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ReadingReading ReadingReading
Logograms• Def – ideograms that represent a word or
morpheme in addition to a concept• Chinese writing system – mostly logographic.
(Some characters have phonetic components)– Egyptian hieroglyphs also developed into a
logographic writing system, since they correspond to sounds and words
English logograms $, @, %, X (as in XING)
Syllabaries• Writing systems
that have one symbol for each syllable– Not practical for
languages such as English, which have ~14,000 possible syllables
Left – romanji (Roman syllable)Middle – hiragana
Right - Kanji
Alphabetic Writing Systems
• Follow the phonemic principle. (Mostly) represent phonemes in a language – not allophones! (which distinguishes them from phonetic
alphabets) • First alphabetic script: Semitic
– Developed in Syria and Palestine between 1500 and 2000 B.C.
Example of the phonemic principle: plural “s” is always written with the same letter, regardless of whether it’s actually [s] or [z]
Different kinds of alphabets
• Semitic (Hebrew, Arabic): only consonants • Greek (adapted into Latin, Cyrillic, …):
consonants and vowels• Korean: phonemes represented in units of
syllables
abcde αβγδε
абвгд אבגדה
ابتثج
Korean: phonemic units grouped by syllable
• 17 consonants and 11 vowels– /l/ and /r/ represented by the same symbol, as
variants of the one phoneme
• Consonants drawn to depict the place of articulation– /m/ - suggests closing lips– /k/ suggests raising back of tongue to velum
• Grouped into blocks, each representing a syllable
Psycholinguistics and reading
• How does the style of writing affect the process of reading? – L R / R L / top bottom– logographic / syllabic / alphabetic– vowels written or not– sound-symbol correspondence
Psycholinguistics and reading
• logographic systems: – high memory load, right hemisphere
activity?
• syllabaries: – easy symbol-sound correspondence,
abstract symbols. longer words (mean > 2.1 syllables)
• alphabets: – if (ir)regular spelling, difficult to decode?
Reading is NOT innate!
• Children & non-readers have no natural desire to link word length with visual length!
–show children the words “two” and “toothbrush”, say the words to them, and they perform at chance, with no preference of matching the longer words with each other
How do we learn to read?
• Phonetically? (phonologically)– Easy with high letter-sound
correspondences – Children 9-10 y.o. read better when taught
phonetically (in English)
– Intermediate readers read phonologically – Fluent readers read orthographically
where/wear, too/two
How do we learn to read?
• Direct Route? – Whole-word, “look and say” methods – Higher initial success
– But fluent readers have little difficulty in identifying words in unfamiliar forms
- AlTeRnAtInG cAsE only slows word recognition by 10%
-Cmabridge e-mail forward
The Protoliteracy Period
• Early period when precursors of written language are set (Barron, 1992)
• 2 best predictors of reading achievement: – phonological skills (syllables, rhyming)– ability to recognize letters
Developing phonological skills
• Phonological skills develop in stages:– First: segment syllables
• ma.ma / da.dy
– Then: separate onsets and rimes• cat / bat / mat / hat / rat • dad / did / do / dug / dinner / dog
– Finally: recognize individual phonemes• peach / speech speed / spud
Linguistic guesswork:Developing phonological
awareness
• Guessing words based on one or more letters– “like” as “black”– “of” as “off”
• Invented spelling: (reflects what they do/don’t hear in the speech stream)– “numbers” AS nubrs– “lady” AS lade– “genius” AS gnus (Treiman, 1993)
Does your writing system shape your phonological
development?
• Japanese children cannot initially segment words at the phonemic level (neither can literate Chinese adults)
• But English children can by 2nd Grade – Phonemic awareness develops because of
exposure to phonemic writing system
Reading Studies
• fMRI’s – don’t access sounds in reading: – In normal reading, phonological
processing areas aren’t active• Become active in rhyming tasks
• Frequency matters! – Do we read “sesquipedalian” the same
way we read “feet”?
IS X a part of the body?
• Guy van Orden – Homophones• Task: judge whether words like ___ are…
(e.g. parts of the body): – FEAT / HARE
• Errors happen more often with infrequent words in a language. (less often with pairs like SUN / SON)
Conclusion: frequent words are accessed directly, but less frequent words are accessed through their sounds
Another example:
• Eye want two play tennis, butt eye dew knot have uh racket!
• (if our access were completely phonological, this should not be hard to understand!)
Measuring Subvocalization
• Micro-muscular movements occur if accessing phonology– In beginning and intermediate
readers – When fluent readers encounter new,
uncommon, or difficult words
Eye-tracking http://www.mpi.nl/world/tg/eye-tracking/eye-
tracking.html
• fixation: the length of time the eye is focused on one spot (>200-250 ms)
• saccade: quick jumps between fixations, little or no information gained (25-30 ms)
• lengths of fixations influenced by: – word length, frequency, grammatical function (longer
fixations on verbs than nouns), predictability, overall complexity
Fun note: your eyes spend approximately 50 minutes/day
jumping in saccades, (Prof. David Erwin –
UIUC)
Fixations
• In English, a fixation allows you to “see”: (2 or 3 + X + ~15) letters
that underlined l underlined letter yo
letter your eye landed
• image on retina is fairly symmetrical around fixation point
that underlined letter yo
Size/Direction of saccades• Length of saccade depends on script
– In Chinese – 2 characters (2 whole words)– Japanese – 3.5 characters (syllables)– Hebrew – 5.5 characters (no vowels written)– English - 7 +/- 3 characters (vowels and
consonants)
• In English, 85-90% of jumps are rightward– direction of saccades determined by language
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
you can gain information from a large window of text
Eye-tracking Experiments (McConkie & Rayner)
• Manipulated number of characters viewed to see how far ahead/behind we look while reading
• Anything less than: (2or3 + X + 15) letters slows reading time
• No improvements with larger windows• Only current word under fixation is
actually recognized
the politician read the spaach to his colleagues
the politician read the speech to his colleagues
Eye-tracking Experiments (McConkie & Rayner)
• SPAACH presented until it was time for the eyes to fixate on the word, and then replaced with SPEECH
• If the change happened:– > 12 characters to the left of SPAACH, no extra
fixations – 7-12 characters to the left, no conscious ability
to notice change, but increased fixation time– within fixation, subjects are aware of change
the politician read the blaart to his colleagues
the politician read the speech to his colleagues
Eye-tracking Experiments (McConkie & Rayner)
• BLAART presented, then replaced with SPEECH• If the change happened:
– > 12 characters to the left of BLAART, no extra fixations
– 7-12 characters to the left, not conscious of change, but longer fixation time than with SPAACH
• Some visual information is gained prior to actual fixation !
+
invincible
What was the word?
+
intolerable
What was the word?
invincible +
intolerable+
Where in the word do we fixate?
• Kevin O’Regan: fixate on point, then word appeared – centered around that point, or shifted to one side or another
• Optimum position just left of center of word
• Short/predictable words can be recognized while eyes are fixating on preceding word
(They don’t have their own fixations)
Reading is automatic(you can’t help but read this!)
• In psychology, we distinguish between: – automatic processes: understanding first
language, breathing, feeling hunger, and reading (for fluent readers)
– attentional processes: focusing on task, understanding foreign language, reading (for beginners)
Stroop task http://www.snre.umich.edu/eplab/demos/st0/stroopdesc.html
• Demonstrates the automaticity of reading (Also shows our inability to “turn off” our native language)
• Used in WWII to detect spies