Reading fluency as a marker for early reading progress: Strengths and Weaknesses Joseph K. Torgesen Florida State University and the Eastern Regional Reading

Reading fluency as a marker Reading fluency as a marker for early reading progress: for early reading progress: Strengths and WeaknessesStrengths and Weaknesses

Joseph K. TorgesenJoseph K. Torgesen

Florida State University and the Eastern Regional Florida State University and the Eastern Regional Reading First Technical Assistance CenterReading First Technical Assistance Center

Massachusetts Reading First,March, 2006Massachusetts Reading First,March, 2006

Examine the utility of reading fluency as a marker for Examine the utility of reading fluency as a marker for early reading progress by focusing on three early reading progress by focusing on three questions:questions:

1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in identifying 1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in identifying students who are “at risk” for performing below grade level students who are “at risk” for performing below grade level on “high stakes” measures of reading comprehension?on “high stakes” measures of reading comprehension?

2. What is the 2. What is the causal connectioncausal connection between reading fluency and between reading fluency and reading comprehension? reading comprehension?

3. What are the 3. What are the big ideasbig ideas that should guide our work to build that should guide our work to build reading fluency in young children?reading fluency in young children?

What evidence do we have that there is a causal What evidence do we have that there is a causal connection?connection?

What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?

Why is it important for us all to acquire more Why is it important for us all to acquire more knowledge and understanding about these questions?knowledge and understanding about these questions?

1. Measures off reading fluency are being used in a very 1. Measures off reading fluency are being used in a very large number of states in Reading First as one of the large number of states in Reading First as one of the primary indicators of early reading growth. primary indicators of early reading growth.

2. Reading Fluency has been identified as one of the five 2. Reading Fluency has been identified as one of the five major components of reading growth that should be the major components of reading growth that should be the focus of instruction and assessment in grades K-3focus of instruction and assessment in grades K-3

3. Many programs are currently being promoted and used 3. Many programs are currently being promoted and used for the specific purpose of increasing reading fluency—for the specific purpose of increasing reading fluency—and the goal of these programs is not just to increase and the goal of these programs is not just to increase reading fluency, but also to increase students ability to reading fluency, but also to increase students ability to comprehend complex text.comprehend complex text.

Examine the relationship between reading fluency Examine the relationship between reading fluency and reading comprehension with a view toward more and reading comprehension with a view toward more fully understanding the answers to three questions:fully understanding the answers to three questions:

1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in identifying 1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in identifying students who are “at risk” for performing below grade students who are “at risk” for performing below grade level on measures of reading comprehension?level on measures of reading comprehension?


What evidence do we have that there is a causal What evidence do we have that there is a causal connection?connection?What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?


The most common way of assessing reading fluency is The most common way of assessing reading fluency is to ask students to read a passage of grade level text to ask students to read a passage of grade level text orally and count the number of words the student orally and count the number of words the student reads correctly in a defined period of time. reads correctly in a defined period of time.

Provides a reliable assessment of fluencyProvides a reliable assessment of fluencyone passage – in low .90’sone passage – in low .90’sthree passages with median – mid to high .90’sthree passages with median – mid to high .90’s

The time period for assessment is typically one The time period for assessment is typically one minute.minute.

Oral reading fluency shows steady growth as children Oral reading fluency shows steady growth as children acquire reading skills during 1acquire reading skills during 1stst through 3 through 3rdrd grade grade

20

30

40

50

Cor

rect

Wor

ds p

er M

inut

eC

orre

ct W

ords

per

Min

ute

60

70

80

90

100

1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade

W S F W S F W S

110

120

Correct Words per Minute on Grade Level Text

Good, Wallin, Simmons, Kame’enui, & Kaminski, 2002

45 WPM

33 WPM

27 WPM

The most common way of assessing reading fluency is The most common way of assessing reading fluency is to ask students to read a passage of grade level text to ask students to read a passage of grade level text orally and count the number of words the student orally and count the number of words the student reads correctly in a defined period of time.reads correctly in a defined period of time.

Provides a reliable assessment of fluencyProvides a reliable assessment of fluencyone passage – in low .90’sone passage – in low .90’sthree passages with median – mid to high .90’sthree passages with median – mid to high .90’s

The time period for assessment is typically one The time period for assessment is typically one minute.minute.

Oral reading fluency shows steady growth as children Oral reading fluency shows steady growth as children acquire reading skills during 1acquire reading skills during 1stst through 3 through 3rdrd grade grade

Oral reading fluency measures are strongly related to Oral reading fluency measures are strongly related to reading comprehension in grades 1,2, 3reading comprehension in grades 1,2, 3

Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with most falling around .70. most falling around .70.

The strength of the relationship depends The strength of the relationship depends upon such things as:upon such things as:

The measure of reading comprhensionThe measure of reading comprhension

N=218

R=.76

N=218

R=.56

Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with most falling around .70. most falling around .70.

The strength of the relationship depends The strength of the relationship depends upon such things as:upon such things as:

The measure of reading comprehensionThe measure of reading comprehension

Age/grade level of students – r with SAT10Age/grade level of students – r with SAT10

11stst grade grade r = .79r = .7922ndnd grade grade r = .70r = .7033rdrd grade grade r = .69r = .69

Why is the correlation Why is the correlation higher at 1higher at 1stst than at 3 than at 3rdrd grade?grade?

These correlations indicate that performance on brief These correlations indicate that performance on brief measures of oral reading fluency is strongly measures of oral reading fluency is strongly correlated with performance on measures of reading correlated with performance on measures of reading comprehension. comprehension.

It turns out that ORF measures have high It turns out that ORF measures have high predictive utility for identifying students predictive utility for identifying students likely to struggle on “high stakes” or formal likely to struggle on “high stakes” or formal measures of reading comprehensionmeasures of reading comprehension

However, they don’t tell us directly how useful the However, they don’t tell us directly how useful the ORF measures actually are in identifying students ORF measures actually are in identifying students likely to struggle on comprehension measureslikely to struggle on comprehension measures

10

20

30

40

Hi riskModerate Risk

Per

cent

Pro

ficie

nt o

n M

CA

SP

erce

nt P

rofic

ient

on

MC

AS

50

60

Low Risk

70

80

90

3rd Grade-MASS Florida

19

40

72

Orf

> 7

8

Orf

fro

m 5

3 to

77

<53

3,339 students

Prediction from first of year

Per

cent

Gra

de le

vel o

n F

CA

TP

erce

nt G

rade

leve

l on

FC

AT

25

46

86

Orf

> 7

8

Orf

fro

m 5

3 to

77

<53

Teaching Reading is Urgent

170

180

190

200

210

220

230

240

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160Oral Reading Fluency, Spring, Grade 1

OS

A R

ead

ing

/Lit

erat

ure

, Sp

rin

g,

Gra

de

3

Performance at the end of first grade strongly predicts performance on third grade high stakes test.

88% of students who met the end of first grade ORF goal met or exceeded Oregon’s State Benchmark Test. Similar correlations have been found for CO, IA, FL, and PA.






““the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious attention to the mechanics of reading, such as attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding” decoding” (Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).(Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).

Some definitions of reading fluencySome definitions of reading fluency

Five common methods for identifying words in Five common methods for identifying words in text text (Ehri, 1999)(Ehri, 1999)

1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes 1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes to form recognizable words (decoding)to form recognizable words (decoding)

2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a 2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a more advanced form of decoding)more advanced form of decoding)

3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are 3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly and effortlessly with practiceand effortlessly with practice

4. By analogizing to words already known by sight4. By analogizing to words already known by sight

5. By predicting words from context5. By predicting words from context

Five common methods for identifying words in Five common methods for identifying words in text text (Ehri, 1999)(Ehri, 1999)

1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes 1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into phonemes to form recognizable words (decoding)to form recognizable words (decoding)

2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a 2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as chunks (a more advanced form of decoding)more advanced form of decoding)

3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are 3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words are referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly referred to as “sight words.” Retrieval happens quickly and effortlessly with practiceand effortlessly with practice

4. By analogizing to words already known by sight4. By analogizing to words already known by sight

5. By predicting words from context5. By predicting words from context

Although all these methods for reading words become more Although all these methods for reading words become more fluent with practice, fluency increases most dramatically as fluent with practice, fluency increases most dramatically as more words become identifiable “by sight.”more words become identifiable “by sight.”

These are iNTirEStinG and cHallinGinG times for anyone whose pRoFEshuNle responsibilities are rEelaTed in any way to liTiRucY outcomes among school children. For, in spite of all our new NaWLEGe about reading and reading iNstRukshun, there is a wide-spread concern that public EdgUkAshuN is not as eFfEktIve as it shood be in tEecHiNg all children to read.

The report of the National Research Council pointed out that these concerns about literacy derive not from declining levels of literacy in our schools but rather from recognition that the demands for high levels of literacy are rapidly accelerating in our society.

The Fluency Challenge…..The Fluency Challenge…..

““One of the great mysteries to challenge One of the great mysteries to challenge researchers is how people learn to read and researchers is how people learn to read and comprehend text rapidly and with ease. A large comprehend text rapidly and with ease. A large part of the explanation lies in how they learn to part of the explanation lies in how they learn to read individual words. Skilled readers are able to read individual words. Skilled readers are able to look at thousands of words and immediately look at thousands of words and immediately recognize their meanings without any effort.”recognize their meanings without any effort.”

Ehri, L. C. (2002). Phases of acquisition in learning to read words and implications Ehri, L. C. (2002). Phases of acquisition in learning to read words and implications for teaching. In R. Stainthorp and P. Tomlinson (Eds.) for teaching. In R. Stainthorp and P. Tomlinson (Eds.) Learning and teaching Learning and teaching reading.reading. London: British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series II. London: British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series II.

December, 3rd Grade

Correct word/minute=60

19th percentile

The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party

My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses on them….. return addresses on them…..

December, 3rd Grade

Correct word/minute=128

78th percentile

The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party

My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses on them….. return addresses on them…..

““the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious effortlessly, and automatically with little conscious attention to the mechanics of reading, such as attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding” decoding” (Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).(Meyer and Felton (1999, p. 284).

Some definitions of reading fluencySome definitions of reading fluency

““Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression”accurately, and with proper expression”National Reading Panel, 2000National Reading Panel, 2000

““Fluency involves accurate reading at a minimal rate Fluency involves accurate reading at a minimal rate with appropriate prosodic features (expression) and with appropriate prosodic features (expression) and deep understanding” deep understanding” Hudson, Mercer, and Lane (2000, p. 16). Hudson, Mercer, and Lane (2000, p. 16).

““freedom from word recognition problems that freedom from word recognition problems that might hinder comprehension” might hinder comprehension” (Literacy Dictionary, Harris & (Literacy Dictionary, Harris &

Hodges, 1995, p. 85).Hodges, 1995, p. 85).

If comprehension is included as part of the If comprehension is included as part of the definitiondefinition of of fluency, then questions about the causal relationships fluency, then questions about the causal relationships between fluency and comprehension disappearbetween fluency and comprehension disappear

However, when we assess ORF, we do not directly However, when we assess ORF, we do not directly assess comprehension, we assess assess comprehension, we assess rate of readingrate of reading

The question we address here is whether there are The question we address here is whether there are causal relationships between the processes that causal relationships between the processes that contribute to individual differences contribute to individual differences in oral reading in oral reading raterate and the processes that are required for good and the processes that are required for good performance on measures of reading performance on measures of reading comprehensioncomprehension

Within current reading theory, we can identify two Within current reading theory, we can identify two major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is commonly measured) might be related commonly measured) might be related causallycausally to to individual differences in reading comprehensionindividual differences in reading comprehension

Efficient, or automatic, identification of words Efficient, or automatic, identification of words allowsallows the reader to focus more attention on the the reader to focus more attention on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage

Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may causecause individual differences in reading rate. These individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes influence both fluency comprehension processes influence both fluency and comprehension tasks. and comprehension tasks.

Within current reading theory, we can identify two Within current reading theory, we can identify two major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is major ways that individual differences in ORF (as it is commonly measured) might be related commonly measured) might be related causallycausally to to individual differences in reading comprehensionindividual differences in reading comprehension

Efficient, or automatic, identification of words Efficient, or automatic, identification of words allowsallows the reader to focus more attention on the the reader to focus more attention on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage

Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may causecause individual differences in reading rate. These individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes influence both fluency comprehension processes influence both fluency and comprehension tasks. and comprehension tasks.

The idea that automatic word recognition processes The idea that automatic word recognition processes make it possible to focus more attentional resources make it possible to focus more attentional resources on comprehension was initially popularized by the on comprehension was initially popularized by the work of LaBerge and Samuals (1974)work of LaBerge and Samuals (1974)

They developed a model of reading with the concept They developed a model of reading with the concept of of automaticityautomaticity as one of its central features as one of its central features

1. A complex skill like reading requires the rapid and 1. A complex skill like reading requires the rapid and efficient coordination of many processesefficient coordination of many processes

2. If enough processes are executed automatically, then 2. If enough processes are executed automatically, then the attentional load remains within tolerable limits.the attentional load remains within tolerable limits.

3. Word identification processes are more likely to 3. Word identification processes are more likely to become automatic than comprehension processesbecome automatic than comprehension processes

““In fact, the automaticity with which In fact, the automaticity with which skillful readers recognize words is the skillful readers recognize words is the key to the whole system…The reader’s key to the whole system…The reader’s attention can be focused on the attention can be focused on the meaning and message of a text only meaning and message of a text only to the extent that it’s free from fussing to the extent that it’s free from fussing with the words and letters.”with the words and letters.”

Marilyn AdamsMarilyn Adams

Why is fluency important?Why is fluency important?

Because it provides a bridge between Because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.word recognition and comprehension.

““Fluency, it seems, serves as a bridge between word Fluency, it seems, serves as a bridge between word recognition and comprehension. Because when fluent recognition and comprehension. Because when fluent readers are able to identify words readers are able to identify words accurately and accurately and automaticallyautomatically, they can focus most of their attention , they can focus most of their attention on comprehension. on comprehension.

They can make connections among the ideas in the text They can make connections among the ideas in the text and between the text and their background knowledge. and between the text and their background knowledge. In other words, fluent readers can recognize words and In other words, fluent readers can recognize words and comprehend at the same time. comprehend at the same time.

Less fluent readers, however, must focus much of their Less fluent readers, however, must focus much of their attention on word recognition…The result is that non-attention on word recognition…The result is that non-fluent readers have little attention to devote to fluent readers have little attention to devote to comprehension”comprehension” ( (Osborn, Lehr, and Hiebert, 2003)Osborn, Lehr, and Hiebert, 2003)

The Evidence:The Evidence:

When reading rate is increased through the use of When reading rate is increased through the use of repeated reading techniques, comprehension also repeated reading techniques, comprehension also increases (16 studies-NRP report)increases (16 studies-NRP report)

Effect size for fluency = .44Effect size for fluency = .44

Effect size for comprehension = .35Effect size for comprehension = .35

Problem: a variety of techniques were actually mixed Problem: a variety of techniques were actually mixed together in these findingstogether in these findings

A more recent meta-analysis focusing only on repeated A more recent meta-analysis focusing only on repeated reading studies reported these effect sizes reading studies reported these effect sizes (THERRIEN, 2004)(THERRIEN, 2004)

Effect size for fluency = .50Effect size for fluency = .50Effect size for comprehension= .25Effect size for comprehension= .25

Problem: processes other than word reading efficiency Problem: processes other than word reading efficiency might be enhanced by repeated reading practicemight be enhanced by repeated reading practice

The Evidence (cont.):The Evidence (cont.):

Can practice Can practice specifically targetedspecifically targeted on word reading on word reading efficiency improve fluency and comprehension?efficiency improve fluency and comprehension?

What we need is evidence that practice which focuses What we need is evidence that practice which focuses solely on increasing word reading efficiency can also solely on increasing word reading efficiency can also increase text reading fluency and reading comprehensionincrease text reading fluency and reading comprehension

What do we mean by context-free practice?:What do we mean by context-free practice?:

animalanimal

fasterfaster

happyhappy

nevernever

timetime

sleepsleep

rabbitrabbit

The Evidence (cont.):The Evidence (cont.):

Recently, Levy, Recently, Levy, Abello, and Lysnchuk(1997) reported a Abello, and Lysnchuk(1997) reported a carefully controlled study with 4carefully controlled study with 4thth grade poor readers in grade poor readers in which context free practice to increase speed of word which context free practice to increase speed of word identification positively affected both identification positively affected both fluency and fluency and comprehensioncomprehension

Critical featuresCritical features 1. intensive fluency practice-every word recognized in 1. intensive fluency practice-every word recognized in

less than 1 secondsless than 1 seconds 2. Used long stories that places particular demands on 2. Used long stories that places particular demands on

fluencyfluency 3. Stories were at the appropriate level of difficulty for 3. Stories were at the appropriate level of difficulty for

each studenteach student

To summarize:To summarize:

Increasing rate through repeated reading practice also Increasing rate through repeated reading practice also increases comprehensionincreases comprehension

There has been at least one demonstration that increasing There has been at least one demonstration that increasing rate through isolated word practice can increase reading rate through isolated word practice can increase reading comprehensioncomprehension

Across these definitions of fluency, we can identify two Across these definitions of fluency, we can identify two major ways that individual differences in ORF might be major ways that individual differences in ORF might be related causally to individual differences in reading related causally to individual differences in reading comprehensioncomprehension

Efficient identification of words allow a focus on the Efficient identification of words allow a focus on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage

Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may contribute to individual differences in reading rate. contribute to individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes are shared These comprehension processes are shared between fluency and comprehension tasks. between fluency and comprehension tasks.


Although students remember more of the content from ORF Although students remember more of the content from ORF stories if prompted to remember, stories if prompted to remember, they do remember a they do remember a significant amount with only a cue to “do their best readingsignificant amount with only a cue to “do their best reading” ” ((O’Shea, Sindelar, & O’Shea, 1987)

There is experimental evidence to indicate that comprehension There is experimental evidence to indicate that comprehension processes (identifying anaphoric referents, integrating processes (identifying anaphoric referents, integrating propositions in text with background knowledge, inferencing) propositions in text with background knowledge, inferencing) can also become automatized with reading practice. can also become automatized with reading practice. (Perfetti, 1995)(Perfetti, 1995)

This means they can occur without the specific “intention to This means they can occur without the specific “intention to comprehend.”comprehend.”

Comprehension is occurring for most students as they read the words on ORF passages.


How could automatically occurring comprehension How could automatically occurring comprehension processes affect rate of reading on ORF tasks?processes affect rate of reading on ORF tasks?

There is experimental evidence for fast acting, There is experimental evidence for fast acting, automatic spreading of semantic activation thast automatic spreading of semantic activation thast does not consume attention resources…words are does not consume attention resources…words are primed for easier recognition (Posner & Snyder, primed for easier recognition (Posner & Snyder, 1975).1975).


Jenkins, et al., (2003) asked 113 4Jenkins, et al., (2003) asked 113 4 thth grade students grade students with a broad range of reading ability to perform three with a broad range of reading ability to perform three tasks:tasks:

1. ORF following standard (best reading) cue.1. ORF following standard (best reading) cue.

3. ITBS reading comprehension test3. ITBS reading comprehension test

2. ORF with words in passage arranged in random 2. ORF with words in passage arranged in random order in a listorder in a list


WPM Text = 127WPM Text = 127 WPM List = 83WPM List = 83

Correlation with ITBS Correlation with ITBS

Text = .83Text = .83

List = .53List = .53

Processes unique to reading meaningful text supported Processes unique to reading meaningful text supported more fluent reading of words – more fluent reading of words – spreading activation based spreading activation based on comprehension facilitates fluency – on comprehension facilitates fluency – is one possibilityis one possibility

Test format that allowed comprehension processes (presumably Test format that allowed comprehension processes (presumably operating in both ORF and comprehension test) to influence operating in both ORF and comprehension test) to influence raterate led to higher correlation – led to higher correlation – word reading that is influenced word reading that is influenced by comprehension is more correlated with comprehension than by comprehension is more correlated with comprehension than just word reading efficiency alonejust word reading efficiency alone

Conclusions:Conclusions:

1. Both 1. Both single word identificationsingle word identification processes and processes and comprehension processescomprehension processes contribute to individual contribute to individual differences in oral reading fluency for textdifferences in oral reading fluency for text

a. At the lower end of the ORF continuum, word reading a. At the lower end of the ORF continuum, word reading efficiency makes a stronger unique contribution in efficiency makes a stronger unique contribution in explaining variance in fluencyexplaining variance in fluency

b.At the higher end of the ORF continuum, b.At the higher end of the ORF continuum, comprehension processes make a stronger unique comprehension processes make a stronger unique contribution to explaining variance in fluency.contribution to explaining variance in fluency.

Individual Differences in Oral Reading Fluency are influenced by different factors, depending

on level of fluency

50th 16th 2nd 98th 84th

Standard Scores

Automatic comprehension

processes

Single word reading

efficiency

50th 16th 2nd 98th

Standard Scores

Automatic comprehension

processes

Single word reading

efficiency

Conclusions (cont.):Conclusions (cont.):

ORF is correlated with reading comprehension ORF is correlated with reading comprehension becausebecause

1. Both ORF and reading comprehension depend to 1. Both ORF and reading comprehension depend to some extent on some extent on efficiency of single word reading efficiency of single word reading processesprocesses

2. Both ORF speed and reading comprehension 2. Both ORF speed and reading comprehension scores are influenced to some extent by the scores are influenced to some extent by the efficiency of comprehension processesefficiency of comprehension processes that that facilitate performance on both tasksfacilitate performance on both tasks

Reading Processes measured by ORF facilitate Reading Processes measured by ORF facilitate performance on tests of Reading Comprehensionperformance on tests of Reading Comprehension

Next questionNext question: Are the two direct causal connections : Are the two direct causal connections the only reason that ORF is related to performance on the only reason that ORF is related to performance on tests of reading comprehension?tests of reading comprehension?

A reminder about correlationsA reminder about correlations

A can be correlated with B because:A can be correlated with B because:

A A causescauses B B (good reading rate enables comp.)(good reading rate enables comp.)B B causescauses A A (comp. enables good reading rate)(comp. enables good reading rate)

Both A and B are Both A and B are causedcaused by C by C(comp. and rate are both influenced by experience)(comp. and rate are both influenced by experience)

Fluency can be correlated with comprehension Fluency can be correlated with comprehension because individual differences because individual differences in both skillsin both skills are are caused by differences in:caused by differences in:

Reading experienceReading experienceHome environment and supportHome environment and support

Motivation to succeed in schoolMotivation to succeed in school

Reading Reading ExperienceExperience

FluencyFluency

Reading comprehensionReading comprehension through through vocabulary increasesvocabulary increases

Motivation to Motivation to succeed in succeed in schoolschool

FluencyFluency

Reading comprehensionReading comprehension through through development of reading strategiesdevelopment of reading strategies

“…“…motivated students usually want to motivated students usually want to understand text content fully and therefore, understand text content fully and therefore, process information deeply. process information deeply. As they read As they read frequently with these cognitive purposesfrequently with these cognitive purposes, , motivated students gain in reading motivated students gain in reading comprehension proficiency”comprehension proficiency”

Guthrie, J.T. (et al.) (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and Guthrie, J.T. (et al.) (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 403-421.Educational Psychology, 96, 403-421.

Differences in SES cause differences among Differences in SES cause differences among students in students in bothboth comprehension and fluency comprehension and fluency

Lower SES students:Lower SES students: Lower vocabularyLower vocabulary

Less support for reading in Less support for reading in the home –less practicethe home –less practice

Less preparation in Less preparation in preschool environment for preschool environment for early acquisition of early acquisition of alphabetic principlealphabetic principle

Less exposure to booksLess exposure to books

Fewer opportunities to Fewer opportunities to develop rich content develop rich content knowledgeknowledge

Lower ComprehensionLower Comprehension

Lower Comprehension Lower Comprehension Lower FluencyLower Fluency

Lower FluencyLower Fluency

Lower Comprehension Lower Comprehension Lower FluencyLower Fluency

Lower ComprehensionLower Comprehension

Differences in SES cause differences among Differences in SES cause differences among students in students in bothboth comprehension and fluency comprehension and fluency

Differences in learning opportunities and motivation for Differences in learning opportunities and motivation for school learning that are associated with differences in school learning that are associated with differences in

SES SES causecause both: both:

Lower Lower ComprehensionComprehension

Lower Lower FluencyFluency

??????

N=218ORF R=.76Vocab R = .69NVR R = .48Mem R = .35

Total R2 = 71%

Common = 43.5%

ORF = 18.9%

Vocab = 7.1%

NVR = 1.2%

Mem = .3%

ORF Unique R = .43

If we controlled for the joint, and shared, contribution of If we controlled for the joint, and shared, contribution of vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, and memory, we would vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning, and memory, we would expect:expect:

What is the practical meaning of these analyses in terms of What is the practical meaning of these analyses in terms of the potential impact of interventions that increase the potential impact of interventions that increase just just reading fluencyreading fluency

If we based our estimate of the impact of these If we based our estimate of the impact of these interventions on the raw correlation between ORF and interventions on the raw correlation between ORF and comprehension, we would expect:comprehension, we would expect:

A 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce a 12.5 point gain A 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce a 12.5 point gain on the FCATon the FCAT

10 WPM gain on ORF would produce an 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce an 8.6 point8.6 point gain gain on the FCATon the FCAT

Conclusions from analysis of causal relations Conclusions from analysis of causal relations between ORF and reading comprehension:between ORF and reading comprehension:

Interventions that focus directly on increasing oral Interventions that focus directly on increasing oral reading fluency are likely to have an impact on reading fluency are likely to have an impact on performance on broad comprehension measures, performance on broad comprehension measures, because because fluency is causallyfluency is causally related to comprehension related to comprehension

How ever, the maximum impact from improvement in How ever, the maximum impact from improvement in ORF will not be obtained unless work on ORF is ORF will not be obtained unless work on ORF is embedded within a complete program that also embedded within a complete program that also stimulates and builds comprehension strategies, stimulates and builds comprehension strategies, vocabulary, and reasoning skills, vocabulary, and reasoning skills, because these because these variables have an independent impact on variables have an independent impact on comprehensioncomprehension

Something else to think aboutSomething else to think about::

““Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and accurately, and with proper expressionwith proper expression””National Reading PanelNational Reading Panel

What is the role of prosody in fluent reading?What is the role of prosody in fluent reading?

Why is prosody important?Why is prosody important?

Should teachers spend time modeling Should teachers spend time modeling prosody and encouraging students to read prosody and encouraging students to read with expression?with expression?

What are the What are the causalcausal relationships among relationships among prosody, comprehension, and reading rate?prosody, comprehension, and reading rate?

Prosody indicates that the child is apprehending Prosody indicates that the child is apprehending the meaning of what is being read-prosody reflects the meaning of what is being read-prosody reflects comprehensioncomprehension

If children will read with expression, it helps them If children will read with expression, it helps them understand what they are readingunderstand what they are reading

Possible Causal connections:Possible Causal connections:

The relationship between prosody and reading The relationship between prosody and reading comprehensioncomprehension

Certainly, when speech is given with proper prosody Certainly, when speech is given with proper prosody and expression, it helps the listener to comprehend and expression, it helps the listener to comprehend

The evidence is not definitive on this point, but it The evidence is not definitive on this point, but it seems most likely that prosody is primarily a seems most likely that prosody is primarily a reflectionreflection of comprehension, rather than a of comprehension, rather than a causecause of it. of it.

Does it work the same way for reading? Does the Does it work the same way for reading? Does the reader listen to reader listen to his/her own prosodyhis/her own prosody as an aid to as an aid to comprehension?comprehension?

Schwanenflugel, P.J., et al., Becoming a Fluent Reader: Reading Skill and Prosodic Features in the Oral Reading of Young Readers, Journal of Educational Psychology, 2004, 119-129






Learning to read accurately is one of the first steps to Learning to read accurately is one of the first steps to becoming a fluent readerbecoming a fluent reader

What are the What are the big ideasbig ideas that should guide our that should guide our work to build reading fluency in young work to build reading fluency in young children?children?

The development of reading fluency for The development of reading fluency for students in Reading First Schools: students in Reading First Schools: Massachusetts DataMassachusetts Data

Growth of Reading Fluency in Second Grade.Growth of Reading Fluency in Second Grade.

Testing pointTesting point % at Benchmark% at Benchmark percentile rank percentile rank

Fall, 2003Fall, 2003 44.2 44.2 4141stst

Spring, 2003Spring, 2003 41.2 41.2 3030thth

Fall, 2004Fall, 2004 46.0 46.0 4242ndnd



Growth of Reading Fluency in Third Grade.Growth of Reading Fluency in Third Grade.

Testing pointTesting point % at Benchmark% at Benchmark percentile rank percentile rank

Fall, 2003Fall, 2003 38.3 38.3 3333rdrd


Fall, 2004Fall, 2004 40.7 40.7 3434thth

Spring, 2005Spring, 2005 43.1 43.1 3232ndnd


Relative performance across grades 1-3 in Spring 2005Relative performance across grades 1-3 in Spring 2005

GradeGrade % at Benchmark% at Benchmark percentile rank percentile rank

FirstFirst 60.060.0 49th49th

SecondSecond 49.949.9 3737thth

ThirdThird 43.1 43.1 3131stst

The development of reading fluency for The development of reading fluency for students in Reading First Schools:Florida students in Reading First Schools:Florida SchoolsSchools

For the past two years, students in 320 Reading First For the past two years, students in 320 Reading First schools in Florida have been “losing ground” in the schools in Florida have been “losing ground” in the development of reading fluency in 2development of reading fluency in 2ndnd grade. grade.

Many students who enter second grade with reading Many students who enter second grade with reading fluency at “grade level” leave second grade below fluency at “grade level” leave second grade below grade level grade level

37th percentile

53rd percentile

:

Instructional Emphasis for Second Grade

Comprehension42%

Non-instructional6%

Writing or lang. arts 3%

Fluency4%

Spelling2%

Word study/phonics21%

Text reading22%

Fluency – 4%

About half our second graders began second grade not having met the February 1st grade benchmark in NWF

Slightly more than 20% still hadn’t met the 1st grade benchmark at the end of second grade

One problem that arises from so many students One problem that arises from so many students coming into 2coming into 2ndnd grade still weak in effective, grade still weak in effective, accurate word reading strategiesaccurate word reading strategies

Growth in fluency requires Growth in fluency requires accurateaccurate practice practice

A A majormajor factor underlying growth in fluency factor underlying growth in fluency for struggling readers is how fast the number for struggling readers is how fast the number of words they can recognize “by sight” of words they can recognize “by sight” increasesincreasesChildren must read unfamiliar words with Children must read unfamiliar words with perfect perfect accuracy on multiple occasions before accuracy on multiple occasions before they can become sight wordsthey can become sight words

Sight vocabulary must grow Sight vocabulary must grow very rapidlyvery rapidly in in second grade to keep pace with normative second grade to keep pace with normative developmentdevelopment

47th percentile

62nd percentile

Over ½ of our students did not make the benchmark on time


Reading first students need many opportunities to Reading first students need many opportunities to acquire sight word representations for high frequency, acquire sight word representations for high frequency, high utility words – working to expand student’s “sight high utility words – working to expand student’s “sight word vocabulary” as fast as possibleword vocabulary” as fast as possible

Reading First students need powerful instruction in Reading First students need powerful instruction in strategies for accurate word identification (phonemic strategies for accurate word identification (phonemic decoding) in first grade and extending into complex decoding) in first grade and extending into complex skills in second grade.skills in second grade.

Children must become Children must become accurateaccurate readers as a first step readers as a first step toward becoming toward becoming fluentfluent readers. readers.

Supervised, repeated reading practice is one efficient way to Supervised, repeated reading practice is one efficient way to do thisdo this


Reading First students should be encouraged to attend to Reading First students should be encouraged to attend to meaning in meaning in all their reading assignmentsall their reading assignments

Encouraging students to read with prosody will lead them to Encouraging students to read with prosody will lead them to attend to meaningattend to meaning

Repeated practice in reading for meaning supports the Repeated practice in reading for meaning supports the growth of “automatic comprehension processes” which are growth of “automatic comprehension processes” which are important for both fluency and comprehensionimportant for both fluency and comprehension

Strengths of oral reading fluency measures:Strengths of oral reading fluency measures:

They are an extremely reliable measure of They are an extremely reliable measure of oneone of of the important components of reading proficiencythe important components of reading proficiency

They currently provide the most accurate They currently provide the most accurate brief brief assessmentassessment to identify students likely to struggle to identify students likely to struggle on measures of comprehension at the end of on measures of comprehension at the end of grades 1, 2, and 3.grades 1, 2, and 3.

The most important single danger in using Oral The most important single danger in using Oral Reading Fluency measures as an index of Reading Fluency measures as an index of

“reading growth” in grades 1-3 is that teachers will “reading growth” in grades 1-3 is that teachers will be mislead into focusing be mislead into focusing just on ratejust on rate..

We must focus on the true definition of fluency:We must focus on the true definition of fluency:

It involves reading at an It involves reading at an appropriate rateappropriate rate with with deep comprehensiondeep comprehension

Thank you

References:References:

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Documents

Reading fluency as a marker for early reading progress: Strengths and Weaknesses Joseph K. Torgesen Florida State University and the Eastern Regional Reading