Ready to run in History and Ready to run in History and Political Science?Political Science?

Essay writing: how to get Essay writing: how to get startedstarted

At the starting lineAt the starting lineWhat’s the most important thing to What’s the most important thing to remember?remember?– read the questionread the question– analyse the questionanalyse the question– research the questionresearch the question– answer the questionanswer the question

Essays are not about finding information – Essays are not about finding information – they’re about answering the question they’re about answering the question (solving a problem) and arguing for your (solving a problem) and arguing for your answer – which is what professionals do)answer – which is what professionals do)

Step One: Analysing the QuestionStep One: Analysing the QuestionWhat does the question really want you to What does the question really want you to

do?do?- Break the question down into terms- Break the question down into terms- Identify the “action” words (these are - Identify the “action” words (these are clues to answering the question)clues to answering the question)- Identify the search terms (use these to - Identify the search terms (use these to find information)find information)- Read a good general introduction to the - Read a good general introduction to the topic so you understand the question (eg. topic so you understand the question (eg. your text book)your text book)- and if all else fails – talk to your lecturer - and if all else fails – talk to your lecturer or tutor!or tutor!

Step Two: Research the questionStep Two: Research the questionGo to the best quality sources you can find – Go to the best quality sources you can find –

The Experts. (Your librarian lives to help).The Experts. (Your librarian lives to help).BewareBeware::The Internet (no quality control) (Wikipedia The Internet (no quality control) (Wikipedia

aargh!)aargh!)““Curriculum” books (for kiddies)Curriculum” books (for kiddies)Newspapers and magazines (no quality Newspapers and magazines (no quality

control)control)General encyclopaedias and dictionaries (OK General encyclopaedias and dictionaries (OK

for an introduction, but often not The Top for an introduction, but often not The Top Experts)Experts)

Wikipedia on the Palmer Goldfield: Wikipedia on the Palmer Goldfield: an example of internet history (?)an example of internet history (?)Accounts from the time point to several confrontations and Accounts from the time point to several confrontations and battles between the settlers and the Aborigines from the battles between the settlers and the Aborigines from the area. One famous place is area. One famous place is Battle CampBattle Camp where many of the where many of the first settlers were killed in a fierce battle with Aborigines. first settlers were killed in a fierce battle with Aborigines. When the first party arrived at Cooktown, several of the When the first party arrived at Cooktown, several of the men were keen to get to the discovered goldfields, and men were keen to get to the discovered goldfields, and took of a day ahead of the main landing party. They were took of a day ahead of the main landing party. They were never seen again, ambushed at what was then to be called never seen again, ambushed at what was then to be called Battle Camp. It was an ambush point on the way to the Battle Camp. It was an ambush point on the way to the goldfields from Cooktown. goldfields from Cooktown. In fact, a Government-led group on its way to the Palmer In fact, a Government-led group on its way to the Palmer was challenged by Aborigines and wiped out the attackers. was challenged by Aborigines and wiped out the attackers. No white people were killed. Aborigines did not try open No white people were killed. Aborigines did not try open attack again in this area, and no further attacks of any kind attack again in this area, and no further attacks of any kind occurred at this place.occurred at this place.

So what are the best sources?So what are the best sources?Academic journals (use the databases on Academic journals (use the databases on the Library web page to find articles – the Library web page to find articles – Infotrac, Proquest, Oxford Journals Online, Infotrac, Proquest, Oxford Journals Online, and for Australian content - Informit)and for Australian content - Informit)Books by reputable publishersBooks by reputable publishersGovernment and University sponsored Government and University sponsored websites (most of the time)websites (most of the time)More reliable media (ABC, SBS, More reliable media (ABC, SBS, Sydney Sydney Morning Herald, Australian)Morning Herald, Australian)

But – read But – read everythingeverything critically critically

How can I read critically? – I don’t How can I read critically? – I don’t know anything!know anything!

Use a comparative approach. Read as widely Use a comparative approach. Read as widely as you can and compare your sources. as you can and compare your sources.

If you’re feeling insecure, ask your tutor or If you’re feeling insecure, ask your tutor or lecturer to check a list of your sources. lecturer to check a list of your sources. They will warn you if you’re not getting They will warn you if you’re not getting good sources for comparison.good sources for comparison.

(Part of becoming a professional is learning (Part of becoming a professional is learning how to recognise good quality sources)how to recognise good quality sources)

Step Three: note takingStep Three: note taking

AlwaysAlways note the bibliographic note the bibliographic information (author/s, year of information (author/s, year of publication, title of book or article, publication, title of book or article, title of journal, page number of title of journal, page number of information, etc.). Your subject guide information, etc.). Your subject guide should tell you what to look for.should tell you what to look for.

Never summarise!Never summarise!

Note taking continuedNote taking continuedThe golden rule: TAKE NOTES THAT The golden rule: TAKE NOTES THAT

WILL HELP YOU TO ANSWER THE WILL HELP YOU TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONQUESTION

(reading the source through first and (reading the source through first and jotting down page numbers of useful jotting down page numbers of useful information as you read will cut down information as you read will cut down the amount of useless stuff you end the amount of useless stuff you end up with)up with)

Note taking continuedNote taking continuedIf you’re a long-hand note taker:If you’re a long-hand note taker:Leave a margin so you can “brand” or Leave a margin so you can “brand” or

classify the information when you’re ready classify the information when you’re ready to write (or have lots of highlighters for to write (or have lots of highlighters for photocopies)photocopies)

If you’re a computer note taker:If you’re a computer note taker:Try to come up with some answers to the Try to come up with some answers to the

question ASAP. Set up a file or page for question ASAP. Set up a file or page for each answer and put your notes in the each answer and put your notes in the right place. If you change your headings, right place. If you change your headings, cut and paste to put the info in the right cut and paste to put the info in the right place.place.

When do I stop taking notes?When do I stop taking notes?

When you’ve read it all before!When you’ve read it all before!

(By the way: collect more than just (By the way: collect more than just words eg. photos, graphs, tables, words eg. photos, graphs, tables, maps, drawings/paintings, cartoons – maps, drawings/paintings, cartoons – they are all evidence you can use in they are all evidence you can use in your essay)your essay)

Step Four: coming up with answersStep Four: coming up with answers

Do a “concept map”. Put down every Do a “concept map”. Put down every possible answer to the question, possible answer to the question, based on your research.based on your research.

Decide which answers are the most Decide which answers are the most likely.likely.

Eg. “Eg. “How does smuggling occur in the How does smuggling occur in the Torres Strait? How can it be stopped?”Torres Strait? How can it be stopped?”

How does smuggling occur in the How does smuggling occur in the Torres Strait? How can it be stopped?Torres Strait? How can it be stopped?

Answer 1: smuggling people, wildlife, drugs and Answer 1: smuggling people, wildlife, drugs and quarantinable objects by:quarantinable objects by:– dinghiesdinghies– fishing vesselsfishing vessels– aircraftaircraft

Answer 2: Answer 2: – by dinghies? – increased air and sea patrols; by dinghies? – increased air and sea patrols;

strengthened search legislation; research and training to strengthened search legislation; research and training to distinguish suspicious vessels from others distinguish suspicious vessels from others

– By fishing vessel? – all of the above, plus more stringent By fishing vessel? – all of the above, plus more stringent customs searches in portcustoms searches in port

– By aircraft? – increased electronic surveillance; spot By aircraft? – increased electronic surveillance; spot checks of remote airfieldschecks of remote airfields

Step Five: communicating your Step Five: communicating your answeranswer

Is the most important part of Is the most important part of communication:communication:

Using the right words?Using the right words?

Developing the right sentences?Developing the right sentences?

Using correct punctuation, spelling and Using correct punctuation, spelling and grammar?grammar?

What’s the most important part of What’s the most important part of communication?...communication?...

NO! – it’s developing a good essay NO! – it’s developing a good essay structure! (and knowing what you’re structure! (and knowing what you’re talking about)talking about)

Step 5 continued: structuring your Step 5 continued: structuring your essayessay

You can structure:You can structure:

Chronologically (narrative structure)Chronologically (narrative structure)

ThematicallyThematically

Points in order of importance (most Points in order of importance (most important to least important)important to least important)

Wide to narrow (general points first, Wide to narrow (general points first, details later)details later)

Any combination of the aboveAny combination of the above

So, for our smuggling question, one So, for our smuggling question, one possible structure might be:possible structure might be:

1. How does smuggling occur?1. How does smuggling occur?– Dinghies (examples of what’s most commonly smuggled by Dinghies (examples of what’s most commonly smuggled by

dinghies, and how)dinghies, and how)– Fishing vessels (examples)Fishing vessels (examples)– Aircraft (examples)Aircraft (examples)

2. how can it be stopped?2. how can it be stopped?– It can’t. You can only decrease it, and this will cost up to x It can’t. You can only decrease it, and this will cost up to x

million.million.– Dinghies: increased air and sea patrols; strengthened search Dinghies: increased air and sea patrols; strengthened search

legislation; research and training to distinguish suspicious legislation; research and training to distinguish suspicious vessels from others, and keep up with smuggling techniques. vessels from others, and keep up with smuggling techniques.

– Fishing vessels: as for dinghies, and a larger customs service Fishing vessels: as for dinghies, and a larger customs service for regular searches in ports.for regular searches in ports.

– Aircraft: increased electronic surveillance; spot checks of Aircraft: increased electronic surveillance; spot checks of remote airfieldsremote airfields

Each of your points becomes a paragraph (in this case, your Each of your points becomes a paragraph (in this case, your paragraphs are also arranged in sections)paragraphs are also arranged in sections)

Paragraphs you need as well as Paragraphs you need as well as the content paragraphsthe content paragraphs

At the beginning:At the beginning:.Introduction – tells the reader about the topic, the problem, .Introduction – tells the reader about the topic, the problem,

and your solution (answer).and your solution (answer). It also can put limits on your answer eg. geographical area It also can put limits on your answer eg. geographical area

and time period covered (in our example, Torres Strait and time period covered (in our example, Torres Strait includes the shores of Cape York down to 12º latitude and includes the shores of Cape York down to 12º latitude and you’ll look at smuggling in the last 10 years)you’ll look at smuggling in the last 10 years)

.Background paragraph (optional) – gives the reader some .Background paragraph (optional) – gives the reader some idea of the context. (For our smuggling question, explain idea of the context. (For our smuggling question, explain why smuggling is a problem – large number of islands, why smuggling is a problem – large number of islands, close to New Guinea, people use dinghies like cars and close to New Guinea, people use dinghies like cars and ignore borders)ignore borders)

At the end:At the end:.Forecasting the Future (optional) – tells the reader the long .Forecasting the Future (optional) – tells the reader the long

term implications of what happened.term implications of what happened..Conclusion – summarises your arguments and re-answers the .Conclusion – summarises your arguments and re-answers the

question. (Hint: don’t include new material)question. (Hint: don’t include new material)

Step 5 continued: the paragraphStep 5 continued: the paragraphEach answer (or point in your Each answer (or point in your

argument for your answer) becomes argument for your answer) becomes a a contentcontent paragraph paragraph

Paragraphs deal with only Paragraphs deal with only oneone point or point or answeranswer

All material on a point should be in the All material on a point should be in the same paragraphsame paragraph

Even more about paragraphsEven more about paragraphsParagraphs must have a TOPIC SENTENCE which Paragraphs must have a TOPIC SENTENCE which

states the point or answer that they are dealing states the point or answer that they are dealing withwith

Paragraphs must have EVIDENCE to back up the Paragraphs must have EVIDENCE to back up the point or answerpoint or answer

Paragraphs might have to EXPLAIN or DEFEND your Paragraphs might have to EXPLAIN or DEFEND your pointpoint

Paragraphs might need to RELATE BACK to the Paragraphs might need to RELATE BACK to the previous paragraph, or the question, or RELATE previous paragraph, or the question, or RELATE FORWARD to the next paragraphFORWARD to the next paragraph

Example paragraph: how to stop Example paragraph: how to stop smuggling by dinghiessmuggling by dinghies

Smuggling by dinghy is very difficult to stop, but could be Smuggling by dinghy is very difficult to stop, but could be decreased, with the level of decrease determined by the decreased, with the level of decrease determined by the resources available resources available (topic sentence)(topic sentence). Air patrols can keep . Air patrols can keep track of dinghy use, backed by sea patrols to stop and track of dinghy use, backed by sea patrols to stop and search all vessels crossing the border. However air cover search all vessels crossing the border. However air cover would need to be continuous along the border, given that would need to be continuous along the border, given that dinghy use is so common in the Torres Strait. Adequate dinghy use is so common in the Torres Strait. Adequate cover would cost $x million, and this proposal would meet cover would cost $x million, and this proposal would meet with strong public protest. The alternative would be with strong public protest. The alternative would be genuinely random checks using slightly increased levels of genuinely random checks using slightly increased levels of air and sea coverage (see Table 3 for costings). Both air and sea coverage (see Table 3 for costings). Both options would require changes to the legislation to give options would require changes to the legislation to give adequate powers for search, and consultation with adequate powers for search, and consultation with communities. Air spotters would also need more training in communities. Air spotters would also need more training in how to detect signs of smuggling activity. This needs to be how to detect signs of smuggling activity. This needs to be backed by continuing research into smuggling methods, backed by continuing research into smuggling methods, which are changing all the time.which are changing all the time.

……and still more about paragraphsand still more about paragraphs

You can’t do everything a paragraph You can’t do everything a paragraph needs to do in just one sentence!needs to do in just one sentence!

There is no such thing as a one There is no such thing as a one sentence paragraph sentence paragraph (except in (except in newspapers and novels)newspapers and novels)

Other things about communicationOther things about communicationWho is your audience? – your lecturer, other Who is your audience? – your lecturer, other

professionals in your field, the general professionals in your field, the general public? Find out.public? Find out.

*If it’s your lecturer or other professionals, *If it’s your lecturer or other professionals, you won’t have to explain concepts they you won’t have to explain concepts they will probably know. (But don’t use this to will probably know. (But don’t use this to leave gaps in your argument).leave gaps in your argument).

*If it’s the general public, you will have to *If it’s the general public, you will have to explain unusual terms, give more explain unusual terms, give more background, and introduce the people you background, and introduce the people you write about.write about.

Communication: other thingsCommunication: other things

Are spelling, grammar, punctuation Are spelling, grammar, punctuation and gender neutral language really and gender neutral language really important?important?

Can you read this? (Has Can you read this? (Has communication occurred?)communication occurred?)

Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at an Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at an Elingsh uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer Elingsh uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer is at the rghit the frist and lsat ltteer is at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae we do not porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae we do not raed ervey lteter by it slef but the raed ervey lteter by it slef but the wrod as a wlohe. Ceehrs.wrod as a wlohe. Ceehrs.

Well, yes, but…Well, yes, but…*You don’t want to look like an ignoramus *You don’t want to look like an ignoramus

(use every trick you can to sound (use every trick you can to sound persuasive)persuasive)

*You don’t want to irritate your readers*You don’t want to irritate your readers*You don’t want to make your readers work *You don’t want to make your readers work

too hardtoo hard*Gendered language – do you want the *Gendered language – do you want the

reader to concentrate on your arguments, reader to concentrate on your arguments, or you? (What does gendered language, or you? (What does gendered language, eg. using ‘he’ and ‘him’ when you meant eg. using ‘he’ and ‘him’ when you meant everyone, say about you?)everyone, say about you?)

History and political science aren’t History and political science aren’t ‘hard’ sciences like physics‘hard’ sciences like physics

……so that means you need to so that means you need to persuade your reader throughpersuade your reader through

Good argumentsGood arguments

Good evidenceGood evidence

Sound researchSound research

Good communicationGood communication

ReferencingReferencingWhy do we need references?Why do we need references?- To acknowledge other people’s intellectual To acknowledge other people’s intellectual

property (ideas, words, research) and property (ideas, words, research) and avoid being accused of PLAGIARISMavoid being accused of PLAGIARISM

- To make my work reliable (you can check To make my work reliable (you can check my sources – I didn’t make it up)my sources – I didn’t make it up)

- As a service to the reader who wants to As a service to the reader who wants to know moreknow more

- If you’re using footnotes and end-notes: to If you’re using footnotes and end-notes: to give more informationgive more information

Referencing – how?Referencing – how?History uses footnotes and end-notes in History uses footnotes and end-notes in the Chicago system, but in first year at the Chicago system, but in first year at Cairns Campus you can use any Cairns Campus you can use any recognised referencing systemrecognised referencing system

Footnotes and end-notes can be found in Footnotes and end-notes can be found in Windows under “Insert” (then Windows under “Insert” (then “Reference”)“Reference”)

Political science uses any recognised Political science uses any recognised referencing systemreferencing system

When in doubt – check your subject When in doubt – check your subject handouthandout

Footnotes exampleFootnotes exampleFull employment, immigration and attracting industry became Full employment, immigration and attracting industry became major policy determinants after the war. The result was a major policy determinants after the war. The result was a manufacturing boom in Victoria, New South Wales and South manufacturing boom in Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia and an agricultural and mining boom in all states and Australia and an agricultural and mining boom in all states and territories. Between 1960 and 1990, for example, Queensland’s territories. Between 1960 and 1990, for example, Queensland’s area under crop nearly tripled.area under crop nearly tripled.[11][11] In the 1940s and 1950s there In the 1940s and 1950s there was little concern about the impact that development might have was little concern about the impact that development might have on the environment because Australians were still caught up in a on the environment because Australians were still caught up in a frontier mentality, believing the country was too vast to be frontier mentality, believing the country was too vast to be impacted by its small population. Pollution was something that impacted by its small population. Pollution was something that happened in Europe or the U.S.happened in Europe or the U.S.[12][12]

[11][11] Richard Grant and Elim Papadikis, ‘Transforming Richard Grant and Elim Papadikis, ‘Transforming environmental governance in a “laggard” state’, environmental governance in a “laggard” state’, Environmental Environmental and Planning Law Journaland Planning Law Journal 21, 2 (2004): 147. 21, 2 (2004): 147.[12] Whitelock, [12] Whitelock, A Dirty StoryA Dirty Story, 83; Powell, , 83; Powell, Plains of PromisePlains of Promise, 313, , 313, 363. 363.

When don’t you need a reference?When don’t you need a reference?

If it’s your own ideaIf it’s your own idea

If it’s general knowledge in this field If it’s general knowledge in this field of study (it’s in nearly all the sources of study (it’s in nearly all the sources you read for this essay)you read for this essay)

Bibliography or reference list?Bibliography or reference list?A reference list is a list of the books, A reference list is a list of the books, articles, websites etc. which you used in articles, websites etc. which you used in your your referencesreferencesA bibliography is a list of every source you A bibliography is a list of every source you read for this essay (not just the sources in read for this essay (not just the sources in your references)your references)

Which one do you use? – look at your subject Which one do you use? – look at your subject handout. History uses bibliographies.handout. History uses bibliographies.

Bibliography extractBibliography extractJakeman, A. and Simpson, R., June 1986, ‘Towards more effective Jakeman, A. and Simpson, R., June 1986, ‘Towards more effective environmental quality control policies: A technical perspective for environmental quality control policies: A technical perspective for air and water pollution’, air and water pollution’, Environmental and Planning Law JournalEnvironmental and Planning Law Journal, , vol. 3, no. 2., pp. 124-136.vol. 3, no. 2., pp. 124-136.Jordan, Matthew, 2002, Jordan, Matthew, 2002, Procuring Industrial Pollution Control: The Procuring Industrial Pollution Control: The South Australian Case, 1836-1975South Australian Case, 1836-1975, Jubilant Gains, Adelaide. , Jubilant Gains, Adelaide. Keim, Stephen, 1992, ‘Bordering on Pollution’, in Keim, Stephen, 1992, ‘Bordering on Pollution’, in Environmental Environmental Law Service Volume 1Law Service Volume 1, John Haydon, , John Haydon, et alet al. (ed.), Queensland . (ed.), Queensland Environmental Law Association, Brisbane, pp. 5.1.57-5.1.58.Environmental Law Association, Brisbane, pp. 5.1.57-5.1.58.Kellow, Aynsley and Niemeyer, Simon, 1999, ‘The Development of Kellow, Aynsley and Niemeyer, Simon, 1999, ‘The Development of Environmental Administration in Queensland and Western Environmental Administration in Queensland and Western Australia: Why are they different?’, Australia: Why are they different?’, Australian Journal of Political Australian Journal of Political ScienceScience, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 205-222., vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 205-222.Kemp, D.E., 1987, ‘Environmental Law in Queensland – Water Kemp, D.E., 1987, ‘Environmental Law in Queensland – Water Quality’, in Quality’, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Awareness Course, Brisbane 5 October – 16 November 1987Awareness Course, Brisbane 5 October – 16 November 1987, , Institution of Engineers Australia, Queensland Division, Brisbane, Institution of Engineers Australia, Queensland Division, Brisbane, pp. 1-10.pp. 1-10.

The Law of Quotes says…The Law of Quotes says…Use quotations only to Use quotations only to back upback up something something you have already said. Never use them to you have already said. Never use them to make a statement for you.make a statement for you.Quotes must be an exact copy of the Quotes must be an exact copy of the original. If you want to leave anything out, original. If you want to leave anything out, use an ellipse (…). If you want to change use an ellipse (…). If you want to change or add something, put these in square or add something, put these in square brackets [ ]. If you want to emphasise brackets [ ]. If you want to emphasise something, use italics and add [my something, use italics and add [my emphasis].emphasis].Short quotes are in inverted commas. Short quotes are in inverted commas. Long quotes are indented.Long quotes are indented.

Quotes at work (spot the ellipses)Quotes at work (spot the ellipses)An instrumentalist perspective towards legislation would An instrumentalist perspective towards legislation would

suggest a presumption that ‘laws, once enacted are thus suggest a presumption that ‘laws, once enacted are thus regarded as somehow independent of their political and regarded as somehow independent of their political and social contexts.’social contexts.’[1][1] There are obvious difficulties with this There are obvious difficulties with this approach, as it has been observed that: approach, as it has been observed that:

It is one thing to point to the introduction of a new legal rule It is one thing to point to the introduction of a new legal rule and then point to a change in people’s behaviour; it is another and then point to a change in people’s behaviour; it is another thing to say that the former caused the latter. Can we be thing to say that the former caused the latter. Can we be certain that behaviour which appears to be in compliance with certain that behaviour which appears to be in compliance with a particular rule is a particular rule is brought aboutbrought about by that rule? Other factors by that rule? Other factors may explain the conduct –…moral pressure, habit…or self-may explain the conduct –…moral pressure, habit…or self-serving interests – all of which may simply be reinforced by the serving interests – all of which may simply be reinforced by the rule in question.rule in question.[2][2]

[1][1] Bottomley and Parker, Bottomley and Parker, Law in ContextLaw in Context, p. 188., p. 188.[2] [2] IbidIbid, p. 191. Their emphasis., p. 191. Their emphasis.

Some general adviceSome general adviceNever be afraid to ask for help.Never be afraid to ask for help.

Read the instructions.Read the instructions.

Feedback on your essay isn’t a putdown. Feedback on your essay isn’t a putdown. It’s designed to help you improve. It’s designed to help you improve. Professionals want to constantly improve.Professionals want to constantly improve.

Don’t try to impress your readers. Don’t try to impress your readers. Communicate with us. Keep it clear and Communicate with us. Keep it clear and concise.concise.

Keep jargon to a minimum.Keep jargon to a minimum.

JargonJargon

““The piscine aquatic biota exhibited a The piscine aquatic biota exhibited a 100% mortality rate”100% mortality rate”

OrOr

““All the fish died”All the fish died”