference between the pressurizer
temperature and the highest temperature in the reactor core) of 30 C. Thermal transients
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in the reactor coolant system result in large swings in pressurizer liquid volume, total
pressurizer volume is designed around absorbing these transients without uncovering the
heaters or emptying the pressurizer. Pressure transients in the primary coolant system
manifest as temperature transients in the pressurize and are controlled through the use of
automatic heaters and water spray, which raise and lower pressurize temperature,
respectively. To achieve maximum heat transfer, the primary circuit temperature,
pressure and flow rate are arranged such that sub cooled nucleate boilingtakes place as
the coolant passes over the nuclear fuel rods.
The coolant is pumped around the primary circuit by powerful pumps, which can
consume up to 6 MW each[5]. After picking up heat as it passes through the reactor core,
the primary coolant transfers heat in a steam generator to water in a lower pressuresecondary circuit, evaporating the secondary coolant to saturated steam in most designs
6.2 MPa (60 atm, 900psia), 275 C (530 F) for use in the steam turbine. The cooled
primary coolant is then returned to the reactor vessel to be heated again.
1.4.2.3 Moderator Pressurized water reactors, like thermal reactor designs,
require the fast fission neutrons to be slowed down (a process called moderation or
thermalization) in order to interact with the nuclear fuel and sustain the chain reaction. In
PWRs the coolant water is used as a moderator by let, the neutrons undergo multiple
collisions with light hydrogen atoms in the water, losing speed in the process. This
"moderating" of neutrons will happen more often when the water is denser (more
collisions will occur). The use of water as a moderator is an important safety feature of
PWRs, as an increase in temperature may cause the water to turn to steam - thereby
reducing the extent to which neutrons are slowed down and hence reducing the reactivity
in the reactor. Therefore, if reactivity increases beyond normal, the reduced moderation
of neutrons will cause the chain reaction to slow down, producing less heat. This property, known as the negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, makes PWR
reactors very stable.
In contrast, the RBMK reactor design used at Chernobyl, which uses graphite
instead of water as the moderator and uses boiling water as the coolant, has a large
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positive thermal coefficient of reactivity, which increases heat generation when coolant
water temperatures increase. This makes the RBMK design less stable than pressurized
water reactors. In addition to its property of slowing down neutrons when serving as a
moderator, water also has a property of absorbing neutrons, albeit to a lesser degree.
When the coolant water temperature increases, the boiling increases, which creates voids.
Thus there is less water to absorb thermal neutrons that have already been slowed down
by the graphite moderator, causing an increase in reactivity. This property is called the
void coefficient of reactivity, and in an RBMK reactor like Chernobyl, the void
coefficient is positive, and fairly large, causing rapid transients. This design characteristic
of the RBMK reactor is generally seen as one of several causes of the Chernobyl
accident[6].
Heavy water has very low neutron absorption, so heavy water reactors such as
CANDU reactors also have a positive void coefficient, though it is not as large as that of
an RBMK like Chernobyl; these reactors are designed with a number of safety systems
not found in the original RBMK design, which are designed to handle or react to this as
needed.
PWRs are designed to be maintained in an under moderated state. Meaning that
there is room for increased water volume or density to further increase moderation,
because if moderation were near saturation, then a reduction in density of the
moderator/coolant could reduce neutron absorption significantly while reducing
moderation only slightly, making the void coefficient positive. Also, light water is
actually a somewhat stronger moderator of neutrons than heavy water, though heavy
water neutron absorption is much lower. Because of these two facts, light water reactors
have a relatively small moderator volume and therefore have compact cores. One next
generation design, the supercritical water reactor, is even less moderated. A less
moderated neutron energy spectrum does worsen the capture ratio for 235U and
especially 239Pu, meaning that more fissile nuclei fail to fission on neutron absorption
and instead capture the neutron to become a heavier non fissile isotope, wasting one or
more neutrons and increasing accumulation of heavy transuranic actinides, some of
which have long half-lives[6].
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1.4.2.3 Fuel PWR fuel bundle. This fuel bundle is from a pressurized water
reactor of the nuclear passenger and cargo hip NS Savannah. Designed and built by the
Babcock and Wilcox Company. After enrichment the uranium dioxide (UO2) powder is
fired in a high-temperature, sintering furnace to create hard, ceramic pellets of enriched
uranium dioxide. The cylindrical pellets are then clad in a corrosion-resistant zirconium
metal alloy (Zircaloy) which is backfilled with helium to aid heat conduction and detect
leakages. Zircaloy is chosen because of its mechanical properties and its low absorption
cross section. The finished fuel rods are grouped in fuel assemblies, called fuel bundles,
which are then used to build the core of the reactor. A typical PWR has fuel assemblies of
200 to 300 rods each, and a large reactor would have about 150250 such assemblies
with 80100 tons of uranium in all. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods
bundled 14 14 to 17 17. A PWR produces on the order of 900 to 1,500 MWe. PWR
fuel bundles are about 4 meters in length.
Refueling for most commercial PWRs is on an 1824 month cycle.
Approximately one third of the core is replaced each refueling, though some more
modern refueling schemes may reduce refuel time to a few days and allow refueling to
occur on a shorter periodicity.
1.4.2.5 Control In PWRs reactor power can be viewed as following steam (turbine)
demand due to the reactivity feedback of the temperature change caused by increased or
decreased steam flow.Boron and control rods are used to maintain primary system
temperature at the desired point. In order to decrease power, the operator throttles shut
turbine inlet valves. This would result in less steam being drawn from the steam
generators. This results in the primary loop increasing in temperature. The higher
temperature causes the reactor to fission less and decrease in power. The operator could
then add boric acid and insert control rods to decrease temperature to the desired point.
Reactivity adjustment to maintain 100% power as the fuel is burned up in most
commercial PWRs is normally achieved by varying the concentration of boric acid
dissolved in the primary reactor coolant. Boron readily absorbs neutrons and increasing
or decreasing its concentration in the reactor coolant will therefore affect the neutron
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activity correspondingly. An entire control system involving high pressure pumps
(usually called the charging and letdown system) is required to remove water from the
high pressure primary loop and re-inject the water back in with differing concentrations
of boric acid. The reactor control rods, inserted through the reactor vessel head directly
into the fuel bundles, are moved for the following reasons:
To start up the reactor.
To shut down the reactor.
To accommodate short term transients such as changes to load on the turbine.
The control rods can also be used
To compensate fornuclear poisoninventory.
To compensate fornuclear fuel depletion.
but these effects are more usually accommodated by altering the primary coolant boric
acid concentration.
In contrast, BWRs have no boron in the reactor coolant and control the reactor power by
adjusting the reactor coolant flow rate.
1.4.3 Three stage programme for Indian nuclear power plant
The current share of nuclear energy in India is 3% but it has fillip recent year
and is poised to grow rapidly with advanced technology and application .The key to
capacity nuclear power sector critically depends upon development of reliable nuclear
power station, encompassing complete fuel breeding .So far India has developed
adequate core competence in all respect of nuclear power station , which is given by
three- stage nuclear programme of Dr Homi J. Bhabha. The first stage utilizes natural
uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator in
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Fig. 1.8 Three stage nuclear power generation programme of India
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor. Second stage are based on fast breeder reactors
(FBR) which are fuelled by plutonium obtained by reprocessing of spent fuel of thermal
reactors .Fast reactor produces more fissile material than what they consume and thus
multiplication of fissile inventory and enhancement of installed capacity .Third stage will
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based on Thorium U-233 cycle. Timely implementation of this stage is very crucial for
meeting increasing carbon free energy demand in country. As we have large resource of
Thorium resource it is our duty to design reactor which will implement effectively
thorium fuel cycle thus research at BARC developed design of advanced heavy water
reactor (AHWR)
One of greatest obstacles in this path is how to properly handle highly radioactive
waste, control cooling and radiation at Accident. Answer for these are safety designed
advanced reactor, closed cycle operation, reprocessing of nuclear fuel is must. It can be
obtained satisfactorily with this paper which enhances interest innovatively of nuclear
power generation technology, and here are some options such as advanced reactor design,
Hybrid system, Fusion driven power plant, Hydrogen formation fuel IV stage power
generation, etc.
1.5 Advantages 1.5.1PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to
produce less power as temperatures increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate
from a stability standpoint.
1.5.2. PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in
the secondary loop is not contaminated by radioactive materials.
1.5.3 PWRs can passively scram the reactor in the event that offsite power is lost.
Control rods are held by electromagnets and fall by gravity when current is lost.
1.5.4 Almost 0 emissions (doesn't emit green house gases). It produces electricity
without pollution into the atmosphere.
1.5.5 They can be sited almost anywhere unlike oil which is mostly imported.
1.5.6 A small amount of matter creates a large amount of energy... so there is little
fear that we will run out of it A lot of energy from a single power plant
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1.5.7 A truckload of Uranium is equivalent in energy to 10,000+ truckloads of coal.
(Assuming the Uranium is fully utilized)
1.5.8 New reactor types have been designed to make it physically impossible to melt
down. As the core gets hotter the reaction gets slower, hence a run-away reaction
leading to a melt-down is not possible.
1.5.9 Theoretical reactors (traveling wave) are proposed to completely eliminate any
long-lived nuclear waste created from the process.
1.5.10 Theoretical Thorium reactors have many of the benefits of Uranium reactors
while removing much of the risk for proliferation as it is impossible to get weapons-
grade nuclear materials from Thorium.
1.6 Disadvantages 1.6.1More expensive to build the plant .Proliferation
concerns. Breeder reactors yield products that could potentially be stolen and turned into
an atomic weapon.
1.6.2 Waste products dangerous and need to be carefully stored for long time. The spent
fuel is highly radioactive and has to be carefully stored for many years after use. This
adds to the costs.
1.6.3 Waste is now contained in state of the art sealed containers and does not otherwise
harm anyone. Nuclear power plants can be dangerous to its surroundings and employees.
There has been a single case where a plant has gone through a meltdown and as a result
left people dead and its surroundings destroyed.
1.6.4 The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high
temperatures. This requires high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence
increases construction costs. The higher pressure can increase the consequences of aloss
of coolant accident. Additional high pressure components such as reactor coolant pumps,
pressurizer, steam generators, etc. are also needed. This also increases the capital cost and
complexity of a PWR power plant.
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1.6.5 Natural uranium is only 0.7% uranium-235, the isotope necessary for thermal
reactors. This makes it necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which increases the costs
of fuel production. Ifheavy water is used, it is possible to operate the reactor with
natural uranium, but the production of heavy water requires large amounts of energy
and is hence expensive.
1.6.6 Because water acts as a neutron moderator, it is not possible to build a fast
neutron reactor with a PWR design. A reduced moderation water reactor may
however achieve a breeding ratio greater than unity, though this reactor design has
disadvantages of its own.
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CHAPTER 2
ADVANCES IN NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
2.1 Generation IV Concepts
The U.S. Department of Energy participates in the Generation IV
International Forum (GIF), an association of ten nations that seek to develop a new
generation of commercial nuclear reactor designs before 2030. Criteria for
inclusion of a reactor design for consideration by the GIF group include:
1. Sustainable energy (extended fuel availability, positive environmental
impact)
2. Competitive energy (low costs, short construction times)
3. Safe and reliable systems (inherent safety features, public confidence in
nuclear energy safety)
4. Proliferation resistance (does not add unduly to unsecured nuclear material)
and physical protection (secure from terrorist attacks) [4].
2.1.1 Gas-cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) The GFR uses helium coolant
directly to a gas turbine generator to produce electricity. This parallels PBMR and
original GT-MHR designs. The primary difference from these designs is that the
GFR would be a "fast", or breeder reactor. One favored aspect of the design is that
it would minimize the production of many undesirable spent fuel waste streams.
The reference design size is targeted to be 288 MWe with a deployment target date
of 2025. In addition to producing electricity the design might be used as a processheat source in the production of hydrogen.
2.1.2 Lead-cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) So far, most breeder
reactors have used molten metal technologies for their coolants. Many FBRs have
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used molten sodium, a metal with which there is considerable experience but
which has sometimes been difficult to handle. The LFR uses molten lead or a lead-
bismuth alloy as its coolant. One design favored in the Generation IV would result
in long periods between refueling, 15-20 years. Similar designs have been
investigated in Russia. Target ranges for the reactor would be 50-150 MWe. That
would be rather small by historic nuclear standards, but might meet localized
market needs. Designs as large as 1200 MWe have been suggested. Initial targeted
deployment would be in 2025. Proposed designs would favor electricity
production though proponents consider the production of process heat at LFR units
as possible.
2.1.3 Molten salt reactor (MSR) The MSR involves a circulatingliquid of sodium, zirconium, and uranium fluorides as a reactor fuel. The MSR has
been presented as providing a comparatively thorough fuel burn, safe operation,
and proliferation resistance. The initial reference design would be 1000 MWe with
a deployment target date of 2025. The design could use a wide variety of fuel
cycles. Temperatures for electricity production would not be as hot as for some
other advanced reactors but some process heat potential exist. Versions of the
MSR have been around for some time but never were implemented for commercial
uses.
2.1.4 Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) Sodium-cooled fast reactors
have been the most popular design for breeder reactors. Designs have been
proposed under the technological roadmap ranging from 150 to 1700 MWe.
Molten metal technology is no longer new but several early SFR prototypes had
difficulty obtaining sustained operation. The BN-600 in Russia has been regarded
as highly reliable. Design supporters believe that the SFR promises superior fuel
management characteristics. The target deployment date of 2015 reflects the
considerable research that the design has already received. Earlier prototypes have
already been built in France, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia, and
the United States since as early as 1951. Initial deployment would probably focus
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on electricity due to comparatively low outlet temperatures for the design.
2.1.5 Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) The SCWR
design is to be the next step in LWR development and has been proposed with
alternatives that evolve from the BWR and PWR. SCWRs would operate at higher
temperatures and thermal efficiencies than present LWRs. The reference plant
would be 1700 MWe, above the upper end of present LWR designs. The
deployment target date is 2025. Most research on the design has been in Japan.
Designers intend the SCWR to be much less expensive to build than today's LWR
units though some of the economies appear to be shared by units now undergoing
certification. Operating cost savings are also anticipated.
2.1.6 Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) The VHTR is an
evolution from the HTGR family of reactors but would operate at even higher
temperatures than designs now undergoing pre-certification. In contrast with the
GFR, the VHTR would not be a breeder reactor, thus it would produce less
potentially usable fuel than it consumes. In addition to generating electricity, the
design would provide process heat that could be used in industrial activities
including hydrogen production and desalinization. Electricity generation targets
have not yet been set. Deployment is targeted for 2020, earlier than all but one
Generation IV design. This reflects earlier experience with parallel designs.
Electricity generation would involve a heat exchanger rather than directprocessing
through a turbine.
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2.2 Waste management Built on the concepts of green supply chain
management (G-SCM), this report presents a multi-objective optimization
programming approach to address the issue of nuclear power generation. In this study,
a linear multi-objective optimization model is formulated to optimize the operations of
both the nuclear power generation and the corresponding induced-waste reverse
logistics. Factors such as the operational risks induced in both the power generation
and reverse logistics processes are considered, which speculates that nuclear power
may still dominate the world electricity resources in the 21st century as new nuclear
power technology being developed to mitigate the induced negative effects .
Despite the importance of nuclear power generation in addressing the issue of the
growing worldwide electricity demand, there appears to be an urgent need for
developing a green supply chain-based operational methodology to systematically
manage the entire lifecycle of the corresponding product, including the generated
nuclear power and induced wastes. By incorporating the coefficient of risk aversion
into the expected utility approach, the model proposed in Eeckhoudt et al. (2000)
appears promising to assess the external costs of nuclear fuel cycles imposed on society
and the environment under various operational conditions of nuclear power generation.
Similarly, considering the corresponding influencing factors and induced environmental
risks, Margulies (2004) proposed a risk-optimization programming approach to
determining the location of nuclear power generators. As further pointed out in Cowing
et al. (2004), the short-term trade offbetween productivity and safety often exist in the
operation of nuclear power generation.
In addition, Lee et al. (2000) proposed a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) based
methodology to evaluate the environmental impact of nuclear power generation, where
a respective radiological impact assessment procedure is incorporated to enhance the
validity of the analytical results. The LCA-based approach provides a cradle-to-grave
environmental assessment framework serving to quantify the corresponding
environmental effects of nuclear power generation induced in its life cycle.
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2.2.1 System specification. Despite the complexity of technical features of
nuclear power generation, the performance of a typical nuclear-power supply chain is
mainly driven by nuclear fuel cycle, which is composed of five sequential phases (a)
mining and processing of raw materials, (b) nuclear fuel purchasing, (c) nuclear-
material transportation,(d) nuclear power generation, and (e) nuclear waste
management. They are briefly described in the following.
a) Mining and processing of raw materials The purpose of this phase is
to extract nuclear fuel from the corresponding raw materials, e.g., plutonium-239,
uranium-233 and uranium-235, where Canada and Australia are the two main supply-
source countries sharing about 55% of the global uranium production. Through
sophisticated processing procedures using specific technology, the raw materials are
refined such that their degrees of purity can reach from 0.7% up to 2-5%for the
production of nuclear fuels. Note that generally, the production planning of nuclear fuels
performed by the raw-material supplier is mainly determined by two factors: (1) the
contracting orders from demanders (i.e.,the countries generating nuclear power), and (2)
the lead time. Nowadays, the aforementioned two factors are regulated by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) with the suggested values of eight years
and six months, respectively. Correspondingly, through long-term contracts followingthe regulations of IAEA, the nuclear fuel demanders should provide the 8-year
contracting demands to the corresponding nuclear fuel sup-pliers to ensure that the
periodic nuclear fuels can be supplied half a year before nuclear power generation.
b) Nuclear fuel purchasing In contrast with the previous phase dominated by
the nuclear fuel suppliers, the phase of nuclear fuel purchasing is mainly performed by
the nuclear power generators, determining the performance of a nuclear power supply
chain. Due to the limited number of nuclear fuel supply sources, the transnational
nuclear fuel purchasing maneuvers broadly exist around the world, forming unique few-
to-many nuclear-fuel distribution channels to satisfy the need of the worldwide 432
nuclear power generators. Under the regulations of IAEA in the global nuclear fuel
purchasing activities, the nuclear fuel demanders may implement diverse purchasing
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strategies, e.g. specific contracting with multiple supply sources, together with
respective fuel inventory control strategies in response to the uncertainty and complexity
in the process of transnational nuclear fuel purchasing. There-fore, it is inferred that
such sophisticated inbound raw-material logistics maneuvers driven by the nuclear fuel
demanders may greatly influence the performance of the nuclear power supply chain.
c) Nuclear-material transportation The transportation of nuclear materials
mainly involves the activities of shipping nuclear fuels from the co-responding suppliers
to power generators, and transporting the induced nuclear wastes through reprocessing
to final disposal. Since the nuclear materials are radioactive, falling under of the
classification systems recommended by the United Nations, the corresponding
transnational shipment activities, including labeling and packing, should be directed by
the regulations drawn by IAEA, and follow respective requirements of related
international organizations, e.g., the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in
shipment (Won- ham et al., 2000). In the surface transportation aspect, trucks and rails
are the two typical modes available for the nuclear-material transportation; however,
should also be subjected to local regulations for safety concerns.
d) Nuclear power generation The efficiency and reliability of nuclear
power generation rely mainly on the technologies of reactors, which are the core
devices, and can be briefly classified into four types: (1) water cooled reactors, (2) gas
cooled reactors, (3) liquid metal cooled reactors, and (4) fast breeder reactors. Details
about the distinctive features of these technologies and their relative advantages can be
readily found elsewhere (Kupitz, 1995; Ponomarev-Stepnoi, 1997). Through inputting
certain nuclear fuels, the nuclear reactors are in operation to generate the given units of
nuclear power accompanying nuclear wastes. Compared to the general product
manufacturing phase, the distinctive feature of nuclear power generation is that the
generated nuclear power at this phase is unable to be stored, and needs to be consumed
immediately after production. Meanwhile, most of the induced nuclear wastes are highly
radioactive, and need to be well managed through the respective reverse logistics-related
procedures to alleviate the corresponding environmental and ecological impacts.
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Accordingly, both the power generation scheduling and logistics related maneuvers with
respect to nuclear fuels as well as induced wastes should be efficiently coordinated in
this phase for nuclear-power G-SCM.
e) Induced nuclear waste management Apparently, nuclear waste management is
essential in promoting the nuclear power generation mode. Briefly, the induced nuclear
wastes can be divided into two categories
Operating wastes (i.e., wastes accompanied with operation and decommissioning),
Spent nuclear fuels (i.e., wastes from the nuclear fuel cycle).
Therein, the management of spent nuclear fuels is the most critical issue in this phase
since the corresponding waste is highly radioactive, damaging both the environment and
ecology. Therefore, there are two potential alternatives to manage the spent nuclear fuels
Direct final disposal and Reprocessing-storage-final disposal, where the latter one is
broadly accepted around the world. In contrast, the operating wastes are low-level
radioactive, and can be handled through the procedures of high-pressure compaction,
solidification, transportation and final disposal.
G-SCM (Sheu- et al.,2005), a comprehensive conceptual generation. Here in,
seven primary layers are considered, including 1) nuclear fuel supplier, (2) nuclear
reactor, (3) electricity demand market, (4) reprocessing facility (for spent nuclear fuels),(5) interim storage facility, (6) low-level radioactive waste reprocessing facility, and (7)
final disposal. Among these, the first three layers are classified as the power supply chain
(sc for short) members, and the rest are the nuclear-waste reverse logistics chain (rc for
short) members. Each member defined here represents a specific logistics-related
function executed for G-SCM based nuclear power generation. It present study aims at
developing the prototype of a G-SCM based operational model for the multi-interval
nuclear power generation operation. Specific events such as the short-term outages and
the corresponding effects on the periodic power generation are not considered.
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Fig. 2.1. G-SCM based nuclear power generation[5].
In addition, to facilitate model formulation, four assumptions are postulated in the
following
a) The corresponding schedules for maintenance activities such as inspection,
repair and replacement occurring during the planning horizon are given.
b) The nuclear fuel cycle and the proportion of the amount of the induced
wastes relative to the nuclear fuels are known.
c) Facility locations and capacities associated with chain members of the
proposed G-SCM based nuclear power generation system are known.
d) The lead-time associated with each chain member either in the general
supply chain or in the reverse logistics chain is given.
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2.3 Fast Reactor Technology 2.3.1 The American Nuclear Society
believes that the development and deployment of advanced nuclear reactors based on
fast-neutron fission technology is important to the sustainability, reliability, and security
of the worlds long-term energy supply. Of the known and proven energy technologies,
only nuclear fission can provide the large quantities of energy required by industrial
societies in a sustainable and environmentally acceptable manner.
2.3.2 Natural uranium mined from the earth's crust is composed primarily of two
isotopes: 99.3% is U-238, and 0.7% is the fissile U-235. Nearly all current power
reactors are of the thermal neutron design, and their capability to extract the potential
energy in the uranium fuel is limited to less than 1% of that available. The remainder of
the potential energy is left unused in the spent fuel and in the uranium, depleted in U-
235, that remains from the process of enriching the natural uranium in the isotope U-235
for use in thermal reactors. With known fast reactor technology, this unutilized energy
can be harnessed, thereby extending by a hundred-fold the amount of energy extracted
from the same amount of mined uranium.
2.3.3 Fast reactors can convert U-238 into fissile material at rates faster than it is
consumed making it economically feasible to utilize ores with very low uranium
concentrations and potentially even uranium found in the oceans. A suitable technology
has already been proven on a small scale. Used fuel from thermal reactors and the
depleted uranium from the enrichment process can be utillized in fast reactors, and that
energy alone would be sufficient to supply the nations needs for several hundred years.
2.3.4 Fast reactors in conjunction with fuel recycling can diminish the cost and duration
of storing and managing reactor waste with an offsetting increase in the fuel cycle cost
due to reprocessing and fuel refabrication. Virtually all long-lived heavy elements are
eliminated during fast reactor operation, leaving a small amount of fission product waste
that requires assured isolation from the environment for less than 500 years.
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2.3.5 Although fast reactors do not eliminate the need for international proliferation
safeguards, they make the task easier by segregating and consuming the plutonium as it
is created. The use of onsite reprocessing makes illicit diversion from within the process
highly impractical. The combination of fast reactors and reprocessing is a promising
option for reasons of safety, resource utilization, and proliferation resistance.
2.3.6 Reaping the full benefits of fast reactor technology will take a decade or more for a
demonstration reactor, followed by build up of a fleet of operating power stations. For
now and in the intermediate-term future, the looming short-term energy shortage must
be met by building improved, proven thermal-reactor power plants. To assure longer-
term energy sustainability and security, the American Nuclear Society sees a need for
co-operative international efforts with the goal of building a fast reactor demonstration
unit with onsite reprocessing of spent fuel [7].
2.4 Challenges for nuclear power plant As we have discussed major
challenges such as waste disposal, nuclear proliferation, improving efficiency of nuclear
power plant along with safety( radioactive waste disposal.). Among these most burning
issue that has to face to nuclear power plant is accidental cooling challenge of power
plant (e.g. Seismic accident of Fukushima power plant laid it to complete melting of
plant, technology failed to control radiations, heat and cooling to save the power plant.)
2.4.1 Fast breeder reactors (FBR) are least safe Nuclear
safety has become top priority after Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. FBR will use
Indias most abound source of thorium. Conventional reactors make use of light or heavy
water for cooling. FBR make use of liquid sodium as coolant which is inherentlydangerous.Liquid sodium reacts with both air and water. Hence tiny leakage can cause
fire. Fukushima disaster has showed uncertainty may happen. If sudden things go happen
with FBR we cant have option of water and air for cooling, and sudden abundant sodium
cant make available. Thus it is least safe [8].
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2.4.2 Fusion driven nuclear power plant fusion offer possibility of
high density without generation of high level radioactive waste with long half life and
green house gases. It is process that powers the Sun. Two light nuclei of hydrogen
(deuterium, tritium) fuse together to form a heavier nuclei .In doing so large amount of
energy is released. But for that high very temperature, pressure has to achieve, which is
same like plasma. It is thus challenging to gain maximum energy by fusion power plant.
It has to maintain plasma conditions by holding it with powerful electromagnetic forces.
2.5 Conclusion
Despite challenges within steps of the nuclear fuel cycle, harnessing energy from
nuclear fission provides a promising and realistic source of power. The challenges that do
exist can be solved with improvements in technology and with global co-operation. The
sustainability of uranium mining activities will improve if countries implement more
environmentally conscious mining strategies. Positive communication among countries
and international governance of enrichment facilities by an impartial organization will
lead to the production of only low-enriched uranium.
Using plutonium/thorium based fuel makes the existence of radioactive material
safer as they cannot be used for weapons-grade material. Reprocessing and transmutation
will lessen the amount of the dangerous waste produced. Additionally, looking into
strategies will help the United States to deal with the amount of nuclear waste produced.
Lastly, in the India, making the public more educated and addressing the public
concerns will do much to increase public support for nuclear power, a necessary step in
Indias perusal of nuclear energy as a power source.
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References
1. Dr. R. Yadav., et al. Steam and gas turbines and power plant
engineering, Central publishing house, Allahabad, 7th Ed., 2004.
2. Mazen M. Abu-Khader., Recent advances in nuclear energy: A review,
51 (2009) 225-235.
3. P. K. Dey, and N.K.Bansal., Spent fuel reprocessing, vital link in Indian
nuclear power program, 236 (2006) 723-729.
4. John Sackett. Future of nuclear energy, 71 (2001) 197-204.
5. W.L.Wilkinson., A review; Challenges to nuclear power in UK,
84(A4):261-264 IChemE.
6. Jiuh-Biing Sheu. Green supply chain management, reverse logistics and
nuclear power generation, 44 (2008) 1946.
7. Fast Reactor Technology: A Path to Long-Term Energy Sustainability,
Position Statement. 74, Nov.2005,(708) 352 6611.
8. Dr. Swaminathans Aiyar., Fast breeder reactors are least safe, article in
Times of India, April 12, 2011.
.