Reasons for British LeadershipReasons for British Leadership

The Enclosure MovementThe Enclosure Movement• This movement, which privatized land This movement, which privatized land

formerly available to all for grazing and formerly available to all for grazing and farming, concentrated land ownership in farming, concentrated land ownership in fewer hands.fewer hands.

• With no land to work, small farmers With no land to work, small farmers were displaced, thus forming a pool of were displaced, thus forming a pool of cheap laborcheap labor

The Agricultural RevolutionThe Agricultural Revolution• Crop rotation replaced the open field Crop rotation replaced the open field

systemsystem• Landowners experimented with new Landowners experimented with new

crops such as turnips and new crops such as turnips and new inventions such as the seed drill.inventions such as the seed drill.

Population ExplosionPopulation Explosion• New farming methods produced more New farming methods produced more

foodfood• Medical advances such as Edwards Medical advances such as Edwards

Jenner’s discovery of a Small Pox Jenner’s discovery of a Small Pox vaccine reduced death ratesvaccine reduced death rates

• The combined population of Great The combined population of Great Britain and Ireland increased from 10 Britain and Ireland increased from 10 million in 1750 to 30 million in 1850million in 1750 to 30 million in 1850

Commercial RevolutionCommercial Revolution• Successful British merchants had capital Successful British merchants had capital

investment.investment.• Great Britain had the most highly Great Britain had the most highly

developed banking system in Europedeveloped banking system in Europe

The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment• The Royal Society exchanged scientific The Royal Society exchanged scientific

ideas.ideas.• British society encouraged and British society encouraged and

rewarded inventions and entrepreneurs.rewarded inventions and entrepreneurs.

The Textile IndustryThe Textile Industry

The IncentiveThe Incentive• The global demand for cotton cloth was The global demand for cotton cloth was

enormousenormous• Prompted by huge potential profits, Prompted by huge potential profits,

British entrepreneurs financed new ways British entrepreneurs financed new ways of spinning and weaving cotton of spinning and weaving cotton

The InventionsThe Inventions• In 1733 John Kay invented the flying In 1733 John Kay invented the flying

shuttle, enabling a single weaver to shuttle, enabling a single weaver to work twice as fast.work twice as fast.

• In the mid 1760s, James Hargreaves In the mid 1760s, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, making it invented the spinning jenny, making it possible for on weaver to works 6-8 possible for on weaver to works 6-8 threads at a time.threads at a time.

• In 1769, Richard Arkwright invented a In 1769, Richard Arkwright invented a water frame that used waterpower from water frame that used waterpower from a fast-moving streams to drive spinning a fast-moving streams to drive spinning machines.machines.

• In 1779, Samuel Crompton invented a In 1779, Samuel Crompton invented a spinning machine called the mule that spinning machine called the mule that combined the jenny and the water combined the jenny and the water frame. It made a stronger thread.frame. It made a stronger thread.

• In 1785, Edmund Cartwright invented a In 1785, Edmund Cartwright invented a power loom that used waterpower to power loom that used waterpower to dramatically speed up weaving.dramatically speed up weaving.

• In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, making it possible to efficiently gin, making it possible to efficiently remove seeds from the cotton fiber.remove seeds from the cotton fiber.

As a result of these continuous As a result of these continuous technological improvements, the technological improvements, the output of cotton fiber from British output of cotton fiber from British textile factories rose from 40 million textile factories rose from 40 million yards in 1785 to more than 2 billion yards in 1785 to more than 2 billion yards in 1850.yards in 1850.

The Steam EngineThe Steam Engine• Thomas Newcomen built a stem engine Thomas Newcomen built a stem engine

for pumping out mines in 1702 for pumping out mines in 1702 • James Watt patented the first steam James Watt patented the first steam

engine in 1769engine in 1769• The steam engine rapidly replaced The steam engine rapidly replaced

waterpower in British textile factories.waterpower in British textile factories.• Steam power played a key role in Steam power played a key role in

boosting iron production.boosting iron production.

The RailroadThe Railroad• Steam power enabled inventors to build Steam power enabled inventors to build

locomotives.locomotives.• English entrepreneurs wanted a railroad English entrepreneurs wanted a railroad

line to connect the port of Liverpool with line to connect the port of Liverpool with the inland city of Manchester, the heart the inland city of Manchester, the heart of the spinning and weaving industry. of the spinning and weaving industry. The Liverpool-Manchester Railway The Liverpool-Manchester Railway opened in 1830.opened in 1830.

• By 1850, Britain had over 6’000 miles of By 1850, Britain had over 6’000 miles of railroad track.railroad track.

• Railroads had the following far-reaching Railroads had the following far-reaching effects:effects:

Stimulated further industrial growthStimulated further industrial growth Created regional markets for agricultural Created regional markets for agricultural

and industrial goodsand industrial goods Reduced the cost of shipping freightReduced the cost of shipping freight Promoted leisure travelPromoted leisure travel

Great Britain’s Industrial Great Britain’s Industrial DominanceDominance

Statistical Measures of British Statistical Measures of British Prosperity, 1850Prosperity, 1850• Manufactured one-half of the world's Manufactured one-half of the world's

cottoncotton• Mined tow-thirds of the world’s coalMined tow-thirds of the world’s coal• Mined more than one-half of the world’s Mined more than one-half of the world’s

ironiron• Controlled one-third of the world’s Controlled one-third of the world’s

international tradeinternational trade

The Great Exhibition, 1851The Great Exhibition, 1851• The exhibition was held to celebrate The exhibition was held to celebrate

Britain’s undisputed economic and Britain’s undisputed economic and technological dominance.technological dominance.

• Britain’s Hall of Machinery featured the Britain’s Hall of Machinery featured the locomotive engines, hydraulic presses, locomotive engines, hydraulic presses, and power looms that had powered the and power looms that had powered the Industrial revolution.Industrial revolution.

• the great exhibition of 1851 London - the great exhibition of 1851 London - Bing VideosBing Videos

Making comparisons: The Crystal Palace Making comparisons: The Crystal Palace and the Arc De Triompheand the Arc De Triomphe• The Crystal Palace in LondonThe Crystal Palace in London

Commissioned to celebrate British leadership in the Commissioned to celebrate British leadership in the industrial ageindustrial age

Enclosed 18 acres and almost 1 million sq, feet of Enclosed 18 acres and almost 1 million sq, feet of exhibition space.exhibition space.

Featured prefabricated glass panels and cast-iron Featured prefabricated glass panels and cast-iron columns.columns.

Demonstrated the possibilities of mass production. Demonstrated the possibilities of mass production. Crystal Palace site London 2012 Universal Exposition Crystal Palace site London 2012 Universal Exposition Universelle 1851 World Great Exhibition - YouTubeUniverselle 1851 World Great Exhibition - YouTube

• The Arc de Triomphe in ParisThe Arc de Triomphe in Paris Commissioned to celebrate French victories Commissioned to celebrate French victories

during the Revolution and the Age of during the Revolution and the Age of Napoleon.Napoleon.

Based on the triumphal arches of ancient Based on the triumphal arches of ancient RomeRome

Combined a Neoclassical arch with romantic Combined a Neoclassical arch with romantic relief sculpturesrelief sculptures

Reached a height of 164 feet, making it the Reached a height of 164 feet, making it the largest arch ever built.largest arch ever built.

? Arc de Triomphe, Paris [HD] ? - YouTube? Arc de Triomphe, Paris [HD] ? - YouTube

Social Effects of IndustrializationSocial Effects of Industrialization

The Factory SystemThe Factory System• The factory was a place where large The factory was a place where large

numbers of workers used machines to numbers of workers used machines to manufacture goodsmanufacture goods

• As the factory system spread, the As the factory system spread, the putting-out system disappeared.putting-out system disappeared.

Working-class miseryWorking-class misery• Early factories exposed workers to Early factories exposed workers to

dangerous machines and deadly dangerous machines and deadly diseases.diseases.

• The demand for cheap labor led to the The demand for cheap labor led to the widespread employment of women and widespread employment of women and young children.Industrial Revolution in young children.Industrial Revolution in Europe - Bing VideosEurope - Bing Videos

• Workers had no health insurance and Workers had no health insurance and little job security.little job security.

UrbanizationUrbanization• The factory system transformed many small The factory system transformed many small

towns into crowded cities. Between 1760 and towns into crowded cities. Between 1760 and 1850, the population of Manchester surged 1850, the population of Manchester surged from 45,000 to 300,000.from 45,000 to 300,000.

• Between 1800 and 1850, the number of Between 1800 and 1850, the number of European cities with more than 100,000 European cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants rose from 22 to 47.inhabitants rose from 22 to 47.

• Workers lived in crowded slums that lacked Workers lived in crowded slums that lacked sanitation. Entire families lived in a single dark sanitation. Entire families lived in a single dark room.room.

The middle-class prosperityThe middle-class prosperity• The middle-classes, or bourgeoisie, The middle-classes, or bourgeoisie,

enjoyed unprecedented prosperity, enjoyed unprecedented prosperity, political power, and leisure time.political power, and leisure time.

• The haute bourgeoisie included wealthy The haute bourgeoisie included wealthy bankers, merchants, and industrialists.bankers, merchants, and industrialists.

• The petite bourgeoisie included The petite bourgeoisie included shopkeepers, skilled artisans, shopkeepers, skilled artisans, professional men, and the clergy.professional men, and the clergy.

Classical British Economic TheoryClassical British Economic Theory

Shared beliefsShared beliefs• Accepted the laissez-faire policies advocated in Accepted the laissez-faire policies advocated in

Adams Smith’s Adams Smith’s Wealth of Nations.Wealth of Nations.• Insisted that supply and demand would act as Insisted that supply and demand would act as

an invisible hand so that selfish individual acts an invisible hand so that selfish individual acts would ultimately benefit the whole society.would ultimately benefit the whole society.

• Opposed government regulations that Opposed government regulations that interfered with the competitive free market.interfered with the competitive free market.

• Believed government policies should be limited Believed government policies should be limited to enforcing contracts, protecting private to enforcing contracts, protecting private property, and ensuring national defense.property, and ensuring national defense.

Thomas Malthus on populationThomas Malthus on population• Malthus argued that human population Malthus argued that human population

grows geometrically, while food supply grows geometrically, while food supply expands arithmetically.expands arithmetically.

• He insisted that human population He insisted that human population would inevitably outstrip food would inevitably outstrip food production, thus making famine and production, thus making famine and misery inevitablemisery inevitable

David Ricardo on wagesDavid Ricardo on wages• Influenced by Malthus’s pessimistic Influenced by Malthus’s pessimistic

appraisal of the plight of the working appraisal of the plight of the working class, David Ricardo formulated the class, David Ricardo formulated the “iron law of wages”“iron law of wages”

• According to Ricardo, labor is a According to Ricardo, labor is a commodity whose price is determined commodity whose price is determined by the law of supply and demand. by the law of supply and demand.

• Ricardo contented that increasing Ricardo contented that increasing working-class wages would prompt working-class wages would prompt laborers to have more children. As the laborers to have more children. As the supply of workers increased, their wages supply of workers increased, their wages would decline.would decline.

• The iron law of wages left no room for a The iron law of wages left no room for a better future for working-class families. better future for working-class families. It provided strong support for opposing It provided strong support for opposing labor unions and refusing to raise labor unions and refusing to raise wages.wages.

Working-class protest in Great Working-class protest in Great BritainBritain

The LudditesThe Luddites• Named after Ned Ludd, frustrated English Named after Ned Ludd, frustrated English

workers known as Luddites broke into textile workers known as Luddites broke into textile factories and smashed the machineryfactories and smashed the machinery

• These acts of despair could not stop the These acts of despair could not stop the Industrial revolution. Parliament quickly Industrial revolution. Parliament quickly responded by passing a law making the responded by passing a law making the destruction of machines a capital offense.destruction of machines a capital offense.

• Workers gradually came to realize that destroying Workers gradually came to realize that destroying machines would not improve their lives. Instead, they machines would not improve their lives. Instead, they had to form labor unions to fight for higher wages and had to form labor unions to fight for higher wages and better working conditions.better working conditions.

Early labor unionsEarly labor unions• The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800

prohibited British workers from prohibited British workers from organizing to improve their condition.organizing to improve their condition.

• Under pressure from labor and middle-Under pressure from labor and middle-class reformers, Parliament repealed the class reformers, Parliament repealed the Combination Acts in 1825.Combination Acts in 1825.

• In 1875, British trade unions won full In 1875, British trade unions won full legal status, including the right to strike. legal status, including the right to strike.

SocialismSocialism

Shared beliefsShared beliefs• The existing distribution of wealth is The existing distribution of wealth is

unjust. The “haves” possess more than unjust. The “haves” possess more than they need while the “have-nots” possess they need while the “have-nots” possess barely enough to survive.barely enough to survive.

• The resources and means of production The resources and means of production should be owned by the community.should be owned by the community.

• The profits of human labor should be The profits of human labor should be equitably distributed.equitably distributed.

Utopian SocialismUtopian Socialism• Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, and Robert Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, and Robert

Owen were the most prominent Utopian Owen were the most prominent Utopian Socialists.Socialists.

• They advocated social and economic They advocated social and economic planning to create societies based on planning to create societies based on cooperation rather than competition.cooperation rather than competition.

• Although the Utopians founded a Although the Utopians founded a number of cooperative communities, number of cooperative communities, their experiments all failed.their experiments all failed.

Marxian SocialismMarxian Socialism• In the In the Communist Manifesto, Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx and Karl Marx and

Friedrich Engels asserted that “the history of Friedrich Engels asserted that “the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles”.class struggles”.

• Marx believed that the history of class conflict Marx believed that the history of class conflict is best understood through the dialectical is best understood through the dialectical process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The thesis is the dominant state of affairs. It The thesis is the dominant state of affairs. It inevitably gives rise to a conflicting or inevitably gives rise to a conflicting or contradictory force called the antithesis. The contradictory force called the antithesis. The resulting clash between the thesis and resulting clash between the thesis and antithesis produces a new state of affairs antithesis produces a new state of affairs called the synthesis.called the synthesis.

• Marx argued that nineteenth-century Marx argued that nineteenth-century society had split “into two great classes society had split “into two great classes directly facing each other: bourgeoisie directly facing each other: bourgeoisie and proletariat.” as owners of means od and proletariat.” as owners of means od production, the bourgeoisie were the production, the bourgeoisie were the thesis. The proletariat or workers were thesis. The proletariat or workers were the antithesis.the antithesis.

• Marx contended that a class struggle Marx contended that a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead to the dictatorship proletariat would lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat.of the proletariat.

• The “dictatorship of the proletariat” The “dictatorship of the proletariat” would be a transitional phase leading would be a transitional phase leading “to the abolition of all classes and to a “to the abolition of all classes and to a classless society” in which there would classless society” in which there would be no private ownership of the means of be no private ownership of the means of production.production.

• Marx and Engels argued that women Marx and Engels argued that women were exploited by both men and were exploited by both men and capitalistscapitalists

Test Tip:Test Tip:• Marxism is one of the most frequently Marxism is one of the most frequently

tested topics on the APEuro exam. Test tested topics on the APEuro exam. Test writers expect you to recognize famous writers expect you to recognize famous qoutes by Marx and Engels and identify qoutes by Marx and Engels and identify key concepts such as the dialectical key concepts such as the dialectical process, class conflict, the dictatorship process, class conflict, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and classless society.of the proletariat, and classless society.

Edward Bernstein and Evolutionary Edward Bernstein and Evolutionary SocialismSocialism• Marx predicted that as workers became more Marx predicted that as workers became more

exploited they would unite to overthrow the exploited they would unite to overthrow the bourgeoisie. Instead, as capitalism matured, bourgeoisie. Instead, as capitalism matured, working conditions improved. Why?working conditions improved. Why?

• Led by Edward Bernstein, “evolutionary” Led by Edward Bernstein, “evolutionary” socialists began to revise Marxian doctrne to socialists began to revise Marxian doctrne to adjust to new economic realitiesadjust to new economic realities

• Bernstein rejected Marx’s concept of class Bernstein rejected Marx’s concept of class struggle and instead sought to achieve struggle and instead sought to achieve socialist goals by a process of gradual reform. socialist goals by a process of gradual reform.