Reading Indigenous and Mestizo Musical Instruments

8/11/2019 Reading Indigenous and Mestizo Musical Instruments

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Reading Indigenous and Mestizo Musical

Instruments: The Negotiation of Political and

Cultural Identities in Latin America

ROBERT NEUSTADT

In this essay, I am exploring diverse examples of indigenos and mesti!o msi"alinstrments in order to nders"ore the manner in #hi"h these instrments "an help s to"omprehend the politi"al negotiation and lo"ation of "ltre$ %hen I say &"ltral lo"ation' Irefer not only to geographi"al pla"e, (t also to a people)s "ltral vales and traditions assitated #ithin "ommnities at parti"lar moments in history$ As for the &negotiation' of

politi"al identity, I am allding to the pro"ess of trans"ltration throgh #hi"h different andsometimes "ontradi"tory elements of national, ethni" and*or so"ial "ltre "om(ine nevenly$

S"h negotiation is ongoing and s(+e"t to "hange there exists no resoltion$ Strands of "ltre "ome to o""py dominant, prominent or s(tle aspe"ts of national identity throghnegotiation and these strands are visi(le in "ltral representations s"h as msi" and dan"e$Althogh s"h pro"esses of negotiation are inherent to all types of identity formation, they are

parti"larly note#orthy in -atin Ameri"an msi" (e"ase of the prevalen"e of "ltralmesti!a+e$

.onsider the example of /atemala)s national dan"e, the son$ Ethnomsi"ologist .arlos0onsanto des"ri(es the dan"e as &a strange mixtre of native rhythms and Spanish melodies'1&extra2as me!"las de ritmos at3"tonos y melod4as de "orte espa2ol'5$678 In a sense, this

pro"ess of (lending "an (e heard in m"h msi" in -atin Ameri"a$ 0si" in the Ameri"as"onstittes hy(rid mixtres of 9ispani", indigenos and Afri"an "ltres$ The sonds of

"ltre:representations and representers of identity:have (een transformed throgh intenseso"ial, "ltral and politi"al negotiations$ In this essay I #ill foregrond the manner in #hi"hmany of these negotiations have ta;en pla"e on, #ith and throgh the mediation of msi"alinstrments$

I shold state from the otset that I am not an ethnomsi"ologist$ I have not "ond"tedfield#or; nor attempted to "arry ot organologi"al stdies of instrments$ I am #riting, rather,from a perspe"tive of "ltral stdies, analy!ing spe"ifi" sages of msi"al instrments inorder to tra"e threads of identity "onstr"tion that are arti"lated #ithin and (et#een Indo<and -atin Ameri"a$ 0y analyses fo"s on exemplary "ases in #hi"h msi"al instrmentsserve as platforms for the negotiation of indigenos, mesti!o and national identities$ 0yexamples derive from an array of sor"es:from literary texts, s"h as Rigo(erta 0en"h=)stestimonial, to anthropologi"al, ethnomsi"ologi"al and videographi" do"mentary materialsfrom .osta Ri"a, /atemala and 0exi"o$ I analy!e the "ommentaries of msi"iansthemselves, and also the o(servations of s"holars and so"ial "riti"s #ho "ontri(te to theoverall dis"orse on msi" and identity$

I primarily fo"s on &indigenos' instrments, s"h as marim(as, "hirim4as and Indianfiddles, emphasi!ing their hy(rid or trans"ltral roots$ These instrments reveal the pro"essthrogh #hi"h indigenos and mesti!o "ltres have "hanged over time$ The pro"ess of trans"ltral negotiation is parti"larly evident in the manner in #hi"h indigenos "ltreshave adapted Eropean msi"al instrments, "onstr"ting, as it #ere, their o#n originalinstrments #ith #hi"h to express their "ltre$ I "on"lde the essay (y analy!ing a grop of

re"ently invented mesti!o instrments:innovations on the marim(a:in order to highlightthe "ontination of the history of politi"al negotiation at a different pla"e in the trans"ltral"y"le$

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Reading Marimbas: Instrumental Negotiations of Guatemalan National

Identity

Reading the manner in #hi"h s"holars &read' pre<.olom(ian &msi",' "an reveal asm"h a(ot the s"holars themselves as early indigenos msi"$ Ta;e, for example, the

polemi" a(ot #hether the marim(a derives originally from Afri"a, pre<9ispani"0esoameri"a or Asia$6>8Regardless of the relative strengths and #ea;nesses of the data for ea"h theory, some #riters approa"h the ?estion #ith a pre"on"eived nationalisti" agenda to

prove that the marim(a #as first &theirs$' Enri?e Anal@ D4a! asserts that some have gone sofar as to falsify do"ments in their ?est to &find' proof that the marim(a has pre<9ispani"Ameri"an roots in the region of #hat today is /atemala &-os afanes por demostrar norigen antigo de la 0arim(a en /atemala han llevado al extremo de falsifi"ar do"mentosgrfi"os, o de dar opiniones sin ningna (ase en la interpreta"i3n de ello' 1&The !eal todemonstrate an an"ient origin of the 0arim(a in /atemala has (een "arried to the extreme

point of falsifying graphi" do"ments, or stating opinions #ithot any analyti"al (asis'5$6C8 This rgen"y to "laim the marim(a)s origin illstrates the fero"ity #ith #hi"h /atemalanidentity has (een negotiated throgh msi" a"ross history$68

-et)s "onsider t#o notorios "ases from /atemala that "laim to prove that the marim(ahas 0ayan roots$ Both of these propositions have (een dispted (y a ma+ority of s"holars$0y prpose here is not to enter the de(ate, nor to test the merits of these "ases, (t rather toread these narratives of origin in a #ay that #ill foregrond the manner in #hi"h the image of the marim(a gets stret"hed and plled a"ross history from its mythi"al origin to the present of national identity$ /atemalan fol;lorist, 0ar"ial Armas -ara, #rites in El renacimiento de la

danza guatemalteca y el origen de la marimba 17F5, that he personally sa# a fragment of a pre<.olom(ian 0ayan "odex that "learly portrays a deity, or a 0aya dressed as the deity, playing #hat he "alls an &arm marim(a,' a marimba de brazo$ A""ording to Armas)s

extraordinary tale, he #as (lindfolded and (roght to a remote area in 0ay of 7GH (yindigenos priests 1 sacerdotes5 #ho sho#ed him the an"ient image$ Armas explains that hefaithflly "opied the "odex$ Allegedly, after he finished dpli"ating the "odex, his indigenosgides rolled the par"hment, pla"ed it inside of a (am(oo "anister, sealed it #ith dar; #ax andthen assred the do"ment that it #ill remain &in hiding,' &estars o"lto para elmndo$'6G8The indigenos "rators again (lindfolded Armas and transported him far from theoriginal text$ S(se?ently Armas reprod"ed his "opy of the "odex as proof of the 0ayanorigin of the marim(a in his o#n (oo;$

Noti"e the ar"hetypal str"tre of Armas)s story$ In ?est of the mysterios origin of themarim(a, the (lind see;er is led to a "ave that har(ors an image*dra#ing of a 0aya playingmarim(a$ Armas "on"ldes that he has fond the grail, he had dis"overed in"ontroverti(le

eviden"e that the marim(a (egan in the area no# ;no#n as /atemala$ 9e "laims, in other #ords, that he dis"overed the origin of the marim(a and (y extension the origin of /atemalan identity$ aradoxi"ally, he has solved the mystery of the marim(a)s origin, andlost the original register The original "odex, "onstitting the proof of the marim(a)s 0ayanorigin, remains hidden in an n;no#n "ave$ Una(le to prove the marim(a)s origin, Armasattempts to prove the vera"ity of his experien"e$ 9is proof is a "opy, his "opy, #hi"h he offersas a representation of the marim(a)s origin$ In his (oo;, in other #ords, he p(lishes a "opyof the "opy that he rendered of a dra#ing of a 0ayan /od playing marim(a$ Or, perhaps theoriginal "odex depi"ts a 0ayan holy man, dressed as a /od, playing marim(aJ In thisreading, Armas)s proof of the marim(a)s origin "onsists of a p(lished "opy of his rendered"opy of a "odex 1in other #ords, an image*"opy5 of a "ostmed man playing marim(a:

performing in the image of a 0ayan /od$











.arlos R$ Astrias /$, another /atemalan #ho has em(ra"ed the mission to find and prove the marim(a)s 0ayan origins, flly spports Armas)s a""ont and defends him against#hat he dismisses as &trivial and nfonded' "riti"ism$ 6F8 Kor Astrias, Don 0ar"ial Armas,&a great patriot and fol;lorist,' has simply (een misnderstood and treated nfairly$6L8 &.onmis investiga"iones' 1&%ith my resear"h'5, asserts Astrias, &le di valide! y "redi(ilidad a s

eviden"ia' 1&I proved the validity of his eviden"e'5$6H8 %hat is perhaps most remar;a(lea(ot Astrias)s p(lished defense of Armas is the fa"t that Astrias never a"tally examinedArmas)s original copy$ Astrias (esee"hes (oth /od and the Armas family to loan him Don0ar"ial)s original copy

All of this eviden"e is intimately related to the origin and evoltion of the tre 0ayanmarim(a$ I hope that /od #ill help me to (ring this eviden"e together in one pla"e, inhomage to or 0ayan an"estors$ This is a petition to the relatives of Don 0ar"ialArmas -ara, that they #ill loan s, in front of the press, the vala(le "opy of the "odexthat he made$68

In the meantime, Astrias "ontra"ted an artist 1Sololate"o Edgar Ordo2e!5 to re<prod"e

another "opy of the "opy for his arti"le$ Astrias)s proof then, is (ased on an artist)s "opy of Armas)s p(lished "opy of his "opy of an alleged 0aya "odex of a 0aya religios leader playing an 1n;no#n5 arm marim(a as an invo"ation to a 0aya deity$

Astrias also re"rs to real ar"haeologi"al i"onographi"al eviden"e, espe"ially a post"lassi"al poly"hromati" 0ayan vase ;no#n as el vaso de Ratinlinxul in his effort to prove a0ayan origin for the marim(a$ In this "ase, the original eviden"e is some#hat more presentthan Armas)s "odex, althogh not in /atemala$ The pie"e #as ex"avated in 7>C and ta;ento the University of ennsylvania in hiladelphia #here it has (een exhi(ited 1as o(+e"tM77L75 sin"e 7>$ Astrias arges vehemently that this and other reli"s of /atemalan

patrimony shold (e immediately retrned to /atemala$In "ontrast to Armas)s "odex, s"holars "an a"tally examine the original vase

of Ratinlinxul $ Interpreting the Ratinlinxul images 1estimated to have (een made (et#een7, and 7,7 of the .ommon Era5, on the other hand, is (y no means straightfor#ard$ Inone figre, some see a dog, others see a +agar, others see a hy(rid &+og,' and Astrias sees a&perro de la merte' 1death<dog5$ Some identify the "olle"tive s"ene as that of a mer"hanta""ompanied (y a team of porters$ Others arge that the vase depi"ts a dead man #al;ing in afneral pro"ession$ S"h details provide fodder for endless de(ate$ A""ording to Astrias, oneof these figres "arries a marim(a on his (a";$ Others see no marim(a (t rather a +agar s;in"overed throne "shion$678 No do(t that others #ill find other images #ithin this image$

Astrias does not merely read the images to form his interpretation$ To prove hisinterpretation, Astrias #ent so far as to "onstr"t the &instrment' he sees, an instrment he"alls a &marinbah de caja' 1&(ox marinbah”5$ 9is logi" of argmentation, a""ordingly,

trans"ends ar"haeologi"al eviden"e$ Astrias models his instrment on an 1n"lear5 imagefrom an an"ient vase and offers the existen"e of his ne# instrment as proof of the marim(a)s0ayan roots$ 0oreover, he p(lishes a photograph of his instrment in his (oo;, Verdadera

evolución de la marinbah maya 175 to fortify his argment$ Tra"ing the eviden"e 1a photograph of an instrment modeled from a "ontested an"ient image on a vase 6or moreli;ely, from photographs of the images on this vase85 reveals more a(ot Astrias)s agendathan a tre instrmental origin$

Even if #e (ra";et off the enigmati" pre<.on?est origin of the marim(a, this #oodenidiophone has ndergone an extraordinary transformation in /atemalan history$ TheSpaniards prohi(ited the instrment (e"ase of the rital importan"e it played in 0ayan"ommnities$ The Indians rea"ted (y hiding their instrments, "onstr"ting them

"landestinely and playing marim(as in se"ret "eremonies$6778 .entries later, in 7LH, themarim(a #as de"lared /atemala)s &National Instrment' 1.ongressional de"ree, FF<LH5$















67>8 The 7LH la# also de"lared O"to(er 7L as the &D4a Na"ional de la 0arim(a' 1&National0arim(a Day'5$ S(se?ently, in 7, the marim(a (e"ame elevated to the even higher "ategory of &s4m(olo na"ional' 1national sym(ol5 1.ongressional de"ree, C7<5, effe"tively

pla"ing the marim(a on the level of the /atemalan flag and the "ontry)s national anthem$Arti"le > of the 7 la# holds the 0inistry of Ed"ation responsi(le for spporting marim(a

ed"ation in p(li" and private s"hools, dedi"ating part of the (dget to provide marim(as tooffi"ial ed"ational instittions$ Arti"le C re?ires that the 0inistry of .ltre and Sportsorgani!e marim(a events every year in Septem(er so as to give the instrment its de respe"tas national sym(ol 1dring the "ele(rations of /atemalan independen"e5$ By featring themarim(a on the "alendar, in s"hools and in "ivi" "eremonies as a national sym(ol, the/atemalan government afforded the instrment a prestigios position and stats$ In the"ontext of offi"ial "ltre the marim(a o""pies a "entral pla"e in the image of /atemalannational identity$

The marim(a)s transformation from prohi(ited indigenos instrment to revered nationalsym(ol nders"ores the presen"e of indigenos roots in "ontemporary /atemalan "ltre$et this histori"al tra+e"tory of the marim(a shold not (e ta;en as a vindi"ation for

indigenos msi" and "ltre$ The designation of the marim(a as /atemala)s nationalinstrment implies aladino 1mesti!o5, as opposed to indigenos national "ltre, a""ording to%olfgang Dietri"h in his arti"le, &-a marim(a -enga+e msi"al y se"reto de la violen"ia

pol4ti"a en /atemala$'67C8In fa"t, the offi"ial pro"lamation of the marim(a as nationalinstrment too; pla"e at a time #hen the government of /atemala #as intensifying a seriesof long<term geno"idal "ampaigns against 0aya Indians$678 In Maya Achi: Marimba Music

in uatemala, Sergio Navarrete elli"er informs that marim(a players #ere often singled otand disappeared dring the period ;no#n as &la violencia” 1&the violen"e'5$67G8 The/atemalan government (anned indigenos gatherings #ith msi" in 7H7 for several years$67F8 This is a "ase of history repeating itself (y (anning indigenos gatherings #ith msi",the /atemalan government essentially reinstated the poli"y set in pla"e (y the Spanish.olonial athorities$

To read the politi"al impli"ations that are em(edded #ithin the re"ognition of themarim(a as the national instrment of /atemala, it is ne"essary to ta;e a "loser loo; at themarim(as themselves$ The indigenos &marim(a de te"omates,' "alled !"ojom in P)i"he), is"omprised of a single ro# of #ooden ;eys that hang sspended over gord resonators1tecomates5$ A single msi"ian plays the instrment, sally in ritals, and prod"es relativelysimple diatoni" melodies and traditional rhythms$ The marim(as played at offi"ial re"ognition"eremonies, on the other hand, #ere not traditional indigenos &marim(as de te"omates,' (trather ladino<designed "hromati" marim(as$

lease "li"; here for a msi"al example$

Se(astin 9rtado invented the "hromati" marim(a in Qet!altenango, /atemala arond

7H #ith the "on"eptal gidan"e of lin aniaga 0art4ne!$67L8 The "hromati" marim(ahas a se"ond ro# of ;eys atta"hed to the ;ey(oard 1adding five semitone a""identals per o"tave5 ths "reating a t#elve<note "hromati" ;ey(oard$ Kor performan"es, frthermore, the"hromati" marim(a is sally played in a t#o<instrment ensem(le:a &marimba doble': that is "omprised of t#o "hromati" marim(as 1a large six<o"tave marim(a 6played (y for msi"ians8 and a smaller three<o"tave tenor 6played (y three msi"ians85$






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Pi"he msi"ians playing a ;)o+om, a marim(a de te"omates 1gord marim(a5, in.hi"hi"astenango, /atemala$ Note the gord resonators and the evenly spa"ed single

ro# of the ;eys$ hotograph (y Ro(ert /arfias 1reprod"ed #ith permission5$

Krom a msi"ologi"al perspe"tive, the development of "hromati" marim(as might (edes"ri(ed in terms of a te"hni"al advan"e that allo#s for greater msi"al versatility$ &-a

evol"i3n de la marim(a en /atemala,' #rites .arlos 0onsanto, &prod+o "on el tiempo nverdadero piano de madera & 1&The evoltion of the marim(a in /atemala,' #rites .arlos0onsanto, &prod"ed over time a tre #ooden piano'5$67H8 /od4ne! maintains that thedevelopment of the do(le "hromati" instrment trned the marim(a into a more niversalinstrment$ 9e insists, frthermore, that the marim(a remains every (it as &/atemalan' as its

pre"rsors$678 Thogh perhaps a""rate, this statement invites frther in?iry$ The "hromati"marim(a and its pre"rsors may all (e &/atemalan,' yet there remain signifi"ant distin"tionsthat "hara"teri!e these instrments on a "ltral level$

%hereas /od4ne! primarily sees the development of the "hromati" marim(a as alandmar; in msi"al te"hnology, the differen"es (et#een the marimba doble and itsindigenos pre"rsors ex"eed the realm of mere te"hni"al design$ In the transformationfrom !"ojom to &#ooden piano,' the traditional indigenos instrment#as #esternized "ltrally, te"hni"ally and materially &No solo las es"alas son eropeas,







sino tam(i@n los resonadores llegan a ser de madera, y no del nativo "a+3n de "ala(a!a$ $ $ $.on el tiempo se tili!3 el instrmento para to"ar o(ras "ien por "iento espa2olas 1&Not onlyare the s"ales Eropean, (t they ma;e the resonators ot of #ood instead of the native gords$ $ $ %ith time they started to se the instrment to play pie"es that #ere hndred per"entSpanish'5$6>8 Indigenos materials and "onventions #ere repla"ed in the "reation of the

"hromati" marim(a and the instrment #as sed to play Eropean<style msi", sally inr(an settings$

%ooden resonator (oxes on a "hromati" marim(a 1"hiapane"a5$hotograph (y Ro(ert /arfias 1reprod"ed #ith permission5$

The te"hni"al differen"es (et#een the marim(a de te"omates and the "hromati" marim(a

(elie the "on"eptal distan"e (et#een the Eropean and indigenos nderstandings of music$%hereas the marim(a de te"omates plays a rital role in traditional "ltre, the "hromati"marim(a is played as an instrment of entertainment, to amenizar 1enliven5 so"ial gatherings$The national "ele(ration of the chromatic marim(a, then, nders"ores the paradoxi"alsitation that indigenos msi" o""pies #ithin /atemalan national identity and history$

An analysis of the la# de"laring the marim(a as national sym(ol reveals a "omplex

dis"orse that simltaneosly "ele(rates and re+e"ts indigenos "ltre andmsi"$ $ecreto1-a#5 C7< ma;es referen"e to indigenos "ltre in the se"ond"onsideration, asserting a 0ayan origin for the marim(a and des"ri(ing the 0aya as theindigenos an"estors of /atemala

%hereas The an"estors of the marim(a derive from 0ayan .ltre, an athenti"lineage of the ethni" grops of the /atemalan people, a "ir"mstan"e that isdignified (y this natre and "onstittes an expression of national identity, for thesereasons it is appropriate to de"lare the marim(a a national sym(ol$6>78

Spea;ing for the government, the athors of the la# "onsider the 0aya to (e theoriginators of the marim(a and the an"estors of "ontemporary /atemalans$ The 0aya are

"ele(rated as the sor"e of the marim(a and as the no(le roots of /atemalan identity$ The0aya are not, ho#ever, a";no#ledged in this la# as playing any importan"e in "ontemporary








/atemalan so"iety$ 0oreover, the third "onsideration expli"itly names the chromatic double

marimba, the marim(a played (y ladinos, as the ltimate representation of the nation &-amarim(a de do(le te"lado "on es"ala "romti"a constituye la m%s genuina representación de

nuestra nacionalidad ' 1&The "hromati" do(le marim(a constitutes the most genuine

representation o& our nationality'5$6>>8 %here does this leave the 0aya #ith respe"t to the

"ele(ration of /atemalan msi" and identityJ Spe"ifi"ally, the la# pla"es the importan"e of indigenos "ltre and msi" in the past, in the "ontext of the an"estral "ontri(tions of thean"ient 0aya$ The instrment glorified as the most genine representation of /atemalan"ltre is not the indigenos !"ojom, (t rather the "hromati" marim(a$ The text lads the"hromati" marim(a for having improved, and perfe"ted, its indigenos lega"y$ Dietri"h, onthe other hand, refers to the "hromati" marim(a as &la marim(a desindiani!ada, ladini!ada'1&de<Indiani!ed, mesti!o marim(a'5 and reads the national "ele(ration of the "hromati"marim(a as part of the violen"e dire"ted at indigenos people$ 6>C8 The s(smption of the !"ojom (y the "hromati" marim(a, in this vie#, is an instrmental part of the politi"alannihilation of indigenos "ltre$

9o# is it possi(le for an instrment to have so many different meaningsJ The marim(a

eli"its "onfli"t (e"ase of its presen"e #ithin divergent "on"epts of identity #ithin /atemala$Kor traditional indigenos people, the !"ojom plays a "entral role in the rital performan"esthat frame their (elief system$ Kor many -adinos, on the gother hand, the chromatic

marimbarepresents the advan"e of /atemalan "ivili!ation, the perfe"t distillation of an"ient0ayan roots in a modern 1msi"al5 nation$ &.onforme el avan"e de la "ivili!a"i3n,' #rites0ar"ial Armas, &tam(i@n la marim(a ha avan!ado ha"ia s perfe""i3n' 1&As "ivili!ation hasadvan"ed,' #rites 0ar"ial Armas, &the mari(a too has advan"ed to#ards its perfe"tion'5$6>8 S"holars, frthermore, (oth from /atemala and else#here, have o(served instrmentalsimilarities (et#een marim(as from Afri"a and the marim(a de te"omates$6>G8 Thesesimilarities:"om(ined #ith the la"; of ar"haeologi"al eviden"e of marim(as at 0ayan sitesand in light of the dates of the first .olonial do"ments to mention marim(as:imply thatAfri"an slaves li;ely introd"ed the instrment to /atemalan Indians$ The #ord marim(a,frthermore, is (elieved to derive etymologi"ally from Afri"a from related terms in the Bantlangage grop$6>F8 Krom this ethnomsi"ologi"al perspe"tive, the marim(a "onstittes ahistori"al "ase of trans"ltration that trans"ends at least t#o "ontinents 1some start the storyin Asia5 and many different ethni" grops$ Ultimately, this spe"trm of meanings exemplifiesthe marim(a)s polyvalen"e, as an instrment and as a "ontested em(lem of /atemalan"ltral heritage$ Krom the !"ojom to themarimba doble 1"hromati" marim(a5, the instrmenthas (een maniplated and rearranged, msi"ally and dis"rsively, in "omplex negotiations of ethni", so"ial, msi"al and politi"al identities$

Instrumental istory: Musical Mestiza!e in Maya "#iche# CultureAnother example of trans"ltration, this one from "ontemporary P)i"he) "ltre,

illstrates ho# msi" and msi"al instrments "ontine to play a "entral role in the pro"ess of identity formation for individals #ithin a post"olonial indigenos "ommnity$ In Me llamo

Rigoberta Mench' y as( me nació la conciencia, a text that fo"ses on individal and"ommnity identity, Rigo(erta 0en"h= des"ri(es the pro"ess in #hi"h msi" em(odies (oththe .atholi" and indigenos sides of her identity &Nestra reni3n "ltral "omo ind4genas,la ten4amos el viernes$ Nestra reni3n "omo "at3li"os, el lnes' 1&%e had or "ltralmeeting as indigenos people on Kridays$ Or meeting as .atholi"s on 0ondays'5$6>L8 Shedes"ri(es her "onne"tion to indigenos msi"al instrments as a vehi"le throgh #hi"h to

(e"ome a part of her people (y invo;ing the an"estors in the presen"e of her family &And sothis #as #hen I (e"ame so interested in learning to play the instrments of or an"estors$ Kor
















example, the t'n, the drm, the sijolaj, #hi"h #e still have, the chirim(a$6>H8 %e started to pra"ti"e #ith my si(lings$'6>8 0en"h= emphasi!es the fa"t that the traditional msi" sharedamongst her family is a "r"ial lin; to their past$ 0si" fn"tions as a ;ind of "ltral glethat solidifies the family (oth #ithin their immediate "ommnity and #ithin their pla"e inhistory$ Their instrments are not merely tools #ith #hi"h to prod"e spe"ifi" sonds, the

instrments em(ody traditional "onne"tions to their an"estors$ 0en"h=)s interest in learningto play the traditional instrments points to a "ltral need to repeat the ritals of her an"estors on her an"estors) instrments &0e interes@ $ $ $ en aprender a to"ar los

instrumentos de nuestros antepasados' 1&I (e"ame interested $ $ $ in learning to play the

instruments o& our ancestors'5$6C8 laying their sa"red msi" on an"estral instrments and perpetating their mythology, 0en"h= des"ri(es "ontemporary P)i"he) Indians employingmsi" as a rital of 1traditional5 "ltral reprod"tion$

Althogh 0en"h= mentions the chirim(a as a traditional instrment of her an"estors,Spaniards a"tally introd"ed this 1o(oe<li;e5 do(le<reed aerophone in "olonial .entralAmeri"a and 0exi"o$ In other #ords, the "hirim4a may (e an instrment of her an"estors,thogh not her pre<.olm(ian indigenos an"estors$ A""ording to S"he"hter and Sto(art, the

"hirim4a is still played in Spain, in Santiago de .ompostela, Salaman"a and /ali"ia in pro"essional mar"hes$ In 0exi"o it is often played from a "hr"h to#er$ .hirim4a and drmensem(les a""ompany the )aile de la *on+uista 1Dan"e of the .on?est5 in /atemala$ The"hirim4a may in fa"t have Ara(i" roots, #hi"h date from the long 0oorish o""pation of theI(erian eninsla$6C78

0en"h= also des"ri(es her "ommnity as one that ;no#s and sings .atholi" songs&Re!(amos "omo "at3li"os "on los ve"inos a la ve!, to"ando nestros instrmentos' 1&%e

prayed as .atholi"s #ith or neigh(ors, #hile at the same time, playing or instrments'5$6C>8677785$ 0si" from indigenos, .atholi" and Islami" traditions "om(ines in 0en"h=)s"ommnity to form a post"olonial fsion$ 9er family plays an"estral instrments #hile

praying as .atholi"s$ 0si" delineates the divisions and +n"tres (et#een the .atholi" andindigenos aspe"ts of her life, history and her "ommnity at large$ 0si" does not representeither the indigenos or .atholi" side of 0en"h=)s "ltre nilaterally, it engages, rather, in a

pro"ess of negotiation$ 0si"al mestizaje 1(lending5 shapes and "ontors this post"olonial/atemalan "ommnity$

Althogh .atholi"ism and traditional "ltre shape the fondations of "ontemporaryP)i"he) identity, or reading #old (e far too narro# if it #ere limited to this (inary

paradigm$ In order to more flly nderstand the negotiation and lo"ation of "ltre, the fa"tor of poplar msi" needs to enter into the e?ation$ In many "ommnities, the pressres of %estern "ltre and poplar msi" are proving "orrosive to native traditions in /atemala andthroghot Indo Ameri"a$ At the same time, the roots of indigenos "ltre remain

inextri"a(ly (ond #ithin mesti!o poplar msi"$ The pre"ise histori"al origin of the marim(amay remain a mystery, (t "learly the indigenos !"ojom played a fondational role in thedevelopment of the "hromati" marim(a$ .onversely, indigenos people also appropriateelements of mesti!o msi" and retool them, paradoxi"ally "reating ne# versions of &traditional' msi"$ Navarrete elli"er sms p this pro"ess in for #ords &Ne# msi", oldmeanings$'6CC8 The relationship (et#een indigenos and 9ispani" msi", then, is not a linear

progression of histori"al inflen"e, (t rather a "ompli"ated #e( of trans"ltral intera"tivefeed(a";$ Reading the patterns of &give and ta;e' helps to reveal the #ays in #hi"h msi" andmsi"al instrments mediate the negotiations of indigenos and mesti!o identity$

Tzotzil Music from Chia$as: Traditional Music as Cultural Com$ass


















The "onfli"tive relationship (et#een traditional indigenos and "ontemporary poplar msi" in 0exi"o is a "entral theme in the .hiapas 0edia ro+e"t 1.05*romediosvideo,,ong o& the Earth: -raditional Music &rom the .ighlands o& *hiapas 1>>5$6C8 In thisindigenos<prod"ed do"mentary, a grop of T!ot!il msi"ians from San Andr@sSa;am"h)en lament the fa"t that yong people today tend to re+e"t their traditional msi",

dan"es and "lothing$ &%ho #ill (e thereJ' as;s one elder, &to re"eive the memory and #ordsof or fathers and mothersJ' By posing this ?estion he is in effe"t formlating a plasi(ledefinition of &msi"' from an indigenos perspe"tive$ Throghot time and in varios"ltres, #e see a "on"eption of traditional msi" and dan"e as &the memory and #ords of or fathers and mothers$'

The msi"ians in ,ong o& the Earth play for mem(ers of the E-N 1 Ej/rcito 0apatista

para la 1iberación 2acional * The apatista National -i(eration Army5 "ommnities as #ellas a general p(li"$ In spite of their o(vios politi"al affiliation, their msi" does not "onveyan inherently politi"al message$ The msi" is not intended to (road"ast otside of their "ommnity$ This is not a politi"al movement that attempts to "arry their message throghotthe #orld via msi"$ Rather, these are indigenos peoples experien"ing their o#n msi"

#ithin their o#n "ommnity$ Even the video #as prod"ed in part to serve the "ommnity, &tohelp foster dialoge a(ot #hy the yoth are not learning traditional msi" or #earingtraditional "lothing$'6CG8 In a sense, this "on"eption of msi" approximates that of Rigo(erta0en"h=)s testimonial$ As #as the "ase des"ri(ed (y 0en"h=, the msi" of 9ighlands .hiapas

prod"es "ltral "ohesion #ithin the "ommnity$6CF8 %hat is different here is that theT!ot!iles des"ri(e their traditional msi" as "ltre nder siege, in "onfli"t #ith poplar msi"$

Kor the T!ot!il msi"ians, the srvival of their msi" #ill ensre the endran"e of their traditional "ltre &The #isdom of the hearts and minds of or an"estors has not (een lost it"ontines to live on throgh s in or msi", dan"es and langages$' 9ere again #e see theindigenos vie# of msi" as the em(odiment of an"estral "ltral ;no#ledge$ Ironi"ally, theSpanish title of the video: ,on de la tierra :"onveys throgh its mltiple meanings therelation (et#een msi" and "ltre as represented (y the indigenos #orld vie#$ &,on' means&sond' and &song' and simltaneosly reads as the "on+gation of the ver( &to (e$' ,on de

la tierra3 in other #ords, "onveys the role that msi" plays in designating the "ltral lo"ationand identity of a people and their "ommnity$ ,on de la tierra "an (e translated as either &Song of the Earth' or &They "ome from the Earth$' To lo"ate T!ot!il "ltre #e "an readtheir msi", paying spe"ial attention to the pla"es #here 9ispani" and indigenos sond"ltres "onverge and diverge #ith and from one another, histori"ally, and in response to"ontemporary poplar msi"$

It #old (e nave and erroneos to assme that T!ot!il "ltre and msi" #old have

remained stati" for "entries$ Some of these "hanges are immediately evident in their "lothing$The msi"ians #ear traditional T!ot!il "lothing #ith apatista mas;s, (andanas andsometimes "o#(oy hats$ O(viosly, a myriad details have affe"ted T!ot!il "ltre and msi"sin"e the time of the .on?est$ As is "lear from earlier dis"ssion, msi" (e"ame a fo"al pointof trans"ltral negotiation early in the "oloni!ation$ The "rosses in the pro"ession of SanAndr@s highlight syn"reti" elements of "ontemporary T!ot!il "ltre$ %hereas they spea; of their &tre msi"' and &traditional instrments,' %estern "ltre has "ontri(ted to shape

present<day T!ot!il traditions$ The msi"al instrments that they play nders"ore this pro"ess$Althogh the instrments #e see in the video are o(viosly hand he#n, the presen"e of harps,gitars and violins indi"ates the inflen"e of Spanish "ltre in their msi"$

ybrid Instruments% ybrid Roots










At some time in history the T!ot!iles "hose to adopt Eropean instrments and adaptedthem to prod"e &traditional' indigenos msi"$ Are they playing Eropean instrmentsJ One"old arge that some instrments played (y native peoples only resem(le sperfi"ially their Eropean prototypes$ Ethnomsi"ologist Samel 0art4 o(serves that some indigenos gitarsand violins loo; li;e Eropean instrments, (t they have (een designed to prod"e different

sonds &9i"hol, Tarahmara, or .hamla gitars or violins may loo; li;e their sixteenth<"entry fore(ears, (t it is pra"ti"ally impossi(le to play Eropean msi" on them, sin"e their ma;ers have only their o#n msi" in mind in their tning and "onstr"tion$'6CL8 /od4ne!, ina similar vein, asserts that in light of different "onstr"tion pro"esses, materials and playingte"hni?es, the Eropean<style instrments played (y Indians are in essen"e indigenos&Di"hos instrmentos "onservan s3lo la aparien"ia a+ena pero en el fondo ya son enteramenteind4genas' 1&Said instrments only "onserve a foreign appearan"e, in essen"e they are entirelyindigenos'5$6CH8 A""ordingly, the Spaniards introd"ed "on"epts of "ertain msi"alinstrments that the Indians "stomi!ed over time depending on their o#n needs and

preferen"es$ 0ost li;ely, the modifi"ations #ere not "arried ot "ons"iosly, they haveo""rred over hndreds of years of "ltral and msi"al mestizaje$

An interesting resear"h pro+e"t #old (e to examine handmade indigenos harps, violins,gitars and other Eropean<style instrments to determine ho# the designs might have (eenmodified to prod"e a more indigenos sond$6C8 Qestions of relative pit"h and tning#old (e "entral to s"h a stdy$ Salvadoran "omposer Artro .orrales "omments thatmesti!os often thin; that indigenos msi" sonds out o& tune &%hen yo go hear theindigenos people playing, yo say Vthis Indian sonds ot of tne$) Bt, ot of tne inrelation to #hatJ %ho invented the notes, the s"ale, #hy do, re, miJ The "riteria are"ompletely "ltral$'68 referen"es in sond ?ality and tning are entirely "ltral and

psy"hologi"al$678The sonds prod"ed (y the /atemalan marim(a de te"omates 1!"ojom5 also illstrate

the "ltral determination of sond preferen"es and tning$ The marim(a de te"omates ta;esits name from a series of resonating gords 1te"omates5 that hang do#n from the ;eys$ Theinstrment<ma;er perforates ea"h gord #ith a spe"ial hole, srronds it #ith a mond of

(la"; #ax, and then forms a seal #ith a mem(rane made from the intestine of a female pig$The ensem(le of hole, #ax ring and mem(rane is "alled the mush, meaning (elly (tton inP)i"he) and Pa?"hi;el$ The mush prod"es the "hara"teristi" (!! that is often "ited aseviden"e of the Afri"an roots of the marim(a$6>8

Non<Indians often o(serve that the marim(a de te"omates, sonds &ot of tne$'Dietri"h, on the other hand, ?estions #hether the range of the instrment "an a""rately (edes"ri(ed #ith the %estern diatoni" s"ale$ 9e posits that %estern listeners hear an &ot of tne' diatoni" s"ale (e"ase of their "ltral predisposition to hear msi" in relation to

o""idental s"ales$ In Dietri"h)s vie#, the !"ojom o(eys a different, intentionally determined,msi"al order &.learly "ontemporary msi"ians and "ommnities re?ire the parti"lar sond of their !"ojom$ The 0ayan priests insist on maintaining the Verroneos) tning of theinstrment and msi"ians reprod"e this #ith great "are$'6C8 If this is tre, the marim(a dete"omates is not ot of tne, its "onstr"tion, rather, "orresponds to a different system or "ltral logi"$ Dietri"h points ot that the tning of ea"h !"ojom "onforms to the preferen"esof the msi"ian and his "ommnity$ These instrments are not even "ompati(le (et#een t#o0ayan "ommnities, m"h less international tning "onventions$ As frther eviden"e of ni?ely indigenos tning systems, Dietri"h "ites intervie#s #ith 0aya s"hool tea"hers #hoinsist that they "annot play their traditional msi" on "hromati" marim(as &Esas pie!as nosenan en la marim(a do(le, son into"a(les' 1&Those pie"es don)t "ome ot on the do(le

marim(a, they are not playa(le'5$68 The msi" "reated (y indigenos msi"ians is prod"ed




















in a""ordan"e #ith native "ltral tastes and "riteria:"ltral preferen"es that representnderlying hy(rid roots$

A ybrid &iolin: The Parado' of the (riginal

Often, #e "an see the hy(rid roots of indigenos "ltre in msi"al instrments$ orge-is A"evedo)s 1a m'sica en las reservas ind(genas de *osta Rica in"ldes a photo of anindigenos violin #ith a "ommentary (y T@rra(a msi"ian*lthier, 0amerto Orti! Orti!17H>5$ The list of #oods he ses 1/ana"aste de monta2a, /aya"n, /a"hipel4n5 #oldsrprise a Eropean violin<ma;er, not to mention the fa"t that he strings the instrment #ithgitar strings$ Orti! Orti! ses his violin to play (oth traditional msi" and "ontemporary

poplar songs &.on el viol4n to"o m"ha m=si"a de mis padres y a(elos, tam(i@n pntos y"m(ias' 1&%ith the violin I play a lot of my parents) and grandparents) msi",also puntos and cumbias'5$6G8This trans"ltral instrment derived from an essentiallyvirtal sor"e$ Orti! Orti! explains that he &"opied the shape of the violin from a ne#spaper

photograph over fifty years ago' 1&-a forma del viol4n la "opi@ de na foto del peri3di"o de

ha"e ms de "in"enta a2os'5$6F8Tra"ing the origin of this hy(rid instrment (a"; to a photograph leads to an image o& a copyof a Eropean violin$ This is reminis"ent of Derrida)sreading of langage A system "omprised of signs that al#ays point to other signs 1these, intrn, signifiers of other signifiers5 rather than an original referent$ S"h is or ?est for origins in "ltre, history and msi"$

This history of a T@rra(a violin re"alls the example of /atemalan Indians and themanner in #hi"h they refer to the mans"ripts of their dan"e<dramas$ The )aile de la

*on+uista1Dan"e of the .on?est5, for example, developed from varios versions of thedrama from the area of Qet!altenango that date from the mid to late 7H)s$ The #rittenmans"ript is treated #ith the tmost reveren"e and respe"t, it serves as the immediatereferen"e for the drama and is "r"ial, even #hen tea"hing spo;en lines to illiterate

parti"ipants$ These mans"ripts are sally referred to as &el original ' 1&the original'5$Kol;lorist Bar(ara Bode reports 1from her field #or; in 7GL5 that #hen a mans"ript

(e"omes #orn or faded, an &autor” 1athor5 re<"opies the text 1often introd"ing errors, other times intentionally modifying the text5 and this latest mans"ript then (e"omes the ne#&original $'6L8 Kor the )aile de la *on+uista, then, &original' does not signify the &first' text,

(t rather the definitive, most sefl and most re"ent "opy$ %e might follo# this example#hen tal;ing a(ot the T@rra(a violin$ /ranted a Eropean violin 1and many s(se?ent"opies5 existed &first,' (t in light of the modifi"ations #e "old say that Orti! Orti!)s "opy of a photo of a "opy of an instrment a"tally "onstittes a ne# indigenos instrment, in other #ords, a ne# &original $' Indigenos instrment ma;ers from throghot the Ameri"as,frthermore, have "rafted ne# originals (y refining Eropean "opies a""ording to their o#nato"hthonos "riteria$

)ome Contem$orary Mestizo Inno*ations on Indigenous Instruments

If indigenos instrment<ma;ers "reate ne# &originals' (y rema;ing Eropean "opies,the pro"ess "omes fll "ir"le in the "ase of mesti!os #ho se indigenos instrments andmsi" to assem(le ne# msi"al innovations$ /atemalan "omposer oa?4n Orellana 0e+4ahas designed an extraordinary series of ne# msi"al instrments:&'tiles sonoros'1&sonoros tools'5:most of #hi"h derive from the marim(a$6H8 The names of Orellana)s&a"osti" tools' tend to fse fragments of the #ord &marim(a,' #ith the sonds and shapes of

his designs$ 9is first design, the sonarimba, is a hollo# (am(oo "anister that is fitted #ith#ooden marim(a ;eys at the top and (ottom$ A small plasti" (all inside the "anister "reates












sond #hen a msi"ian sha;es the instrment$ The name, sonarimba, poeti"ally fses thenames of t#o instrments 1 sonaja 6rattle8 and marimba5 #ith the msi"al sond*rhythm, son$%hereas the name sonarimba evo;es t#o instrments, simltaneosly playing a gropof sonarimbas prod"es a "ollage<li;e effe"t of mltiple marim(as$

The names of Orellana)s 'tiles sonoros might (e "onsidered short poems that prod"e

visal images of their msi"al properties$ Orellana)s imbaluna "rves a marim(a ;ey(oardp#ards to form the shape of a "res"ent moon$ In this "ase, the name imbaluna sperimposesmarim(a and the moon<li;e shape of Orellana)s msi"al s"lptre$ The circumar 1a large"ir"le of sspended marim(a ;eys5 reiterates the "ir"lar shape of the instrment 1and the"ir"lar relation (et#een msi" and msi"al instrments5 in its nomen"latre$The circumar first alldes to the instrment)s circular form and follo#s #ith the (eginning of the name mar im(a$Another of Orellana)s &msi"al tools,' the &*iclo 4m,' (ends the marim(a even farther,trning the marim(a into the shape of a "ylindri"al #heel$ The *iclo 4m "ontains a small (allthat prod"es sond (y stri;ing the ;eys #hen the instrment is spn$ %e might visali!e thisa"osti" tool< instrment<s"lptre as a marim(a trned inside ot$ Not only are the sond<

prod"ing srfa"es of the ;eys lo"ated on the inside, the playing te"hni?e also inverts thetraditional role of the msi"ian$

To play marim(a a marimbista stri;es mallets against the ;eys to prod"e sond$ To playa *iclo 4m, on the other hand, the msi"ian spins the ;eys$ Trning the "ylinder moves the;eys arond the (all, #hi"h then moves via momentm and prod"es msi"$



oa?4n Orellana playing his im(alna 1#ith his "i"lo im, pper right "orner5$hoto (y Diana de Arango$



0etaphori"ally, #e might say that Orellana)s #or; similarly inverts the traditions of %estern instrments and msi"$ By perpetally rearti"lating inverted pie"es of marim(as,Orellana develops original "ompositions of "ontemporary "lassi"al msi"$

lease "li"; here for a msi"al example$ 67F0B8Both the instrments 1'tiles sonoros5 and his msi" have roots in indigenos "ltre$

Orellana)s #or;, moreover, generates a serios dimension of politi"al "riti?e$ In an intervie##ith Ingrid Roldn 0art4ne!, Orellana explains that many of his "ompositions e"ho thesonds of indigenos sffering at the hands of the /atemalan armed for"es$ Of his 7H"omposition, &Sa"ratvi"a,' for example, Orellana "omments that the str"tre "ontains a son

de la muerte, a death song &Tiene dentro de s estr"tra n son de la merte, n sondoloroso a"ompa2ado por n rital vo"al (astante li(re ?e evo"a los entierros o laestpefa""i3n ante los "ementerios "landestinos' 1&The "omposition has #ithin its str"tre adeath song 6 son8, a painfl song that is a""ompanied (y a fairly free vo"al rital evo;ing

(rials or the a#e provo;ed (y "landestine "emeteries'5$68 Throgh his sonorosexperiments #ith indigenos sonds 1(oth the phonemes of indigenos langages and themarim(a<(ased elements of indigenos msi"5, Orellana denon"es the violent a(se infli"ted

against Indians in /atemala, and rearti"lates an idiophone in defense of indigenos people$In this #ay, Orellana)s marim(a<(ased msi" and 'tiles sonoros &stri;e (a";' at the msi"aland politi"al status +uo$6G8

Conclusion

The development of hy(rid instrments is part of an on<going pro"ess of trans"ltrationand this essay has highlighted a fe# note#orthy examples$ Spanish priests (roght theIslami"<derived "hirim4a to the Ne# %orld and the Indians "onverted it into a traditionalindigenos instrment$ Kor Rigo(erta 0en"h=, the "hirim4a is as traditional as is the t'n andthe sijolaj$ Other indigenos grops, s"h as the T!ot!il of 9ighlands

.hiapas, indigenized Eropean instrments 1gitars, harps and violins5 a""ording to their o#n"ltral needs and preferen"es$ Similarly, Orti! Orti!)s violin "an (e read asan original indigenos instrment that derives from an n"ertain Eropean origin, a

photograph of a "opy, and fn"tions as a Vtraditional) T@rra(a artifa"t$Orellana)s instrmental innovations effe"tively re<start the pro"ess of "ltral renovation

at a different lo"ation in the "y"le$ Orellana designs and "reates ne# indigenos<derivedinstrments$ These ne# instrments are "r"ial for the representation of their original msi"al"ompositions$ These instrments, moreover, re<present the marim(a 1an indigenosinstrment of n"ertain origin5 and in so doing prod"e ne# mesti!o &originals$' 6G78 Thehistori"al tra+e"tory of the marim(a:from indigenos instrment of n;no#n origin to"hromati" national sym(ol of 1-adino5 /atemala, and then to Orellana)s util sonoro 1amesti!o invention that denon"es the repression of indigenos people5:highlights thetrans"enden"e of indigenos msi"al "ltre and also its plasti"ity as an artisti" and politi"aldis"orse$

Reading indigenos and mesti!o instrments reveals many of the lines along #hi"hidentity has (een negotiated and played ot a"ross history in -atin Ameri"a$ By exploringthese "ltral and politi"al negotiations #e "an o(tain a "learer vie# of the "omplex,trans"ltral "ompositions that "hara"teri!e and define -atin Ameri"a$













+or,s Cited

A"evedo W, orge -is$ 1a m'sica en las reservas ind(genas de *osta Rica$ San os@

Editorial de la Universidad de .osta Ri"a, 7HF$ XXXXXXXXXX$ M'sica ind(gena costarricense5 .D$ .entro de Do"menta"i3n e

Investiga"iones Art4sti"as, >C$Anl@ D4a!, Enri?e$ &Apntes so(re el origen de la marim(a$' -radiciones de uatemala C

17G5$Armas -ara, 0ar"ial$ El renacimiento de la danza guatemalteca y el origen de la marimba $

/atemala .entro Editorial &os@ de ineda I(arra,' 7F$Astrias /3me!, .arlos Ramiro and .@sar ineda del Walle$ Eds$ Antolog(a de la marimba

en America 6 1a verdadera evolución de la marinbah maya$ /atemala Artemis<Edinter, 7$

Bode, Bar(ara$ &The Dan"e of the .on?est of /atemala$' -he 2ative -heater in Middle

America$ Ne# Orleans The 0iddle Ameri"an Resear"h Institte of Tlane University, p(li"ation No$ >L, 7F7$

Brgos, Eli!a(eth$ Me llamo Rigoberta Mench' y as( me nació la conciencia$ 0exi"o SigloYYI, 7HH$

.astillo, es=s$ 1a m'sica maya +uiche$ /atemala Editorial iedra Santa, 7H7$

.heno#eth, Wida$ -he Marimbas o& uatemala$ -exington U of Pent";y , 7F$

.orrales, Artro$ &lti"a "on Artro .orrales, m=si"o salvadore2o, ar?ite"to de sonidos$'Intervie#$ Rth /r@gori and os@ Zngel0e+4a$ El&aro5net $http**###$elfaro$net*rogramas*Bs"ar*DetalleNota$phpJIDNota[>GLG

Dietri"h, %olfgang$ &-a marim(a -enga+e msi"al y se"reto de la violen"ia pol4ti"a en/atemala$' Am/rica 1atina .oy CG 1>C5 7L<FF$

/arfias, Ro(ert$ &The 0arim(a of 0exi"o and .entral Ameri"a$' 1atin American Music Revie76Revista de Musica 1atinoamericana$ , no$ > 17HC Kall<%inter5 >C<>>H$/od4ne!, -ester$ 1a marimba guatemalteca$ Kondo de .ltra E"on3mi"a, >>$

XXXXXXXXXX$ &anormi"a de la m=si"a ato"tona de /atemala$' *ultura de uatemala3

,eg'nda /poca 7F, no$ 1Septem(er \ De"em(er 7G5 L<FG$-ehnhoff, Dieter$ *reación musical en uatemala$ /atemala Editorial /aler4a /atemala,

>G$-evitin, Daniel $ -his is 8our )rain on Music: -he ,cience o& a .uman 9bsession $ Ne#

or; Dtton, >F$0a"e, .arroll Ed#ard$ &Algnos apntes so(re los (ailes de /atemala y de

Ra(inal$' Mesoam/rica > 17H75 HC<7CF$

0art4, Samel and /ertrde ro;os"h Prath$ $ances o& An%huac: -he *horeography and Music o& recortesian $ances5 .hi"ago Aldine (lishing .ompany, 7F$

0onsanto, .arlos$ &/atemala a trav@s de s marim(a$' 1atin American Music Revie7 C, no$7 1Spring<Smmer 7H>5 F<L>$

Navarrete elli"er, Sergio$ Maya Achi Marimba Music in uatemala$ hiladelphia TempleU, >G$

Orellana, oa?4n$ Intervie#$ &Orellana y s marim(a fantsti"a$' Ingrid Roldn0art4ne!$ Revista $5 ,emanario de rensa 1ibre$ 7$ Nov$ 7, >$ On<linehttp**###$prensali(re$"om*pl*domingo*ar"hivo*revistad*>*noviem(re*777*dfrente$shtml

Rimmer, oan$ &The Instrments "alled .hirim4a in -atin Ameri"a$' ,tudia 4nstrumentorum

Musicae opularis 17LF5 77<77$

S"he"hter, ohn 0$ and 9enry Sto(art$ &.hirim4a$' rove Music 9nline$ ed$ -$ 0a"y$1A""essed C*7C*G5 http**###$grovemsi"$"om

http://www.grovemusic.com/

http://www.grovemusic.com/



S"he"hter, ohn 0endell$ -he 4ndispensable .arp: .istorical $evelopment3 Modern Roles3

*on&igurations3 and er&ormance ractices in Ecuador and 1atin America$ Pent, OhioPent State U, 7>$

,ong o& the Earth: -raditional Music &rom the .ighlands o& *hiapas$ Wideo"assette$ .hiapas0edia ro+e"t, >>$

678 .arlos 0onsanto, &/atemala a trav@s de s marim(a,' 1atin American Music Revie7 C, no$ 7 1Spring<Smmer 7H>5 FG$

6>8 The most "redi(le theory holds that the marim(a fond its #ay to the Ameri"as via Afri"an slaves$ Kor anextensive stdy of the marim(a and its history, in"lding the "ontroversy regarding its origin, see -ester /od4ne!, 1a marimba guatemalteca 1Kondo de .ltra E"on3mi"a, >>5$ See also the "lassi" stdy (y Wida.heno#eth, -he Marimbas o& uatemala 1-exington U of Pent";y , 7F5$

6C8 Enri?e Anl@ D4a!, &Apntes so(re el origen de la marim(a,' -radiciones de uatemala C 17G5 7H$Brief Spanish "itations are follo#ed (y English translations throghot this essay$ Kor long ?otes, I have

pla"ed the English translation in the text, and pla"ed the original Spanish "itation in a footnote$ All translationsfrom Spanish to English are my o#n, nless other#ise stated$

68 Kor perspe"tive on the intensity of the polemi" srronding the marim(a, see the arti"le &/atemala a trav@sde s marim(a' (y .arlos 0onsanto$

6G8 0ar"ial Armas -ara, El renacimiento de la danza guatemalteca y el origen de la marimba 1/atemala.entro Editorial &os@ de ineda I(arra,' 7F5, 7G$

6F8 Astrias /3me!, .arlos Ramiro and .@sar ineda del Walle, eds$, Antolog(a de la marimba en America 6 1a

verdadera evolución de la marinbah maya 1/atemala Artemis<Edinter, 75, 7G$6L8 I(id$, 7C$6H8 I(id$68 I(id$, 7F$ &Todas estas eviden"ias estn 4ntimamente rela"ionadas "on el origen y evol"i3n de la verdadera

marim(a 0aya, eviden"ias ?e espero en Dios, me ayde a renir en n solo lgar, "omo n homena+e anestros an"estros 0ayas$ or este medio hago n llamado a los parientes de Don 0ar"ial Armas -ara, para

?e ante la prensa nos presten la valiosa "opia del "3di"e ?e @l hi!o$'678 See photographs of the vase and interpretations of its images in stin Perr)s, &Refle"tions on the

Ratinlinxl Wase and others of the same theme,' on the 0aya Wase Data(ase###$mayavase$"om*+or*+orney$html$

6778 %olfgang Dietri"h, &-a marim(a -enga+e msi"al y se"reto de la violen"ia pol4ti"a en/atemala,' Am/rica 1atina .oy CG 1>C5 7GF$

67>8 The marim(a is also de"lared the National Instrment of .osta Ri"a, althogh its prevalen"e is primarily inthe region of /ana"aste 1the north#estern se"tion of the "ontry5$

67C8 The term ladino means mestizo in /atemala$ -adino is an ethni", so"ial and often so"ioe"onomi" mar;er,essentially signifying a mixed (lood individal$ In general, ladinos "onsider themselves to (e #hite9ispani"s$ -adinos identify themselves (y nders"oring the fa"t that they are not Indians$ In some "ases,nevertheless, ladino refers to an indigenos<(orn person #ho no longer lives (y the "onventions of traditionalindigenos "ltre$

678 Dietri"h, &-a marim(a,' 7F>$67G8 Sergio Navarrete elli"er, Maya Achi Marimba Music in uatemala 1hiladelphia Temple U, >G5, >$67F8 I(id$67L8 /od4ne!, 1a marimba guatemalteca, 7>>$ A different type of "hromati" marim(a #as invented in .hiapas,

0exi"o arond 7HF (y .ora!3n de es=s Borra!$ In "ontrast to 9rtado)s design, the marimba crom%tica

chiapaneca distri(tes the ;eys for the a""idental notes in a fashion that more "losely resem(les a piano;ey(oard$ Kor des"riptions of the differen"es (et#een /atemalan and .hiapas<style "hromati" marim(as see-aren"e Paptain)s (oo;, -he #ood that ,ings: -he Marimba in *hiapas3 Mexico 1Everette 9oneyro";,7>5 and -ester /od4ne!)s 1a marimba uatemalteca5

67H8 0onsanto, &/atemala a trav@s de s marim(a,' FG$678 /od4ne!, 1a marimba guatemalteca, 7>G$ Althogh I am limiting my dis"ssion to t#o types of marim(a

1the indigenos and the "hromati"5, there exists another diatoni" marim(a in /atemala, &la marim(asen"illa' 1the &simple marim(a'5 #hi"h /od4ne! des"ri(es as an intermediate step in the development of the"hromati" marim(a$ The marim(a sen"illa is also a ladino instrment$

6>8 0onsanto, &/atemala a trav@s de s marim(a,' FG$

http://www.music.ucsb.edu/projects/musicandpolitics/archive/2007-2/neustadt.html#_ftnref1






























































6>78 &.onsiderando Qe los an"estros de la marim(a se remontan dentro de la .ltra 0aya, at@nti"o lina+ede las etnias de pe(lo gatemalte"o, "ir"nstan"ia ?e por s natrale!a la enalte"en, "onstity@ndola "omoexpresi3n de identidad na"ional, por lo ?e es "onveniente de"lararla "omo s4m(olo patrio$'

6>>8 0y emphasis$6>C8 Dietri"h, &-a marim(a,' 7FC$6>8 Armas, El renacimiento, 7L$

6>G8 See dis"ssions on the eviden"e for the /atemalan marim(a)s Afri"an origin in .heno#eth, /arfias,/od4ne! 1 1a marimba5, 0onsanto and Navarrete elli"er$6>F8 /od4ne!, 1a marimba guatemalteca, C<L and Navarrete elli"er, Maya Achi Marimba, L<L$6>L8 Eli!a(eth Brgos, Me llamo Rigoberta Mench' y as( me nació la conciencia 10exi"o Siglo YYI, 7HH5, 777$6>H8 The t'n 1also "alled c"unc"un or tuncul , ;no#n (y the A!te"s as teponaxtli5 is a hollo# #ooden slit<drm

1idiophone5$ Stri;ing the 9<shaped tonges "reates t#o different tones$ In 7>, in a "hapter entitled &-aorganograf4a prehist3ri"a de los ind4genas,' -is .astillo affirms that the t'n is the most important instrmentof 0esoameri"an Indians 1L7<L5$

The sijolaj 1tzijolaj, also "alled zu or xul 6in Spanish pito85 is a three< or sometimes for<hole open d"t "aneflte 1aerophone5$ A""ording to es=s .astillo the tzijolaj is the se"ond most important instrment for the0aya P)i"he)$ It is played for sa"red msi"$ .astillo informs that the term tzijolaj translates as &Elevador delas Ora"iones' 1a &prayer elevator'5 1LH<H5$

The chirim(a 1 xirim(a5 is a sha#m, an o(oe<li;e aerophone that #as introd"ed (y the Spaniards$ There exist a

nm(er of different types of "hirim4a throghot -atin Ameri"a$ Kor des"ription of varieties of "hirim4a in0exi"o, /atemala and .olom(ia, see oan Rimmer)s 7LF arti"le, &The Instrments "alled .hirim4a in -atinAmeri"a$'

6>8 Brgos, Me llamo Rigoberta Mench', 777$ &As4 es "ando yo me interes@ tanto, tanto en aprender a to"ar los instrmentos de nestros antepasados$ or e+emplo, el t=n, el tam(or, el si+ola+, ?e todav4a "onservamos,la "hirim4a$ Empe!(amos a pra"ti"ar "on mis hermanos$'

6C8 I(id$ Itali"s mine$6C78 oan Rimmer, &The Instrments "alled .hirim4a in -atin Ameri"a,' ,tudia 4nstrumentorum Musicae

opularis 17LF5 77 and Dieter -ehnhoff, *reación musical en uatemala 1/atemala Editorial /aler4a/atemala, >G5, >>F$

6C>8 Brgos, Me llamo Rigoberta Mench', 777$6CC8 Navarrete elli"er, Maya Achi Marimba, 7FF$6C8 The .hiapas 0edia ro+e"t*romedios, fonded (y do"mentary video prod"er Alexandra 9al;in in 7H,

gives te"hni"al training and video e?ipment to indigenos 1and campesino5 peoples from the 0exi"an statesof .hiapas and /errero$ The goal of the .0*romedios is to provide indigenos people #ith the tools andmeans possi(le to represent themselves in their o#n indigenos<made video do"mentaries$ The.0*romedios no# has a long list of video do"mentaries availa(le$ See the .hiapas 0ediaro+e"t*romedios #e( page http**###$promedios$org

6CG8 Alexandra 9al;in, personal ele"troni" "ommni"ation 1ly >, >G5$6CF8 %hereas they "reate msi" in and for their o#n "ommnities, 0en"h=)s testimonial and the

.0*romedios video do"mentary do also operate, as texts, on an international level$ Both Me llamo

Rigoberta Mench' and ,ong o& the Earth #ere "on"eived of #ith the goal of glo(al dissemination in order tosensiti!e the international "ommnity to the so"ial and politi"al sitations of indigenos peoples in /atemalaand .hiapas, 0exi"o$

6CL8 Samel 0art4 and /ertrde ro;os"h Prath, $ances o& An%huac: -he *horeography and Music o&

recortesian $ances 1.hi"ago Aldine (lishing .ompany, 7F5, 7HL$

6CH8 -ester /od4ne!, &anormi"a de la m=si"a ato"tona de /atemala,' *ultura de uatemala3 ,eg'nda/poca 7F, no$ 1Septem(er \ De"em(er 7G5 >H$

6C8 Kor a stdy of the indigenos adaptation of the harp in Soth Ameri"a, see ohn 0endell S"he"hter)s, -he

4ndispensable .arp: .istorical $evelopment3 Modern Roles3 *on&igurations3 and er&ormance ractices in

Ecuador and 1atin America 1Pent, Ohio Pent State U, 7>5$68 &.ando vas a o4r a los ind4genas to"ando, vos de"4s Ves ?e el indito sena desafinado$) ero ]desafinado

en rela"i3n a ?@, ?i@n invent3 las notas, la es"ala, por ?@ do, re, miJ Son "riterios "ompletamente"ltrales$' Krom an intervie# #ith Artro .orrales, &lti"a "on Artro .orrales, m=si"o salvadore2o,ar?ite"to de sonidos' (y Rth /r@gori and os@ Zngel 0e+4a$ The intervie# "an (e a""essed on lineat El&aro5net , http**###$elfaro$net*rogramas*Bs"ar*DetalleNota$phpJIDNota[>GLG

678 sy"hologist Daniel $ -evitin defines &pit"h' as a psy"hologi"al phenomenon &it"h is a prely psy"hologi"al phenomenon related to the fre?en"y of vi(rating air mole"les$ $ $ $ It is entirely in or heads,not in the #orld<ot<there $ $ $ Sond #aves\mole"les of air vi(rating at varios fre?en"ies\do not

themselves have pit"h$ Their motion and os"illations "an (e measred, (t it ta;es a hman 1or animal5 (rainto map them to that internal ?ality #e "all pit"h' 1>75$ -evitin defines &s"ales' as ar(itrary elements of


































































msi"al systems that are sele"ted and defined (y "ltre &A s"ale is +st a s(set of the theoreti"ally infinitenm(er of pit"hes, and every "ltre sele"ts these (ased on histori"al tradition or some#hat ar(itrarily' 1>L5$

6>8 /od4ne!, 1a marimba guatemalteca, 7H$6C8 Dietri"h, &-a marim(a,' 7GL$ &Es evidente ?e hasta el d4a de hoy los m=si"os y las "omnidades re?ieren

el sonido parti"lar de s !"ojom$ -os sa"erdotes mayas insisten en mantener la afina"i3n Verr3nea) delinstrmento y los m=si"os la reprod"en "on smo "idado$'

68 I(id$, 7HG$6G8 orge -is A"evedo W, 1a m'sica en las reservas ind(genas de *osta Rica 1San os@ Editorial de laUniversidad de .osta Ri"a, 7HF5, LH$ -isten to a re"ording of 0amerto Orti! playing &.m(ia AntigaT@rra(a,' 1tra"; MF5 of orge -is A"evedo)s "ompa"t dis", M'sica ind(gena costarricense5

6F8 I(id$6L8 Bar(ara Bode, &The Dan"e of the .on?est of /atemala,' in -he 2ative -heater in Middle America1Ne#

Orleans The 0iddle Ameri"an Resear"h Institte of Tlane University, p(li"ation No$ >L, 7F75, >>L$.aroll Ed#ard 0a"e also reports that the texts of /atemalan )ailes are ;no#n as ;originales' 1HG5$ A""ording

to Bode the other most "ommon term is &la historia' 1the history5 thogh the texts are also "alled &la rela"i3n'1the story5 &el li(ro' 1the (oo;5 and &el mans"rito' 1the mans"ript5 1>>5$

6H8 Kor partial lists of Orellana)s 'tiles sonoros #ith photographs, see the "atalog of the msem sho#,,in&on(a

delirante, in the 0seo Na"ional de Arte 0oderno* /atemala in 7H$ See also the se"tion on Orellana in/od4ne!)s 1a marimba guatemalteca 1>FF<L>5 and the intervie# 1(y Ingrid Roldn 0art4ne! 5, &Orellana y s

marim(a fantsti"a'1 http**###$prensali(re$"om*pl*domingo*ar"hivo*revistad*>*noviem(re*777*dfrente$shtml 5$68 Intervie# #ith Roldn 0art4ne!$6G8 The seriosness of Orellana)s politi"al stan"e (e"omes "lear in ane"dotes des"ri(ed in the intervie# #ith

Roldn 0art4ne!$ 9is 7> "omposition, *erros de 4lom, #as (la";listed (y the government$ Orellanaexplains that at that time he feared assassination &o s4 sent4a ?e de repente i(a a sonar la rfaga' 1&I felt li;eall of a sdden there #old sond a (rst from a ma"hine gn'5$

6G78 I shold "larify that Orellana has also developed instrments that are not (ased on the marim(a$ This said,Orellana (ases most of his 'tiles sonoros and "ompositions on the marim(a$ 0si"ally, his "ompositions arenoti"ea(ly experimental 1avant garde* modern "lassi"al$































Documents

Reading Indigenous and Mestizo Musical Instruments