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RECENT SCHOLARSHIP TO EXPLAINTHE NAZI SEIZURE OF POWER
ECONOMIC HISTORY (neo-liberal): Knut Borchardt and Harold James criticize the Weimar Republic’s effort to guarantee a high standard of living, not only through social insurance but also through compulsory state labor arbitration and rent controls.
ECONOMIC HISTORY (Social Democratic): Carl-Ludwig Holtfrerich argues that cartels, trusts, and syndicates weakened the German economy, and that Heinrich Brüning failed disastrously to combat unemployment through “Keynesian” measures.
CONSERVATIVE ELITES ARE TO BLAME (e.g., Hans Mommsen, The Rise & Fall of Weimar Democracy, 1996).
GERMAN VOTERS ARE TO BLAME: Authoritarianism and/or anti-Semitism permeated the electorate.
UNEMPLOYMENT RATES, 1928-1933
(The French figures are doubtless understated.)
Chancellor Heinrich Brüning
(1885-1970)
• Born to a middle-class Catholic family in Münster
• Economics Ph.D.• Decorated combat veteran
(rose to captain).• Hired in 1920 as advisor to
the Christian trade unions.• Elected to Reichstag in
1924; Center Party’s expert on fiscal policy.
• A lifelong bachelor, he lived an austere life and preached austerity.
BRÜNING’S INITIAL ASSUMPTIONS
Germany must balance its budget AT ONCE, because government credit was so weak that a budget deficit would soon result in default on obligations and fighting in the streets (most probably TRUE).A policy of deflation would benefit export industries, promote a trade surplus, and strengthen Germany’s case that reparations harmed the world economy (but deflation also slows the velocity of the circulation of money!).If unemployment rose, he could always sell bonds to finance public works (FALSE; all credit sources dried up!). The government could retain popular support as long as it distributed necessary sacrifices fairly among all social classes (but Hindenburg insisted that landowners and the military be spared any sacrifices!).
Brüning’s first pivotal decision was to impose a balanced budget by Article 48 decree in July
1930
Two cabinet ministers advised that agreement could be reached with the SPD on a balanced budget.Brüning judged that the SPD was bound to insist on at least one concession that would drive the DVP into opposition.When the SPD voted against the budget, Brüning imposed it by Article 48 decree; the SPD then joined with the KPD, NSDAP, and DNVP to overturn that decree.Brüning then called for new elections, and imposed his budget by decree during the election campaign.
Brüning and the SPD were both shocked when the Nazis won 18% of the vote, so the
SPD resolved to tolerate Brüning’s emergency decrees as the “lesser evil” compared
with a fascist takeover.
The SPD co-chair Rudolf Breitscheid
addresses the Reichstag, Sep. 1930
In 1931 Brüning hurled himself into diplomatic
talks over the abolition of reparations
He achieved a diplomatic breakthrough with the Hoover Moratorium of July 1931, but two major German banks failed at the same time, causing
widespread panic
TRENDS IN INTEREST RATES(the discount rate charged by central banks to other
banks)
BRÜNING RESOLVED TO PERSEVERE WITH DEFLATION
IN HIS 4TH COMPREHENSIVE EMERGENCY DECREE OF DECEMBER 1931
All wages bound by collective labor contract returned to the level of January 10, 1927.All cartel prices were reduced by 10%.All long-term interest rates on bonds and mortgages of 8% and higher were reduced by 25%.All government salaries were cut by 9%.The national sales tax was raised by 2%.The cabinet demanded that the Discount Rate be lowered from 8% to 6%, but the autonomous Reichsbank would only accept 7%.Despite some “Keynesian” proposals, the cabinet decideded that it could not launch a public works program until reparations were abolished….
GERMANY’S BALANCE OF TRADE(in billions of marks)
Year With Great Britain With France All foreign trade
Import
Export
Bal. Import
Export
Bal. Import
Export
Bal.
1928 0.96 1.18 +0.22
0.74 0.69 -0.05 14.00 12.28 -1.72
1929 0.87 1.31 +0.44
0.64 0.93 +0.29
13.45 13.48 +0.03
1930 0.64 1.22 +0.58
0.52 1.15 +0.63
10.39 12.04 +1.65
1931 0.45 1.13 +0.68
0.34 0.83 +0.49
6.73 9.60 +2.87
1932 0.26 0.45 +0.19
0.19 0.48 +0.29
4.67 5.74 +1.07
1933 0.24 0.41 +0.17
0.18 0.40 +0.22
4.20 4.87 +0.67
“Resignation & Discussion,”
photo by Walter Ballhause from the
series “Unemployment”
(1930)
Alfred Hugenberg APPEARED to forge a united front of the “National Opposition” at Bad Harzburg in October 1931
But Hitler refused to appear on the grandstand with them
Brüning united a broad front from the
SPD to moderate conservatives to
secure Hindenburg’s reelection against
Hitler in March-April 1932
THE FALL OF BRÜNING, MAY 1932
Hindenburg had long desired a rightist parliamentary majority stretching from the Center to the NSDAP.Hindenburg was deeply wounded when most of his monarchist friends endorsed Hitler for President.In April 1932 Brüning banned the SA and sought to partition bankrupt agricultural estates for homesteaders. Hindenburg appointed the right-wing Catholic monarchist Franz von Papen to replace Brüning at the end of May, hoping that his government would be tolerated by the Center Party and NSDAP.Papen foolishly lifted the SA ban and held new Reichstag elections without securing any guarantee of Nazi support.
Franz von Papen’s “Cabinet of Barons” was supported by only one party, the DNVP. Many
regarded the new chancellor as the puppet of the Defense Minister,
General Kurt von Schleicher
Papen & Schleicher at the racetrack, September
1932
Papen made huge concessions to the Nazis when he lifted the SA ban and dissolved the Reichstag,
and he then removed the Prussian state government led by Otto Braun in July 1932, blaming it for the upsurge in street violence
caused by the SA.
A symbolic show of force at the Prussian state capitol, July 20, 1932
But the Nazis soon turned against Papen:
“Bravo Herr von Papen! Just continue with your emergency
decrees: You are giving us Communists
our best chance!”(November 1932)
Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher addresses a rally in Berlin on January 15, 1933
The “Cabinet of National Renewal,” appointed onJanuary 30, 1933: Only 3 of 11 ministers are Nazis, but
Papen allowed Hitler to control the Prussian police & hold elections
“In our deepest need, Hindenburg chose Adolf
Hitler as Reich Chancellor. You too should vote for
List #1”
“The Reich will never be
destroyed – if you remain united and
faithful”
The Reichstag burns, 27 February 1933: The Nazis falsely depicted Marinus van der Lubbe as a KPD
agent
SA round-up of Communists after the Reichstag Fire
STORMTROOPERS BRUTALIZED MANY THOUSANDS
OF “ENEMIES OF THE PEOPLE”
“I am the biggest pig in town, because I
only go out with Jews.”
SPD politicians, forced to remove anti-Hitler graffitti
A newly deputized SS
trooper patrols the streets with
a Prussian policeman on election day,
March 5, 1933,when the Nazis won 44% of the
vote
Stormtroopers guard the new “concentration camp”at Oranienburg, 1933
“Der Tag von Potsdam,”
March 21, 1933:The Corporal
greets the Field Marshall as the newly elected
Reichstag delegates gather
Hindenburg’s speech to the new Reichstag:
“The place where we are assembled today summons
us to look back on old Prussia, which became great through fear of God, dutiful work, never failing courage,
and devoted love of the fatherland, and which united
the German tribes on this basis. May the old spirit of this place inspire today’s generation, may it free us
from selfishness and partisan quarrels, may it bring us
together in a national revival and spiritual renewal for the sake of a united, free, proud
Germany!”
Hitler and Crown Prince Wilhelm von Hohenzollern
Hindenburg reviews the Stormtroopers
A DNVP youth group marches through Potsdam
Torchlight procession by the
SA and Stahlhelm, March
21, 1933
Marching on Jerusalem Street, toward Unter den
Linden
Hitler and his cabinet attend
Die Meistersinger
von Nuernberg at the Berlin State Opera
Hitler demands an Enabling Act, March 23, 1933,approved by all parties but the SPD
The occupation of the Berlin headquarters of the Free Trade Unions, May 2, 1933:
By June all parties but the NSDAP had dissolved
“German Students March Against the Ungerman Spirit:”
A book burning on 10 May 1933
Hitler gained credibility among non-Nazis after Göring and
Goebbels persuaded him to order the killing of SA leaders in the “Knight of the Long Knives,”
June 30-July 1, 1934
Ernst Röhm sought to place the SA in charge of rearmament and called for a “Second Revolution”
Heinrich Himmler and the SS carried out the murders and took over the concentration camps from the SA
The Army’s new loyalty oath to Hitler, August 2, 1934
German judges hail Hitler
THE NEW INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNMENT
To replace the trade unions, all workers were required to join the German Labor Front; strikes were banned.
The Nazi SS (=Schutzstaffel) merged with Prussia’s Gestapo to form a new secret police.
Elected state governments were replaced by Reich Commissars, and the 40 Gauleiter of the NSDAP jostled to fill 20 posts of Reich provincial commissar.
In a process of Gleichschaltung, every club and interest group had to affiliate with the NSDAP or dissolve.
20% of civil servants & 30% of schoolteachers joined the NSDAP; party membership was frozen at 2.5 million in December 1933.
The Children’s Friend (ca. 1934)
“THE NSDAP PROTECTS THE
NATIONAL COMMUNITY:
Racial Comrades, if you need advice or help, contact your local Pary office
THE NAZI LEADERSHIP IN THE HOUR OF VICTORY
…but the photo had to be retouched in June 1934 and
November 1940
Ernst Röhm, Otto Wagener, and Rudolf Hess featured prominently in the original….