Reading Mesoamerican Pictorial Codices

Cynthia L. Stone, 2008

Primary sources

Borgia Codex• Housed in the Vatican Library, Vatican City• Strip of amate paper folded into 39 sheets, 27 X 26.5 cm• Pre-Hispanic, Late Post-classic period (13th-14th century)• Mixtec-Puebla style

Relación de Michoacán• Housed in the Royal Library of the Escorial, outside Madrid• Codex of European paper arranged in 277 folios, 20 X 15 cm• Post-Spanish conquest (circa 1538-1541)• Compiler and translator from Purépecha into Castilian: Fray Jerónimo de Alcalá, OFM • Indigenous collaborators:

– A former high-priest (petámuti) provided an account of the arrival in Michoacán and rise to power of the ancestors of the ruler (cazonci) at the time of the Spanish conquest

– The governor (angátacuri) of the city of Tzintzuntzan, Don Pedro Cuiníarángari, provided an account of the Spanish conquest of Michoacán

– Several other elders (curáecha) provided additional oral testimonies– Several scribe-painters (caracha) provided forty-four colored pen and ink drawings

Words and Images

Alphabetic versus pictographic writing • Differ in the degree to which they privilege words (made up of phonemes) as opposed

to images (made up of graphemes)• Although the Latin alphabet consists of letters (graphemes), these are designed to

reproduce verbatim units of language (phonemes)• Mesoamerican scripts combine more or less abstract glyphs with pictographic

scenes, some of which are designed to reproduce verbatim units of language, but which can also be “read” independently of their linguistic component

• While the Western European tradition tends to draw a sharp distinction between writing and painting and, by extension, literature and the visual arts, the Mesoamerican tradition does not. Thus, there is no separate word for “scribe” and “painter” in languages such as Nahuatl and Purépecha. Rather, the same individual, the scribe-painter (tlatoani, carari), is responsible for recording important information in pictographic books or codices

Cosmology as the link between words and images

Equivalence between cosmography, spatiotemporal organization, and grammar

• One can begin to “read” the pictorial components of Mesoamerican codices once one understands the variable meanings assigned to spatial position in Mesoamerican cosmography (in much the same way that one can begin to read an alphabetic text once one understands the grammar of the language in which it is written) In a 1585 littera annua from the Jesuit missionary

Francisco Ramírez to his superiors in Castile, he describes how the peoples of Michoacán believed that the creation of all things emanated from the womb of a goddess positioned face-down “with her head pointed west and her feet pointed east, one arm to the north and the other to the south. And the god of the sea held her by the head and the mother of the gods by the feet and another two goddesses, one by one arm and one by the other, so she would not fall”

North (right hand)

South (left hand)

RM, fig. 33

Cosmology as the link between words and images

Equivalence between mythology, iconography, and vocabulary

• One can progress to “reading” the iconographic elements of Mesoamerican pictorial codices once one understands the relationship between key icons and the gods and heroes of Mesoamerican mythology (in much the same way one can progress in the reading of an alphabetic text once one understands enough key vocabulary)

Top left: The lunar goddess Xarátanga is sustained by the hearts of valiant women who are sacrificed in her temples

Bottom left: The solar god Curícaueri is sustained by the hearts of valiant men who are sacrificed in his temples

Top right: The god of the underworld is sustained by the sacrifice of a wrongdoer whose body is dragged to an empty field

Bottom right: The earth goddess is sustained by the commoners who are bound to her service

What’s with all the blood and sacrifice?

Answers to basic human questions– What is our place in the cosmos?– Why do suffering and death exist?– How can we contribute to the continuation of life on earth?

Mesoamerican pictorial codices as guides to understanding the hidden relationships between things (correspondence between cycles of birth and death and cycles of light and darkness)

• Cycles of birth and death– 260-day count that charts the various permutations of vital energies associated with all possible

combinations of 13 numbers and 20 daysigns

• Cycles of light and darkness– 365-day solar cycle (consisting of 18 months of 20 days each, plus a 19 th month of 5 days) 52 solar cycles

= 73 birth cycles– 29.5-day lunar cycle (consisting of 9 periods of unequal length corresponding to the new moon, crescent

moon, 1st quarter moon, waxing gibbous moon, full moon, waning gibbous moon, 2nd quarter moon, crescent moon, new moon) 235 lunar cycles = 19 solar cycles

– 584-day Venus cycle (consisting of 4 periods of unequal length corresponding to appearance of Venus as morning star, the disappearance of Venus as morning star, the appearance of Venus as evening star, the disappearance of Venus as evening star) 5 Venus cycles = 8 solar cycles

Human family

Kinship relations (social functions)

Analogies with plant and mineral kingdoms The “heart” or essence of matter

Analogies with animal kingdom

The external soul or animal double of matter

Analogies with heavenly bodies The “head” of matter as source of vital energies whose rays are like arrows that “pierce” various parts of the body

Analogies with cosmography

The “houses” or stations of matter

Ancestors

(founders of the major ethnicities)

NOBILITY: The condition of possibility for both life and light. Plant kingdom: teocintli or primitive corn. Mineral kingdom: turquoise, obsidian, granite, basalt

Butterfly (spirit double of flames)

Vulture (spirit double of those of advanced age)

Deities: Lords of fire and the hearth, Ancient ones (associated icons: fire serpents)

Body parts: navel, womb

The “house” of the center, the tree of life, the place of seven caves

Grandparents

(first humans, diviners, healers, daykeepers)

CREATIVITY: Originators of the principle of dynamic equilibrium. Together they form the divine duality that underlies the cycles of life and light . Plant kingdom: the elote or kernel of corn used as basis for new harvest as well as for divination. Mineral kingdom: flint as condition of possibility for fire

Coyote and peccary (spirit doubles of matchmakers)

Opossum and coati (spirit doubles of midwives)

Caiman or fish-reptile (spirit double of the sky-earth)

Deities: Lords of duality, Lords of sustenance (associated icons: bone piercing tool, calendar)

Body parts: organs of knowledge and judgment (eye as organ of reasoning, nose as organ of truth and morality, ear as organ of counsel and understanding)

The place of duality (home of the numeral two), the place of origin (home of the broken tree)

Lovers (first couple, fertile ones, patrons of the arts)

PRODUCTIVITY: Those who engender life and light. Plant kingdom: the flower, the seed, the jilote or unripe ear of corn, the maguey plant. Mineral kingdom: jade

Lizard (spirit double of rain) Deities: Rain god, Goddess of flowing waters, Gods of springtime (associated icons: cloud serpents, rain stick or rattle)

Body parts: sexual organs and their by-products, skin, hair, nails

The bath “house” (sweatlodge)

Parents: mother and mother’s sister, father and father’s brother (those who teach by example, those who rule over us)

LEADERSHIP: Those who nurture life, who light the way for their children. Plant kingdom: the mazorca or mature ear of corn, pulque. Mineral kingdom: gold as “excrement” of the sun, silver as “excrement” of the moon

Eagle (spirit double of the sun), hummingbird (spirit double of the valiant warrior), snake (spirit double of the earth), rabbit (spirit double of the moon)

Deities: Solar gods, lunar gods, earth gods

Parts of the body: head

The cardinal directions (home of the year bearers): The “house” of the rising sun, the “house” of the midday sun, the “house” of the setting sun, the “house of the midnight sun)

Children ACTIVITY: Those in whom life and light unfold in manifest ways. Plant kingdom: amaranth

Deer (spirit double of Venus as morning star), dog (spirit double of Venus as evening star)

Deities: Venus deities (associated icons: wind instruments, speech scroll)

Parts of the body: breath

The horizon or heart of the sea and sky (home of the plumed serpent)

Analogies between cycles of human life and other cycles (key iconographic symbols in bold)

Parents of the day

LEADERSHIP: Those who nurture life, who light the way for their children. Plant kingdom: the mazorca or mature ear of corn, pulque. Mineral kingdom: gold as “excrement” of the sun, silver as “excrement” of the moon

Eagle (spirit double of the sun), hummingbird (spirit double of the valiant warrior), snake (spirit double of the earth), rabbit (spirit double of the moon)

Deities: Solar gods, lunar gods, earth gods (associated icons: …)

Body parts: Head

The cardinal directions (home of the year bearers): The “house” of the rising sun, the “house” of the midday sun, the “house” of the setting sun, the “house of the midnight sun)

Children of the sun

ACTIVITY: Those in whom life and light unfold in manifest ways. Plant kingdom: amaranth

Deer (spirit double of the morning star as hunter of the day), dog (spirit double of the evening star)

Deities: Venus deities (associated icons: wind instruments, speech scroll)

Body parts: Breath

The horizon (home of the plumed serpent)

Siblings The companions, those who form the entourage for the unfolding of life and light

Monkey (spirit double of the elder brothers)

Deities: Pleyades, Mars gods (associated icons: numeral 400)

Body parts: Extremities, right-hand side, left-hand side

Children of the night

ACTIVITY: Those in whom life and light unfold in hidden and invisible ways. Plant kingdom: hallucinogenic plants

Jaguar (spirit double of the nighttime hunter)

Deities: gods associated with magic and sorcery (associated icons: mirror)

Parents of the night

LEADERSHIP: Those who nurture life after death, who light the way through the underworld

Macaw (spirit double of the Big Dipper)

Deities: Lords of the underworld (associated icons: skull, skeleton)

Analogies between cycles of human life and other cycles, cont. (key iconographic symbols in bold)

Humans

Kinship relations (social functions)

Analogies with plant and mineral kingdoms The “heart” or essence of matter: teyolia

Analogies with animal kingdom

The external soul or animal double of matter: nahualli

Analogies with heavenly bodies The “head” of matter as source of vital energies: tonalli, tonamitl

Analogies with cosmography

The “houses” or stations of matter: calli

Ancestors

(founders of the major ethnicities)

The condition of possibility for both life and light: teocintli, teoxihuitl, itztli, tepetl

papalotl

cozcacuauhtli

Deities: Xiuhtecuhtli, Huehueteotl

Body parts: xictli, notepixcatl

The “house” of the center: Xochicuahuitl, Chicomoztoc

Grandparents

(first humans, diviners, healers, daykeepers)

CREATIVITY: Originators of the principle of dynamic equilibrium. Together they form the divine duality that underlies the cycles of life and light : elotl, tecpatl

coyotl, coyametl

tlacuache, pizotl

cipactli

Deities: Ometeotl, Tonacateotl, Ozomoco, Cipactonal (tonalpohualli)

Body parts: ixtelotl, yacatl, nacaztli

Omeyocan, Tamoanchan

Lovers (first couple, fertile ones, patrons of the arts)

PRODUCTIVITY: Those who engender life and light: xochitl, achtli, jilotl, metl, chalchihuitl

cuetzpalin Deities: Tlaloc, Chalchihuitlicue, Xipe Totec, Xilonen, Mayahuel, Mixcoatl

Body parts: tepolli, tepolayotl, nenetl, cuetlaxtli, tzontli, iztetl

Temazcalli

Parents: mother and mother’s sister, father and father’s brother (those who teach by example, those who rule over us)

LEADERSHIP: Those who nurture life, who light the way for their children: centeotl, octli, teocuicatl

cuauhtli, huitzilin, coatl, tochtli Deities: Tonatiuh, Huitzilopochtli, Nanahuatzin, Metztli, Coyolxauqui, Tecciztecatl, Coatlicue

Body parts: cuaitl

The cardinal directions (year bearers): The “house” of the rising sun, the “house” of the midday sun, the “house” of the setting sun, the “house of the midnight sun)

Children ACTIVITY: Those in whom life and light unfold in manifest ways: huautli

mazatl

itzcuintli

Deities: Quetzalcoatl, Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, Xolotl, Ehecatl

Body parts: ihyotl

The horizon (home of Quetzalcoatl)

Analogies between cycles of life on earth and in the heavens (with key terms in Náhuatl)

Humans

Kinship relations (social functions)

Analogies with plant and mineral kingdoms The “heart” or essence of matter: mintzita

Analogies with animal kingdom

The external soul or animal double of matter

Analogies with heavenly bodies The “head” of matter as source of vital energies: zuanda

Analogies with cosmography

The “houses” or stations of matter

Ancestors

(founders of the major ethnicities)

The condition of possibility for both life and light

Deities: Curícaueri, Querenda Angápeti?, Taras?

Body parts:

The “house” of the center

Grandparents

(first humans, diviners, healers, daykeepers)

CREATIVITY: Originators of the principle of dynamic equilibrium. Together they form the divine duality that underlies the cycles of life and light

Deities: Tucupachá?

Body parts:

Lovers (first couple, fertile ones, patrons of the arts)

PRODUCTIVITY: Those who engender life and light:

Deities:

Body parts:

Parents: mother and mother’s sister, father and father’s brother (those who teach by example, those who rule over us)

LEADERSHIP: Those who nurture life, who light the way for their children:

Deities: Xarátanga, Cuerauáperi, Tirípemencha

Body parts:

The four parts of the world: Tambengarani

Children ACTIVITY: Those in whom life and light unfold in manifest ways:

uitzume Deities: Curita caheri, Manóuapa, Sirata táperi

Body parts:

The fifth heaven

Siblings (the companions) ACCOMPANIMENT: those who form the entourage for the unfolding of life and light

Deities: Firstborn gods, Uirámbanecha

Body parts: the right-hand side, the left-hand side

Analogies between cycles of life on earth and in the heavens (with key terms in Purépecha)

When are arrows just arrows and when are they something more?

“[Taríacuri] untied the bundle and took one of the arrows in his hands and offered it to [the messengers from the town of Curínguaro], saying: ‘Behold this arrow, how green it is. These [green] ones are named Técoecha xunganda; these are the [precious] green feathers the Lords of Curíguaro have asked me for [as tribute]’. Then he showed them another arrow and said: ‘these [blue ones] are the [aforementioned] turquoise necklaces. And these [arrows] with white plumes are the silver they are requesting; and [the others] with golden feathers are the gold, while these red feathers are [valuable] headdresses” (RM pt. 2, ch. 19)

RM, fig. 11

Principal gods of Michoacán

Earth goddess Cueráuaperi: “She who unties in the womb”• From the P’urhépecha root cuerá-, meaning “desatar,” “crear” (Gilberti); also, “librar,” absolver” (Lagunas), “desanudar” (DG)• Verbs derived from this root suggest various processes, including: unbinding (which, in turn, calls to mind its opposite, unbinding), creating/destroying, discharging/contracting (as in an obligation, absolving/condemning, knoting/unknoting

Solar god Curícaueri: “He who engenders fire from within”• From the P’urhépecha root curhí-, meaning “atizar, engendrar,” “componer la lumbre” (Gilberti); also, “encender, quemar” (Lagunas), “chamuscar” (DG)• Verbs derived from this root suggest various processes, including: stoking (which, in turn, calls to mind its opposite, snuffing out), generating/concluding, lighting/extinguishing, burning/freezing, scorching/chilling

Lunar goddess Xarátanga: “She who reveals herself in various guises”• From the P’urhépecha root xarhá-, meaning “[a]parecer” or “manifestar,” “revelar” or ” mostrar” or “asomar,” “publicar” “descubrir,” ”deleytar” (Gilberti)• Verbs derived from this root suggest various processes, including: appearing (which, in turn, calls to mind its opposite, disappearing), revealing/hiding, publishing/keeping secret, covering/uncovering, delighting/disliking

The Earth Goddess (Cueráuaperi)“She who unties in the womb”

-ua = womb, -pe = to be born, to untie, -ri = she who

“they uprooted their storage houses and dwellings and tore off their loincloths and lip plugs, and they pushed and shoved them [from their villages]” (RM pt. 2, ch. 14)

Present through such acts as unbinding clothes, untying braids, unthatching roofs, etc., as well as in all manner of creative and destructive acts

RM, fig. 7

Cueráuaperi (cont.)

Present through the binding and unbinding captives and prisoners

"And they brought all the delinquents into the patio, some with their hands tied behind, others with their heads tied with reeds. And if once or twice they were found to have committed a particular crime, [the high priest] would pardon them and hand them over to their relatives. But if they had committed them four times, they were condemned to

death (RM pt. 2, ch. 1)Fig. 2

Fig 33

"And they took all those peoples who had fled their villages and captured them. Also, they entered into the houses and took captive all the women and children and old folks... And they would [not sacrifice the young ones, but rather] keep them for their service, to till their fields"(RM pt. 2, ch. 5)

Present through the generating of light and heat…

The Solar God (Curícaueri)“He who engenders fire from within

curhí- = to engender, to light, etc.; -ca = nominal case; -eueri = possessive

Fig. 41

…from the sun

…from the burning of tobacco…

…from bonfires

…from ritual cremations

…and incense

Fig. 31Fig. 2

Fig. 4

Fig. 36

Present in the form of a shaft of obsidian

Curícaueri (cont.)

"I have decided to give you this obsidian knife, which is a part of Curícaueri, which you are to keep it with you [at all times]“ (RM pt. 2, ch. 25)

RM, fig. 17

The Lunar Goddess (Xarátanga)“She who reveals herself in various guises”

xarhá- = to reveal; -ta = various; -nga = reflexive

Present in the proliferation and cleansing of filth and moral transgressions, especially those of a sexual nature

(by analogy with the Náhuatl goddess Tlazoltéotl)

"The woman would sweep her house and a goodly portion of the road in front of the house... For this was a kind of prayer she would offer in hopes of being a good wife“ (RM pt. 3, ch. 13)

Fig. 38

Fig. 9

"they began to fondle her.. And since they were all blackened with soot, her face and clothing became besmirched” (RM pt. 2, ch. 16)

All the gods

Present through the giving and receiving of offerings

“…firewood... for the temples of [our] mother Cueráuaperi and for the celestial creator gods; also, for the gods of the four parts of the world, the gods of the right-hand and left-hand sides, and all the other gods“ (RM pt. 3, ch. 18)Fig. 38

“…textiles and cotton from the tropical lowlands, copper axes and woven mats for carrying things, agricultural produce, ... Bows [and arrows].. and each according to their circumstances” (RM pt. 3, ch. 18)

Fig. 41

After the conquest…

Fig. 42

"Those of you who are first-born gods and those of the left-hand side, [you must] shatter the vessels of food and drink; ...[you are to] bring no more offerings. For so it is to

be from this day forward” (RM pt. 4, ch. 1)