Reading Esther as anInvitation to Play with

Biblical Texts

by

LINDA MONYAK

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty ofLuther Theological Seminary

In Partial Fulfillment ofThe Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

THESIS ADVISOR: DIANE JACOBSON

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA

1996

This thesis may be duplicated.

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CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Ignored or derided, the book of Esther has alwaysheld an uneasy position in the canon. Esther’sposition in the biblical canon has long been a puzzlesince the book neither mentions the name of God, normakes any overt allusions to religious practices.Named after its heroine, Esther has been consideredby many to serve the primary purpose of giving thehistorical background of the Jewish festival of Purim.Since Purim appears to be mainly a holiday of politicalliberation rather than religious salvation, withpossible origins in an older Persian holiday, even thisjustification has been called into question.

The date of Esther’s origin is no doubt late, withscholars assigning it to periods ranging from thePersian Period to the Hellenistic Period.1 The settingof Esther in the Persian court at Susa has obviouslydetermined the earliest date assigned to Esther. Later

1For a complete discussion of possible dates for the

composition of Esther, see Edwin M. Yamauchi, “ArchaeologicalBackgrounds of the Exilic and Postexilic Era. Part 2: TheArchaeological Background of Esther,” Bibliotheca Sacra 137(546) 101-102 and Susan Niditch, “Legends of Wise Heroes andHeroines,” in The Hebrew Bible, ed. Douglas A. Knight and GeneM. Tucker (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985) 445-446.

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dates often reflect the genre a particular scholar hasdiscerned for Esther. The types of genre proposed forEsther are many and varied, including: historicalnovel,2 festival legend,3 historical account,4 wisdomnarrative,5 Persian chronicle,6 and comedy or farce.

2The Persian setting of Esther and the use of many Persian

loan words in conjunction with some similarity to Hellenisticromances have made the historical novella a favored genre forsome scholars. See Niditch, Hebrew Bible, 446-448.

3This is the view held by Gaster, Ringgren, Dommershausen,and Bickerman as documented by Niditch, Hebrew Bible, 447.For certain peculiarities surrounding the celebration of Purim,such as its late establishment and the mixed linguistics of itsname, see Sybil Sheridan, “The Five Megilloth,” in Creating theOld Testament, ed. Stephen Bigger (Cambridge, Ma: basilBlackwell, 1989) 293 & 315.

4Few scholars adhere to the view that Esther is based onhistorical events. For two who accept the historical basis ofEsther, see Yamauchi, Bibliotheca, 99-112 and Robert Gordis,“Religion, Wisdom, and History in the Book of Esther: A NewSolution to an Ancient Crux,” JBL, 100(3) 382-388.

5For a discussion of Talmon’s analysis of Esther as a wisdomnarrative based on the secular nature of the book and itscongruence with wisdom theodicy in which the righteous flourishand the wicked perish, see Gordis, JBL, 366-368.

6The “Persian Chronicle” genre was developped by Gordis toexplain the seeming lack of religiosity of Esther, its connection toPurim festivities, and the literary refinement found in Esther as awhole. For a complete explanation of Esther as a PersianChronicle, see Gordis, JBL, 375-378.

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The humor of the book of Esther has been noted bymany scholars and is evident in the opening lines ofthe book with the lavish setting in the Persian court ofSusa and its exagerrated aspects (such as 127provinces). Other elements which contribute to thecomic aspects of Esther include the clear distinctionbetween heroine/hero and villain and the ubiquitoususe of irony. Sasson has called Esther a travesty in thebest literary sense of treating serious matters withlevity.7

Sasson has captured the spirit of Esther nicely.This book is serious fun. When the times arethreatening and danger looms all around, what else isto be done but laugh? An analogous contemporarysituation existed in this country during the cold warera. When Cuban missiles were pointed at Americancities, many children and not a few adults went hometo watch “The Rocky and Bulwinkle Show.” Thenames of the villains were all it took to identify Borisand Natasha as Russians and the heroes that wecheered for were a squirrel and a moose. The authorof Esther did not use “Fractured Fairy Tales,” but did,I believe make use of “messed-up mythologies.” Theancient reader of Esther got the author’s pointbecause they knew those myths so well. In short, Ibelieve that the author of Esther relied on hisaudience’s knowledge of biblical texts as well as other

7Jack M. Sasson, “Esther” in The Literary Guide to the Bible

(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987)339.

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ancient texts to make his point with the finesse ofhumor. Small phrases remind the reader or listenerof entire biblical narratives such as creation, passover,and those associated with biblical characters likeJoseph, Ruth, and Abigail, among others. The rangeof biblical narratives addressed allows the author topresent a complex viewpoint of the monarchy andrelated power issues. Who has power? How is powerused wisely? Who is really king here?

In the time of Samuel’s service to Eli, we are toldthat “the word of the Lord was rare in those days” (1Sam 3:1). In Esther, even the word “Lord” is absentfrom the text. What are the people of God to do intimes like this? How does one behave in the courts ofthose traditional “enemies” of God, Egypt andBabylon? Could the author of Esther be telling ussomething about living in times when God seems sodistant as to be absent? What does it mean when thepeople of God are indistinguishable from everyoneelse? Where is God when “the word of the LORD israre”? Do the actions of God’s people matter? Dothey make a difference? Can we remain people of Godand participate in secular society? Does the presenceof God’s people bring anything of value to those whoclaim no relationship to God?

These are serious questions. So let us accept theinvitation of Esther’s author and play with the biblicaltexts which are suggested in Esther.

Overview of Biblical Themes Suggested in Esther

In this thesis, I am proposing that certain key

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phrases, often in connection with other aspects ofEsther, such as narrative events or even other phrases,evoke many other biblical narratives. Some phrases,such as bot <oyh^ (a good day) are associatedprimarily with one specific narrative, in this case, thecreation narrative. Other phrases, such as _B+ dy*j^l)v+l] (to send a hand against), are associated with avariety of narratives, including the creation text, otherexilic narratives, and the Psalmist’s description ofGod’s salvific action.

Creation themes are evoked in Esther primarilythrough the use of the phrase “a good day,” repetitivestatements which center on those things which pleasethe king, women who are pleasing to the eyes, thephrase “to send (or stretch out) a hand,” the frequentuse of the number seven, and the toweringimportance of a tree (as gallows, in this case). Whilenone of these alone recall the creation narrative,together they play with critical aspects of that olderstory in a new setting.

Other phrases and aspects of Esther arereminiscent of the narrative of Passover. In Esther,the verb rbu for pass over, is used more frequentlythan it is in the Passover narrative of Exodus. Thepresence of horses and consultation of wise men playsa significant role in both texts as well. In addition, thephrase “to stretch out a hand” also appears as a minorelement of the Passover narrative. These elements inEsther are heightened by another key event in Esther,the casting of lots by Haman, which occurs on the daybefore Passover.

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The themes of law and power and the place of themonarchy are overtly played with in Esther. The law(td*) of Persia is not the Torah or instruction given byGod. When combined with other aspects of Esthermentioned above such as the role of horses, wise men(and wisdom), “stretching out a hand,” and trees, Ibelieve it is possible to discern the hand of an authorwho is skillfully evoking the entirety of biblicaltraditions for a people who think they have losteverything.

Religion as a theme in Esther is generally held to beunexpectedly absent in this canonical book. However,given the high level of literary skills exhibited by theauthor of Esther, it is probable that this author is alsoat home with other texts of the ancient world,especially the mythological narratives of Babylon.The names of the central characters (Esther,Mordecai, and Haman) play a critical role here. EvenEsther’s Jewish name, Hadassah, which meansmyrtle, may play a role in suggesting the intent of theauthor in giving undeniably Jewish characters thenames of pagan deities.

Additional phrases in Esther recall a variety ofbiblical narratives. In particular, the phrase “to bemerry with wine” recalls a group of narrativesincluding the story of the Levite and his concubine,Abigail and Nabal, Amnon and Absalom, and Ruth.This phrase in combination with the role of horses inEsther may point to a clever author making a moralpoint with humor.

The role of ds#j# or favor in Esther is critically

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important to the plot of the book. ds#j# also plays animportant part in several other biblical narrativessuch as Joseph, the search for Rebekah, Ruth, Daniel,and Passover.

Using a few well-placed phrases and devices in thisshort narrative, the skillful author of Esther hasmanaged to suggest a wide range of other biblicalnarratives without ever mentioning God. Without theuse of religious language, Esther addresses the seriousreligious questions of a people who thought they hadlost their ties to their religious heritage. With tonguewell in cheek, the author reminds his people of theiridentity even when appearances suggest that they areindistinguishable from the pagans among whom theylive.

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CHAPTER 2CREATION THEMES IN ESTHER

As mentioned in the introduction, creation imageryin Esther revolves around the use of certain keyphrases and other elements shared with the creationnarratives in Genesis. The phrases include: bot <oyh^(the good day), El#M#h^ rb^d+B] (by a word of the king),and dy* j^l)v+l] (to send or stretch out a hand).Elements shared with the creation narrative inGenesis include the importance of the number sevenand the prominence of the tree in the narrative of thefall. In addition, both Vashti and Esther are describedas ha#r+m^ tb^of or “good to look at.”

bot <oyh ̂appears in Esther in three verses (Esth8:17, 9:19 and 9:22). In all these verses, the good dayis a holiday, the result of the resolution of the problempresented by Haman’s edict. When the word of theking reaches the people that the Jews are commanded“to be prepared to avenge themselves against theirenemies” (Esth 8:13), it is for the Jews an occasion fora feast and a holiday (a good day) (Esth 8:17). Esther9:19 speaks of the feast and holiday (good day) whichis instituted by the people themselves after they haveassembled to defend themselves. Similar links aremade in Esther 9:22 after Mordecai issues theproclamation formally instituting for all time the

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holiday which the people have spontaneouslycelebrated. In this verse, a more explicit link is madebetween the holiday and a day of resting from theirenemies. The notion of rest in connection with thisvictory is also alluded to in Esther 9:17. This notion ofa good day as connected with rest tends to suggest anew creation. Where before there had only beendeath, annihilation, and extermination; now there isfeasting, joy, sending gifts of food to one’s neighbors,and giving alms to the poor. Before there was nopossibility; now there are new possibilities even in aland of exile.

In the first chapter of Esther, it becomes apparentthat the number seven is significant for the author.The king’s banquet for the populace which celebrateshis firm control of the kingdom lasts seven days (Esth1:5). It is on the seventh day of the banquet that theking commands his seven eunuchs to bring QueenVashti before the banquet guests so that her beautymay be admired by the entire kingdom (Esth 1:10).When Vashti refuses to become merely anotherdecorative object among all the king’s possessions, theenraged king consults not only with his wise men, butalso with the seven Persian princes, or high officials toascertain his next course of action. When Estherenters the house of women with the other youngwomen, vying for the now vacant position of queen,she catches the eye of the eunuch in charge, Hegai.And her favorable status in his eyes is indicated notonly by a better position in the required beautyregimen, but also by the assignment of seven maidens,presumably as her personal attendants (Esth 2:9).

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Esther’s fateful night with King Ahasuerus takes placein the seventh year of his reign (Esth 2:16). The kingdeclares his love for Esther, makes her his queen, andgives a banquet in her honor, again in the seventhyear of his kingdom (Esth 2:18). It is interesting tonote that as part of these festivities in the seventhyear, the king proclaims a holiday or gives rest (hj*n*&&h&&)to his people (Esth 2:18).

While based on the hiphil of the verb j^Wn (rest),this is the only use of the feminine noun form of thisroot. It is interesting to note that in the past, both theKJV and RSV translations have followed the LXX intranslating this word as a remission of taxes despitethe fact that the Vulgate uses requies or rest here.8

Although the creation narrative in Genesis 2:3 uses adifferent verb for rest (tb^v*), the parallels arenevertheless interesting.

Given the possible allusions to the creationnarrative discussed so far, it is enlightening to take alook at what happens at the word of the king. InEsther 1:12, Vashti refuses to come “on a word of theking” (El#M#h^ rb^d+B]). Later, “a royal word will go out”(tWcl+m^-rb^d+ ax@y@)which will forbid Vashti fromcoming into the king’s presence again (Esth 1:19).Beautiful maidens are gathered throughout thekingdom because of the word of the king (Esth 2:8).Haman’s edict becomes synonymous “with the word

8Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The NewBrown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon(Peabody:Hendrickson Publishers, 1979) 629.

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of the king” and is speedily carried throughout thekingdom (Esth 3:15). It is distribution of this very“word of the king” which causes all the Jews to begintheir great mourning (Esth 4:3). Esther promises to“do according to the word of the king” (El#M#h^ rb^d+K]hc#u$a#)if the king will come to her banquet withHaman (Esth 5:8). After Esther successfully defeatsHaman, Mordecai writes a new edict which calls forthe Jews to defend themselves against their enemies,and once again the royal messengers are dispatched“with the word of the king” (Esth 8:14). When this“word of the king” arrives in the provinces there isgreat rejoicing (Esth 8:17). It is this “word of theking” which allows the situation of the Jews in thePersian Empire to be reversed (Esth 9:1). The word ofKing Ahasuerus is law; it is the royal command.Unfortunately, the commands of this king lead mainlyto the loss of life. The least innocuous of hiscommands is the order to gather the maidens ofPersia for his personal enjoyment.

When Haman’s words are considered, theyaccomplish the reverse of what he has intended. For,after giving the king advice on how to go abouthonoring someone, Haman is instructed to “doaccording to what you spoke” (hc@u&w^ T*r+B^D] rv#a&K)̂ forMordecai, rather than for himself (Esth 6:10).

In contrast, “the words of Mordecai” are weighedcarefully by the palace officials other then Haman(Esth 3:4). There is a period of testing in which theseminor palace officials simply wait to see if Mordecai’swords will stand. When Haman’s edict is issued and

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Mordecai goes to Esther for help, it is the “words ofMordecai” which Hathach reports to Esther (Esth4:9). When Haman is “unmasked” before the king,Harbona reminds the king that it was “Mordecai whospoke for the good of the king” (El#M#h^-lu bot-rB#D]rv#a& yk^D(r+m*l+) (Esth 7:9). Mordecai’s words, thoughnot equated with royal commands, have weight. Theyconvey at the same time loyalty to his people andloyalty to the king.

Esther’s words are also given due consideration inthe narrative. After considering Mordecai’s plea forintervention on behalf of her people, “they reported toMordecai the words of Esther” (Esth 4:12). Later, inverse 17, we learn that “Mordecai did all which Estherhad commanded him.” Even the king hurries Haman“to do the word of Esther” (rT@s+a# rb^D+-ta#toxu&l)̂(Esth 5:5). How interesting that both Mordecaiand the king take action based on the words of Esther.

When the words of God in creation are comparedwith the effect of the words of characters in Esther,two conclusions can be drawn. The words of Godbring about an abundance of life, in contrast to thedeath dealing words of King Ahasuerus. It isimportant to note here that the last commands of theking may bring about the possibility of escape fromannihilation for the Jewish segment of the populace,but only at the cost of numerous lives throughout hiskingdom. Second, God’s words are effective. Godspeaks and there is light; God speaks and the seaproduces an abundance of life, as does the earth (Gen1:3,11, and 20).

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Another theme which is repeated in Esther is thatof the pleasant appearance. In Esther 1:11, we are toldthat Vashti is “good to look at” (ayh] ha#r+m^ hb^ot-yK]).Vashti’s replacement is to be sought among virginswho are good to look at (ha#r+m^ tobof) (Esth 2:2-3).Among those virgins is Esther, who is not only good-looking, but also “beautiful in form” (ha#r+m^ tb^otw+ra^T)-tp^y+) (Esth 2:7).

A related theme is that which is pleasing to theeyes. The king is presented with the plan to replaceQueen Vashti with the “maiden who is most pleasingin the eyes of the king” (El#M#h^ yn@yu@B bf^yT] rv#a&hr*u&N^h^w+). Not only that, but this very plan is “pleasingin the eyes of the king” (Esth 2:4). So very early in thestory, we know that appearances are of the utmostimportance to this king. When Esther arrives with theother maidens, we learn that “she was pleasing in his(Hegai’s) eyes” (Esth 2:9). As the eunuch entrustedwith keeping and preparing these women for theirnight with the king, Hegai’s eyes are really the eyes ofthe king. It is his duty to screen this already selectgroup of women for the one who will tickle the fancyof the king, a duty for which Hegai seems well suited.When Esther presents the case of her people beforethe king, she requests that the king base his responseon whether “I am pleasing in his eyes” (wyn*yu@B+B yn]a&hb*ofw+) (Esth 8:5).

The remaining examples of what is “pleasing to theeyes” have little to do with what is visible, but insteadrelate to schemes. When Haman visits the kingseeking approval for his pet project, the king tells

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Haman to “do with the people as is good in your eyes”(;yn#yu@B+ bofK^ oB toxu&l^ <u*h*w+) (Esth 3:11). Later, theking will instruct Esther and Mordecai to “write onbehalf of the Jews as seems good in your eyes”(<k#yn@yu@B+ boFK^ <yd]WhY+h^-lu^ obt+K]) (Esth 8:8). At thevery least, we can conclude that this king is no micro-manager of the affairs of state.

What is the creation connection with all these“good-looking” women and matters which are“pleasing to the eyes” of the king and his advisors? InGenesis 3:6, “the woman saw the tree was good to eatand desirable to the eyes.” Surely the author of Estheris playing with this image through this story of akingdom in which the king and his advisorscontinually do what is good in their eyes. It is alsoworth noting that Esther is a tale of reversal in whichthe women are good to look at, as opposed to awoman admiring the fruit of a tree.

The tree also plays an important role in Esther,though as a gallows. The gallows tree of Esther firstmakes its appearance as a method of dispensing withthe two eunachs who plotted to “send a hand againstthe king” and whose plot was discovered by Mordecai(Esth 2:21 and 23). The tree reaches its greatestheights through the efforts of Mordecai, whoconstructs a gallows tree of fifty cubits (Esth 5:14).

As mentioned above, “sending a hand against” or“stretching out a hand for” led to the gallows tree forthe two eunuchs in Esther 2:21. When the king, whois unable to sleep has the chronicles of the kingdomread to him, he is told again of the plot of the eunuchs

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in terms of those “who sought to send a hand against”him (Esth 6:2). And when things get shady, Hamancan be found “despising in his eyes to send a handagainst Mordecai alone” (oDb̂l+ yk^D(r+m*B+ dy* jl)v+l]wyn*yu@B+ zb#Y]w^) (Esth 3:6). Ultimately, Haman is hangedon the gallows tree because he “stretched out a handagainst the Jews” (<yY]d]WjY+B^ ody* l^v*-rv#a&) (Esth 8:7).The last reference to “stretching out a hand” is inEsther 9:2 where the Jews are reported to havegathered “to send a hand against the ones seekingtheir evil” (<t*u*r* yv@q+b^m+B] dy* j^l)v+l]).

The tale of Esther has numerous, though sketchyties, to the creation narratives. There are the themesof the good day and what pleases the king which evokethe rhythm of God creating and declaring creationgood, and another day. Critical events in Esther occuron the seventh day or seventh year or involve seveneunachs, princes or maidens. The author plays withtrees and what is desirable to the eyes as well as withstretching out a hand to take what is desirable.

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CHAPTER 3PASSOVER THEMES IN ESTHER

Several studies of Esther have noted a closeconnection between Esther and Passover.9 The moststriking evidence that Passover may be involvedcomes from the date on which Haman issues his edict,the thirteenth day of Nisan and the day beforePassover (Esth 3:7). The story of Esther, like thePassover narrative in Exodus, is a story of liberation.In both stories, the liberation depends in part on well-placed members of the oppressed group within thelocus of power, the palace. The heroes and heroinehave names which reflect the oppressing power ratherthan their own heritage. Moses is an Egyptian name;while Esther and Mordecai are Persian names.Deliverance takes two people working together:Esther and Mordecai in Esther, and Moses and Aaronin Exodus. It is even possible to see similarities in thereluctant responses of both Moses and Esther when

9Gillis Gerleman is the primary authority cited here. For a

more complete discussion, see M.E. Andrew, “Esther, Exodusand Peoples,” Australian Biblical Review 23(October, 1975) 25-28 and Michael V. Fox, Character and Ideology in the Book ofEsther, (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991)236.

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confronted with their task.10

In the light of the above observations, the frequentuse of the verb rbu in the text of Esther is striking.The first use of this verb occurs in Esther 1:19 wherewe are told that “the laws of the Persians and Medesmay not be passed over” (robu&y^ al)w+ yd^m*W-sr^p* yt@d*B+).In Esther 3:3, the king’s servants take note of the factthat Mordecai has passed over the king’s command tobow to Haman with their question, “Why are youpassing over the command of the king?” (El#M#h^ tw^x+m]ta@ rb@ou hT*a^ u^WDm)̂.

In both of these verses, the use of rbu signals thatthe law of the Persians and Medes is not to be trifledwith, in particular, that the law is irreversible. But wealready know in Esther 1:19 that the law beingreferred to in the context of the great tradition ofPersian law is a trifle. It is the law which forbidsVashti to come into the presence of the king becauseshe has refused to come into his presence. In Esther3:3, when Mordecai dares to by-pass the law of the

10Andrew, Australian Biblical Review, 26. Here, I differ

slightly by not reading Esther’s long-distance dialogue withMordecai as that of a weak and fearful woman acting on thewishes of the men in her life. Esther is the only character whotakes the time to consider all the aspects of the problem underconsideration. Her people are in trouble. She is queen. Sheneeds to speak with the king on behalf of her people, but there isa law about taking the initiative in speaking to the king and theking has not called on her for a month. All these factors andmore are suggested by the text as relevant to Esther before shemakes her decision.

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king, what is at stake is clarified. Is this really acontest between Mordecai and Haman, or is it acontest between Mordecai and the king? The questionof the servants also adumbrates Mordecai’s lateraction. Mordecai does indeed by-pass the law of theking, not only the law to bow before Haman, but alsothe law which calls for the extermination of all theJews in the Persian Empire. These actions also recallthe contest of God with Pharaoh.

The next occurrence of rbu is found in Esther 4:17in which Mordecai passes on or through the city afterspeaking with Esther. There is, of course, the simplesense in which Mordecai goes from one part of the cityto another in order to execute Esther’s commands.However, it is interesting to compare the verses inExodus in which rbu is used to describe the action ofGod who passes over to save the people of Israel. InExodus 12:12, God says, “I will pass through the landof Egypt that night” (hl*y@L^B^ <y]r^x+m]-xr#a#b+ yT]r+b^u*w+).And Exodus 12:23 says, “the LORD will pass throughto strike down the Egyptians” (<y]r^x+m]-ta# [G)n+l] hw*hy+T*r+b^u&h^w+).

Upon Haman’s downfall we learn that the king’sring has been made to pass over from Haman toMordecai (/m*h*M@ ryb@u$h# rv#a& oTu+B^f^-ta# El#M#h^ rs^Y*w^)(Esth 8:2). Then in the very next verse, Esther ispleading with the king to pass over Haman’s evil plan(/m*h* tu^r*-ta# ryb]u&h^l+ ol-/N#j^t+T]w^ Ib+T@w^ wyl*g+r^ yn+p+l]lP)T]w)̂.11 This action of Esther takes place very shortly

11While this behavior is expected courtly behavior before a

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after her request for her own life at the secondbanquet. Then recall that at that second banquetEsther claims she would not even trouble the king if itwere only a matter of being sold into slavery, since theking would be compensated for the sale of slaves,while a massive slaughter of his people will yieldnothing for the king (Esth 7:4). It is also important toremember that the wicked scheme which Esther seeksto avoid is one which Haman devised the day beforePassover. Esther is already known for its use of irony.Here we have the additional ironic touch of Estherrequesting that the king pass over a plan devised theday before Passover, and Esther words her request soas to suggest to the king that if it were only a matter ofslavery in a foreign country, she wouldn’t bother himat all. Further, the context for the Esther storyincludes the books of Ezra and Nehemiah in which therule of the Persian Empire, even after the residentsare allowed to return to Jerusalem is compared toslavery. And the paradigm example for slavery is, ofcourse, the slavery of the Hebrews in Egypt. Seeespecially Ezra 9:9 and Nehemiah 9:36-37. This lasttext is set in the context of a public prayer whichbegins with the historical roots of the creation andexodus (Neh 9:6-15).

The last two verses in which rbu is used are relatedspecifically to a regulated observance of Purim. InEsther 9:27 we read that “the observation of these two

Persian king, Esther also looks a bit like Ruth here sleeping at thefeet of Boaz and asking for his protection.

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days will not be passed over” (hL#a@h* <ym]Y*h^ yn@v+ ta@<yx]u) toyj+l] robu&y^ al)w^). A similar use of rbu is foundin verse 28 as well.

In addition to the texts of Exodus 12:12 and 23, inwhich God passes over to create the possibility ofsalvation, it is important to consider Exodus 15:16 inwhich the Hebrews pass through the Red Sea. God’spassing over the Egyptians in the night makes itpossible for the Israelites to pass through the Red Sea.

The passage through the Red Sea relates to yetanother aspect of the setting of Esther, the ubiquity ofhorses. Horses play a primary role in Haman’s poorlydisguised pretensions to the throne in chapter six ofEsther. Partly, Haman just wants to go horsebackriding - on one of the king’s favorite mounts. So whenHaman is asked by the king for advice on what shouldbe done to honor a man in his kingdom, Haman tellsthe king that along with clothing worn by the king, “ahorse which the king has ridden upon and on which isput a crown of royalty on his head” (ovar)B+ tWkl+m^ rt#K#/T^n] rv#a&w^ El#M#h^ wyl&u* bc^r* rv#a& sWsw+)should bebrought to the person to be honored (Esth 6:8). Therehas been much discussion about the exact meaning ofthe author in this verse. Some think that the horsespecified was ridden by the king while wearing theroyal crown on his head or that a crown is to be placedon the head of the person being honored. Others havepointed to bas relief plaques which depict horseswearing some sort of head piece.12 I think the best

12Carey A. Moore, The Anchor Bible: Esther (Garden City:Doubleday, 1971) xli.

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explanation here is also the funniest. In this kingdom,it is the horse that wears the royal crown. Perhaps theauthor even intends the reader to infer that this kingis being compared to the nether regions of a horse.

And Haman continues in verse nine that a highcourt official is to lead the horse with the honoredindividual riding on horseback through the city streetswhile proclaiming that this is what is done for thosethe king honors. Once again, the position of the kingis equated with the king’s clothing and his royalsteeds. Here the king makes Haman’s wish cometrue...for Mordecai. The manner in which anannouncement is made during the procession recallsthe manner in which Joseph was honored in Egypt(Gen 41:43).13 Then in verse ten we read that Hamandoes as ordered by the king. At the least, these versessuggest that the horse is a potent symbol of power inthe Persian Empire.

The author of Esther also tells us that the Persiansuse horses not just for the brute force of power, butalso for the technological superiority they bring tocommunication across the vast realms of the empirevia the “Persian Pony Express.” In Esther 8:10, welearn that the king’s edict, as composed by Mordecai,is dispersed throughout the kingdom by way ofmounted courier riding on fast steeds bred from theroyal herd (<yc]M*r^h* yn@B+ <yn]r*T+v+j^a&h* vk#r#h* yb@k+r)<ys]WSB^ <yx]r*h* dy*B+ <yr]p*s+ jl^v+Y]w)̂.

13Ibid., lii.

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Finally, there is one last oblique reference to horsesin Esther. The new edict has been posted by thefastest means available and Mordecai leaves thepresence of the king clothed in royal clothing with alarge, gold crown on his head and “the city of Susaneighed” (hl*h&x* /v*Wv ryu]h*w+)(Esth 8:15). Here theentire city is a neighing, jubilant horse. There is thepossibility of another pun here, but it works better ina combination of English and Hebrew. Because theEnglish translation of /v*Wv, Susa, is very close to theHebrew for horse, sWs. Perhaps this worked best forancient bilingual speakers of Persian and Hebrew.

Now compare the role that horses played in thePassover narrative. In Exodus 9:3, horses are part ofthe livestock that is wiped out by the deadlypestilence, along with donkeys, camels, herds andflocks. Given the role that horses played in tilting thebalance of power among nations, Pharaoh was put onnotice right away that the power at his disposal wasinsufficient in his battle with Yahweh. Pharaoh’spower is represented in part by the number of horsesand chariots which he commands when the Egyptianspursue the Israelites (Ex 14:9). Ultimately, theEgyptians with “all of Pharaoh’s horses” pursue theIsraelites through the sea where they drowned (Ex14:23). The defeat of Pharaoh through the destructionof the horses and chariots is especially highlighted inthe “Songs of Moses and Miriam.” God triumphs by“throwing horse and rider into the sea” (Ex 15:1 and21). The horses and their accompanying riders ordrivers perish when God releases the forces of the sea

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(Ex 15:19).Other biblical texts reiterate this close tie between

God’s triumph over the power of horses in Exodus. InDeuteronomy 11:4, God’s power is exhibited throughthe defeat of the Egyptian army which consists ofhorses and chariots. Sometimes God is even depictedas battling Israel in the same manner as Egypt,through pestilence and removal of horses (Amos4:10). Egypt, as the major regional supplier of horses(1 Kgs 10:29 and 2 Chr 1:17), is frequently described asa false source of power (Deut 17:16 and 20:1). Israel’sreliance on Egypt and its horses is equated withunfaithfulness to God in Isaiah 31:1 and Israel iswarned that the Egyptians and their horses are fleshand mortal in Isaiah 31:3. Ezekiel also deridesreliance on the Egyptians and their horses as a falsesource of hope (Ezek 17:15). The link, therefore,between horses, Egyptians and insubstantial power isa long-standing one in biblical texts. The author ofEsther could count on his audience to understand thatthe Persians are just Egyptians in disguise.

Another shared link between Esther and thePassover narratives involves the consultation withwise men. The king consults with the wise men of theland to ascertain what law he should make concerningVashti (Esth 1:13). Here the wise men suggest a lawwhich in essence gives Vashti what she wants. Later,in his distress over the honor done to Mordecai,Haman will consult with Zeresh, his wife, and withwise men over the results of his contest with Mordecai(Esth 6:13). What Haman learns is disheartening. Heis told that Mordecai will rise while Haman falls in

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power.Wise men and magicians also play a role in the

Passover saga. In Exodus 1:10, we learn that Pharaohadvises his people to deal wisely or shrewdly with theIsraelites. Given the outcome of the story, one has towonder why Pharaoh didn’t take his own advice.Later, in the contest with Moses, Pharaoh summonshis wise men and magicians who duplicate Moses’signs (Exod 7:11). Much later, the prophet Isaiah willcall the wise men of Pharaoh fools who will not prevailagainst God (Isa 19:11-12). The record of wise men ismixed. Pharaoh’s wise men are skilled magicians whomake Moses’ signs appear to be mere parlor tricks.The wise men consulted by Haman tell him the truth,but to no avail. The power to be reckoned with is God,a lesson which neither Pharaoh nor Hamanunderstand.

A last possible tie between Esther and the Passovernarrative relates to the previously considered phrase,“stretching out a hand.” The occurrences in Estherhave already been discussed in chapter one. In thePassover narrative, Moses stretches out a hand toretrieve the serpent/staff at God’s command (Exod4:4). And during the wandering in the wilderness,God “does not stretch out his hand” while the leadersof the Israelites feast before him (Exod 24:11). Thegeneral sense that “stretching out a hand” leads todeath and destruction is preserved in the second text,but not in the first. However, it should be pointed outthat in “stretching out his hand,” Moses is followingGod’s instructions.

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CHAPTER 4THE PLACE OF LAW AND

POWER IN ESTHER

Susa is the capital of a kingdom in which the rule oflaws and not of men is taken to extremes. The wordfor law in Esther is a Persian loan word, td*, which isfound only in Esther with two exceptions. The first isa corrupt text in Deuteronomy 33:2 that literally reads“fire was law to them.” The second use of td* is in Ezra8:36 where it specifically refers to Persian edicts, ausage entirely consonant with that of Esther. td*appears frequently in Esther, being used a total ofnineteen times, and most heavily in chapters one andfour.

So we know that law is important to the Persiansfrom the perspective of the author of Esther. Butwhat kind of law is followed in Persia? Our firstintroduction to Persian law in Esther is the royalbanquet celebrating the king’s solidification of hisrule. By law, each banquet reveler is to drink as muchas he desires (Esth 1:8). Surely this is absurd. Whatkind of government is needed to strictly enforce theindulgence of the desires of its citizens? At the samebanquet, we learn that the king of the empire expectsto find a law which will deal with a queen who isreluctant to display her beauty alongside the marble

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and lavish tapestries which the king owns (Esth 1:15).Having found no law on this issue, the king makes alaw, or rather, his advisors propose a law, that thedisobedient Vashti is never to appear again before him(Esth 1:19). In the making of this law, Vashti isdethroned and we learn that Persian law isirreversible.14 The contrast between the gravity ofunchangeable law and the spontaneous, ill-consideredway that King Ahasuerus makes law is stunning. Andit adds to the hilarity of the book of Esther.

The next law of which we are told is similar to theearlier examples of Persian law in Esther. By law, thebeautiful virgins gathered from all regions of theempire must undergo twelve months of beautytreatments before being brought to the king for hisapproval (Esth 2:12). The king has gathered the mostbeautiful women in an empire stretching from Indiato Cush, but their beauty isn’t enough for this king.

Now the law of Persia takes a more vicious turn.The law of Haman which is countenanced by the kingwith the giving of his signet ring is a law which callsupon all the citizens of Persia to kill an entire ethnicgroup wherever they are found throughout thePersian Empire (Esth 3:14). Haman writes a lawwhich is good in his eyes per the king’s instructions; itis a command to kill the neighbor. Acting together tosave their people, Esther and Mordecai make another

14Michael V. Fox, Character and Ideology in the Book ofEsther (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991) 22and Carey A. Moore, The Anchor Bible: Esther (Garden City:Doubleday, 1971) 11.

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law, again at the discretion of the king and with thegiving of the signet ring to Mordecai. Once again, theking instructs the second in command to write what isgood in their (Esther and Mordecai’s) eyes (Esth 8:8).While this law is written in terms of self-defense, itnonetheless results in massive loss of life. Bloodshedwhich is redoubled when the king makes another lawat Esther’s behest to extend the fighting for anotherday (Esth 9:13-14).

What are the results of the law of Persia? Initially,the kingdom is left without a queen, a loss which eventhe king seems to feel some remorse for in Esther 2:1.Young women from all over the empire are gatheredinto the king’s collection of beautiful women (Esth2:8). Perhaps Ahasuerus intends to bring them out atthe next banquet. Confusion and anarchy are theresult of the joint law-making activities of the kingand Haman, for we learn that the entire city of Susa isperplexed (Esth 3:15). If the good people of Susa areconfused, the Jews who reside in the Persian Empirecan only resort to mourning, fasting, weeping, andlamenting (Esth 4:3). The behavior of the citizens ofSusa, both Jews and non-Jews, contrasts sharply withthat of Haman and the king, who indulge in a drinkingparty.

Most often, death is the consequence of Persianlaw. In Haman’s edict, the death of all Jews iscommanded (Esth 4:8). Esther recites to Mordecaithe law which requires death for those who enter thepresence of the king unbidden (Esth 4:11).Fortunately for Esther, this law at least, has an escapeclause. Finally, the very law which offers hope for the

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survival of the Jews means death for the enemies ofthe Jews (Esth 8:13). The inflexibility of Persian lawfigures prominently in this death trap of law.15 Onlyin the law of Esther 4:11 is there an exception whichallows life. In the other laws, the saving of some livesnecessitates the taking of other lives.

The notion that Esther and Mordecai areresponsible for the violent means by which some livesare saved, is complicated by a close examination ofEsther’s approach to the king in Esther 8:5. HereEsther specifically requests that the king write torevoke or reverse the edict of Haman’s scheme (/m*h*tb#v#j&m^ <yr]p*S+h^-ta# byv]h*l+ bt@K*y]). The king’s responseimplies that Esther should be happy just to write herown edict which cannot be reversed (Esth 8:8). Thisdialogue makes transparent how powerless KingAhasuerus truly is, bound in the straitjacket of all thelaws which were pleasing in the eyes of someone. Byrefusing to seize the opportunity which Estherpresents and to create law tailored to the presentneeds of the kingdom, the king ensures thatthousands of his citizens are slain and that violencepenetrates even the city of Susa.

As Haman would say, “their law is different fromall of the people and the law of the king” (El#M#h^ yt@D*-

15Both Karol Jackowski and John Craghan have discussed theoppressive aspects of the unchangeable Persian law in Esther.See Karol Jackowski, “Holy Disobedience in Esther,” TheologyToday 45 (January 1989) 409 and John F. Craghan, “Esther,Judith and Ruth: Paradigms for Human Liberation,” BiblicalTheology Bulletin 12 (1) 11.

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ta#w+ <u*-lK*m] tonv) <h#yt@d*w+) (Esth 3:8). In this veryserious comedy, the author allows the villain to makehis point. Indeed, Jewish hrt or instruction isdifferent from the Persian td*. What kind of peoplewould want this kind of law? The citizens of Susademonstrate their better judgement by their dismayover Haman’s edict and their rejoicing over the rise topower of Mordecai. Of course, the citizens of Susa arebaffled over Haman’s law which commands each ofthem, including the Jews, to slaughter, kill andannihilate the Jews in the Persian Empire.

The massive bloodshed in chapter nine is onereason that Esther has received a lot of criticism,much levelled specifically at the character of Esther.In a society as violent as our own, it is important toconsider this issue carefully. I think the author ofEsther used this story to grapple with the issues of hisown time, including the role of law, power issues andviolence. Many suggestions have been proposed toresolve the tension between the violence in Esther andits place in the canon. These include reminders toconsider the exaggeration and comic elements ofEsther,16 to accept the premise of the story that thelaw was unchangeable,17 to remember the differencebetween the violence of a non-historical tale and thevery real violence of the Holocaust,18 and an

16Fox, Character, 226.

17Jackowski, Biblical Theology Bulletin, 413.

18Roger E. Herst, “The Purim Connection,” Union Seminary

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interesting theory by Goldman that the excessiveviolence of chapter nine is a self-critical move by theauthor of Esther.19 While these are all valid points,Esther’s original plea to the king to simply reverse thelaw is the crucial one in my opinion. The slaughterwhich takes place is the result of a king who cannotsee a new way to govern even when it is presented tohim. Instead, he seems curiously unruffled by all thedeath and mayhem taking place throughout hiskingdom, and even in Susa itself (Esth 9:12).

Closely related to the issue of law is the issue ofpower. The use of horses in Esther and itscorrespondence to the power of Pharaoh has alreadybeen discussed in chapter two. A few additionalpoints on the meaning of horses in issues of powerneed to be made. The Egyptians were not the onlypeople who employed horses to maintain power. TheCanaanites, King Ben-hadad of Aram, Syria, and Tyreall depended on horses for defensive and expansivepurposes (Josh 11:4; Judg 5:22; 1 Kgs 20:20, 21, and25; 2 Kgs 5:9, and Ezek 27:14). Horses, especially incombination with chariots, were the armored tank oftheir day. They represented technological militarysuperiority over those nations who could not affordthem. Horses were used in both the northern andsouthern kingdoms of Israel (2 Sam 15:1 and 1 Kgs18:5). Alliances between nations were sometimes Quarterly Review 28 (Winter, 1973) 139.

19Stan Goldman, “Narrative and Ethical Ironies in Esther,”Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 47()24-25.

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sealed with the words, “my horses are your horses”(;ys#WsK+ ys^WsK+) (1 Kgs 22:4 and 2 Kgs 3:7, 18:23).Power, wealth and horses were closely associated inthe ancient near east (2 Kgs 5:9, 10:2 and Isa 2:7,5:28). Just as in Persia, horses formed the backboneof a king’s communication system (2 Kgs 9:18-19). Inshort, the horse was the ancient near easternequivalent to the computer chip of today.

In the Psalms, horses represent a vain source ofpower and pride. God’s power is superior to thetechnological fix on which most nations rely (Psa20:7, 33:17, 76:6, 147:10-11). As an important elementof ancient society, horses inspired such sayings as:

The horse is made ready for the day of battle,but the victory belongs to the LORD. (Prov21:31)

A whip for the horse, a bridle for the donkey,and a rod for the back of fools. (Prov 26:3)

Ecclesiates 10:7 uses horses to paint its own pictureof reversal in which slaves ride on horses while kingsare reduced to more pedestrian means of travel. InHabakuk, God is the victorious chariot driver (Hab3:8) and God tramples the sea with his horses to savehis people (Hab 3:15).

The horse, then, was associated throughout theancient near east with claims of power and itsenforcement as well as with the wealth required toaccumulate and maintain these animals. In addition,the horse provided transportation andcommunication. Despite all these advantages, the

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horse required training, bridle and bits to be useful.The author of Esther probably intended tocommunicate these aspects of power, wealth and easeof communication much as a contemporary authorwho describes a character travelling by means of hispersonal jet. In addition, Esther’s author remindedhis audience through biblical links that this power,wealth and ease of communication was ephemeral.

The phrase of “stretching out the hand” isenlightening in the area of law and power as well ascreation. In Exodus 22:8 and 22:11, “stretching outthe hand” is used to describe the act of theft. In a lessperjorative sense, it is employed as a means ofdescribing all the efforts of the Israelites in their newland (Deut 12:7, 18; 15:10; 23:20; and 28:8,20). Thissame phrase is used repeatedly in narratives whichdetail the power struggle between David and Saul overthe kingdom of Israel. David refused to slay (or“stretch out his hand against”) Saul in the cave (1 Sam24:6 and 10). When skulking about Saul’s camp,David restrains Abishai from “stretching out his handagainst” Saul in the night (1 Sam 26:9, 11, and 23).When an Amalekite “stretches out his hand” and killsSaul after his defeat in battle, David has the Amalekitekilled (2 Sam 1:14). The repeated use of this phrase inthe narrative of David’s acquisition of the kingdomsurely found some resonance in the reader of Estherupon hearing of the eunach’s plot against the king andHaman’s plot against Mordecai.

The close connection between the gallows tree ofEsther and the act of “stretching out a hand” in thecontext of monarchical rule is remnescient of the

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parable of the trees in Judges 9:8-15. In this parable,each of the statelier, more productive trees refuse thetitle of king of the trees, claiming previouscommitments. Finally, the lowly bramble becomesthe king of the trees. It’s just possible that the readerof Esther might have thought of this parable inconnection with the kingdom of Ahasuerus.Ahasuerus may have the trappings of kingship, but heseems incapable of making decisions for himself andthe advice which he seeks turns out to be folly. Theresults of his laws often made in anger continuallyerupt to destroy his subjects.

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CHAPTER 5RELIGIOUS THEMES IN ESTHER

One of the puzzles long noted with respect to thebook of Esther is the lack of reference to God in acanonical text. Another item frequently commentedon is the similarity of the names Mordecai and Estherto the Babylonian deities, Marduk and Ishtar.20

Curiously, little has been made of the author’spurpose in choosing these names for the hero andheroine of the book. Here we have a book writtenoriginally in Hebrew, at least in the basic form inwhich it exists in the Hebrew Bible.21 The author,presumably Jewish, omits any references to Yahwehor Elohim or any of the usual names for God whiletwo pagan deities are the primary characters of thebook. What was the author saying with these names?If the author wished the reader to understand thatexiles in Babylon were so assimilated that Hebrewnames were no longer used, surely any Babylonian

20For one of many, see John Craghan, Esther, Judith, Tobit,Jonah, Ruth, (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1982) 18-19.

21For a detailed analysis of the development of the Esther textin both its Hebrew and LXX forms, see J. A. Clines, The EstherScroll: The Story of the Story, (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984) 69-70.

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names would have sufficed. In addition, in Esther’scase we are told that Esther does indeed have aHebrew name, Hadassah. In this wonderfully satiricalwork, were these names intended to add to thehumor? Perhaps the author was saying somethinglike, “The Babylonian gods are really Jewish.” Orsuppose that Esther and Mordecai are a kind of stand-in for an apparently absent God. Then the author mayintend that the reader understand that it takes twoBabylonian gods to even approximate the activity ofYahweh.

In what ways do Mordecai and Esther resemble thepagan deities of Marduk and Ishtar? What role didMarduk play in the pantheon of the Babyloniandeities? Marduk is best known for his role in creationof the world and humans.22 His creative activitysprings out of a battle with Tiamat, the name given tothe sea, and therefore to chaos. So Marduk battles theforces of chaos. What does Mordecai do in the bookof Esther other than battle the chaos of genocide?Mordecai’s foe is Haman, who, even before thedevelopment of his wicked plan, is placed in anadversarial position with respect to Mordecai. WhenMordecai fails to bow to Haman in Esther 3:2, theessential outline of Haman’s scheme has alreadybegun to be formed in Haman’s mind as we learn inEsther 3:6. It is even possible that Haman’s name

22The translated text of Tablet IV of the Enuma Elish can be

found in Alexander Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis, (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1963) 36-43.

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should have tipped us off as the verb /m*h*, used only inEzekiel 5:7, means to rage or be turbulent. As it turnsout, this suits the character of Haman precisely.Haman is full of rage at Mordecai, and his edict notonly causes widespread grief throughout the Jewishcommunity of Susa, but bewilderment among theentire city of Susa (Esth 3:15).

Not only are there parallels between Tiamat, thechaos monster, and Haman, but also between Tiamatand the irrevocable decrees of Persia. It has long beenknown that there is no historical basis for theunchangeable laws of the Medes and Persians, exceptas an element in the books of Esther and Daniel. Inthe Enuma Elish, we learn of Tiamat’s commands:“Powerful are her decrees, irresistible are they.”23 Toher spouse, Kingu, Tiamat also gives this power whenshe says, “As for thee, thy command shall not bechanged, the word of thy mouth shall bedependable!”24 However, we also learn that there is acontest here between Marduk and Tiamat. At abanquet held to determine whether Marduk willbecome chief of the gods, he says to Tiamat, “Thecommand of my lips shall not return void, it shall notbe changed.”25 Not only does this confirm theadversarial relationship, but it sounds remarkably like

23Ibid., 26.

24Ibid., 27.

25Ibid., 33.

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the words ascribed to Yahweh:

So shall my word be that goes out from mymouth; it shall not return to me empty, but itshall accomplish that which I purpose, andsucceed in the thing for which I sent it. Isaiah55:11

In another part of the Enuma Elish, it is said ofMarduk, “Reliable is his word, unalterable is hiscommand.”26 Surely, the author of Esther was awareof the similarities between the word of the LORD inIsaiah 55:11, the unchageable commands of Marduk,and the manner in which the threat of the irreversiblelaw of the Medes and Persians replicated for the Jewsliving in the Persian Empire the old animositybetween Marduk and Tiamat.

This ancient battle between Marduk and Chaos wasexploited by other biblical authors, especially withrespect to creation narratives and the exodus fromEgypt. In the song of Moses in Exodus 15:5, McCurleypoints out that the Egyptians perish in the tehomot(Tiamat).27 And just as Marduk uses wind to slay themonster Tiamat, so Yahweh uses the wind to make apath through the sea.28 Just as Marduk splits Tiamat,

26Ibid., 60.

27Foster R. McCurley, Ancient Myths and Biblical Faith:Scriptural Transformations, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983)37.

28Ibid., 37.

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so Yahweh splits the sea in Exodus 14:16.29 McCurleyhas noted that the passover narrative makes full use ofa variety of pagan mythologies in order to enrich themeaning of the event:

Such amalgamation of originally separatestories out of the ancient Near East furtherenhances the impact of the combinedtetrateuchal sources. For example, it is at theLake of Rushes where the Egyptians longed tobathe with the sun god and to accompanyhim on a journey through the netherworld’sdarkness to the place of rebirth (sunrise); yethere in Exodus 14-15 the Sea of Reeds is thespot where the power of Egypt is vanquishedby the Divine Warrior named Yahweh.Moreover, to include the Priest’s itinerary inthe complex of these traditions is to make thepolemics even broader. According to thatwriter, the battle at the sea took place in thevicinity of Baal-zephon (Exod. 14:2). Baal-zephon was a place of worship in theEgyptian delta for the Canaanite deity whovanquished the chaos force of Yamm andwho erected his palace on Mount Zaphon.While this Egyptian site is not the Canaanite’smountain of Zaphon, nevertheless the placewas a locale for the worship of Baal.According to the priest, then, right under

29Ibid., 44.

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Baal’s regal nose Yahweh used Yamm tovanquish his chaos opponent, the Pharaohand god of Egypt.”30

Given the large number of similarities between thestory of Esther and the Passover narrative alreadydiscussed in chapter two, it appears that Esther’sauthor is adding yet another layer to a multi-layeredtale. If previous biblical authors showed Yahwehacting like pagan deities to save the people of God anddefeat those gods, the author of Esther says thatpagan deities are now doing God’s dirty work. Nolonger is Yahweh responsible for the demise of theentire Egyptian army, but it is Marduk whose edictslays 75,000 citizens of the Persian Empire who arepresumably loyal worshippers of Marduk. Perhapsthe ancient author of Esther was already sensitive tothe charge of violence that later critics would levelagainst Esther.

There are additional aspects of the mythology ofMarduk which shed light on the story of Esther.Marduk is the god who controls the fates in Babylon.31

Ancient audiences must have howled when Hamancast the pur in order to determine the best possibledate for the defeat of Mordecai and his people.

At the beginning of each year in Babylon, Mardukwas honored with a processional through the streetswhich culminated in some sort of boat ride down the

30Ibid., 45-46.

31Heidel, Genesis, 30.

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river. Once at the temple, the Babylonian tale ofcreation, the Enuma Elish was recited.32 Not only wasHaman’s edict issued on the day before Passover, butHaman cast the pur in the first month of the year. Ifthe New Year’s festivities were over, they were at leastfresh in everyone’s mind. And who, but Mordecai, isled on a procession through the streets of Susa in amanner that is fit for a king, or a god. The author ofEsther must have depended on the familiarity of hisreaders with both tales of creation, the Enuma Elishfrom the land of their exile and the Genesis account intheir own tradition. What better way for an authorwriting for a relatively powerless group to poke fun atthe authorities while saying that something new ishappening here on behalf of God’s people?

There is another myth that relates to Marduk withsome parallels in Esther, the tale of Zu:

His (Zu’s) eyes behold what Enlil does assovereign. The crown of his sovereignty, therobe of his divinity, the tablet of destinies(belonging to) his divinity Zu beholds againand again. And as he beholds again andagain the father of the gods, the god ofDuranki, He conceives in his heart a desire forEnlil’s position...After his heart has plannedthe attack, He waits for the beginning of theday at the entrance of (Enlil’s) chamber,which he had beheld repeatedly. As Enlil was

32McCurley, Ancient Myths, 17.

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washing in clear water, after his tiara hadbeen taken off and placed on the throne, heseized the tablet of destinies with his handand usurped sovereignty, the power to issuedecrees.33

It is interesting to see how similar Zu’s actions areto those of Haman. Haman, too, covets the power ofthe king. The means of honor which Haman suggeststo the king reveal that he desires the king’s crown andhis clothing. And Haman’s advice in these matters isconsulted precisely because he has come to the palaceearly in the morning in order to receive permission tohang Mordecai. At this point in the Esther story, thepower to issue decrees has already been given to himby the king when he hands over his signet ring for theissuance of the edict commanding the death of theJews.

Furthermore, in Babylonian mythology, alternativeexplanations are given for dealing with Zu. One hymnspeaks of Marduk as the god “who crushed the skull ofZu.” In other versions of the myth, it is Shara, theeldest child of Ishtar who recovers the possessions ofEnlil.34

What are the similarities between the activities ofIshtar, the Babylonian goddess, and Esther, the saviorof her people? The goddess Ishtar was also known invarious regions as Inanna, Anath, and Astarte. She

33Heidel, Genesis, 144-145.

34Ibid., 146-147.

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was associated both with fertility and with war.Despite her cruel aspects, she was said to be especiallyconcerned with the suffering of humanity.35 Ishtarwas the goddess of whores as well as of the eveningand morning stars.36 This association with stars isimplied in a poem of Inanna called “The Ecstasy ofLove” in which Ishtar/Inanna speaks of herself:

Last night, as I, the queen, was shining bright,Last night, as I, the queen of heaven wasshining bright,As I was shining bright, as I was dancingabout,As I was uttering a song at the brightening ofthe oncoming night.37

These multiple associations of Ishtar with love,fertility, war, and stars suggest that even if Esther isderived from the Persian for star, the name Esthermay still be associated with the goddess Ishtar.38

35Herbert Spencer Robinson and Knox Wilson, Myths and

Legends of All Nations, (Totowa: Littlefield, Adams, & Co., 1976)11.

36McCurley, Ancient Myths, 78.

37James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East: Volume II,(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975) 197.

38Contra Ran Zadok, “Notes on Esther (Etymologies ofPersonal Names),” Zeitschrift fur die AlttestamentlicheWissenschaft 98 (1) 107.

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In what ways is Ishtar like Esther? First, Ishtar’sassociation with the stars fits nicely with her role asthe one who controls fate. This is one of the rolesascribed to Ishtar in a hymn:

The goddess - with her there is counsel.The fate of everything she holds in herhand.39

Poor Haman, when he throws the pur, he is defyingnot just one, but two gods of fate. And in the story ofEsther, she appears to have the upper hand. ForEsther has the eyes and the ears of the king. Even onher unsummoned appearance and before hearing herrequest, the king is prepared to grant her half thekingdom.

Second, she is described as beautiful in this hymnto Ishtar:

In lips she is sweet; life is in her mouth.At her appearance rejoicing becomes full.She is glorious; veils are thrown over herhead.Her figure is beautiful; her eyes are brilliant.40

This description is very close to the description ofEsther as “beautiful of form” (ha#r+m^ tb^ofw+ ra^T)-

39James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East: An Anthology

of Texts and Pictures, (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1971) 232.

40Ibid., 232.

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tp^y+)(Esth 2:7). The joy at the appearance of Ishtarrecalls the reception which Esther receives from theking although she has not been summoned (Esth 5:2-3). While Esther’s eyes are not praised, she is said tobe pleasing in the eyes of the eunach Hegai, who seeson behalf of the king (Esth 2:9).

As a Babylonian fertility goddess, one of Ishtar’sroles was to participate in a sacred marriage to theking.41 In a poem about Inanna/Ishtar and the kingon their wedding night are these lines:

She craves the bed of kingship, she craves thebed,She craves the bed of queenship, she cravesthe bed.42

Although in the book of Esther, we learn nothing ofthe desires or feelings of Esther regarding beinggathered with the other beautiful maidens of Persia orabout her prospects of becoming queen, we do knowthat Esther’s night with the king has everything to dowith the choice of the next queen. And Esther doesindeed become queen to King Ahasuerus.

One of the most widespread tales of Ishtar is of hervisit to the underworld in search of her lover,Tammuz. When she encounters the gatekeeper of the

41William J. Falcon, “Ishtar,” Anchor Bible Dictionary:

Volume 3, ed. David Noel Freedman, (New York: Doubleday,1992) 521.

42Pritchard, Volume 2, 200.

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nether world, she is stripped first of her crown,followed by other articles of clothing or jewelry ateach of the seven gates through which she must passto meet the queen of the underworld, Allatu. Herpassage through the first three gates reads like this:

When the first door he had made her enter,He stripped and took away the great crownon her head. “Why, O gatekeeper, didst thoutake the great crown on my head?” “Enter,my lady, thus are the rules of the Mistress ofthe Nether World.” When the second gate hehad made her enter, He stripped and tookaway the pendants on her ears. “Why, Ogatekeeper, didst thou take the pendants onmy ears?” “Enter, my lady, thus are the rulesof the Mistress of the Nether World.” Whenthe third gate he had made her enter, Hestripped and took away the chains round herneck. “Why, O gatekeeper, didst thou takethe chains round my neck?” “Enter, my lady,thus are the rules of the Mistress of theNether World.”43

When Ishtar passes through the seventh gate, she isstripped of her last article of clothing and killed byAllatu. While this myth differs from the actions whichoccur in Esther, there are certain similarities. WhenEsther goes to the king unsummoned, she does so

43Pritchard, Ancient Near East, 82.

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with a real expectation of death. There is also theemphasis on clothing in Esther’s preparation to seethe king as well as on the law regarding such visits.Literally, Esther is said to put on the kingdom orroyalty (tWcl+m^ rT@s+a# vB^l+T]w)̂ before seeing the king(Esth 5:1).

This use of the word for kingdom is unique in thebook of Esther. The word for kingdom, tklm, is useda total of twenty-one times in Esther. As the simplenoun for kingdom it appears 11 times (Esth 1:4,14,20;2:3, 3:6,8; 4:14; 5:3,6; 7:2; and 9:30). In eightinstances, the word tklm is used adjectivally to conveythe meaning royal. These include: “his royal throne”(Esth 1:2), “the royal wine” (Esth 1:7), “the royalhouse/palace” (Esth 1:9), “the royal crown” (Esth 1:11,2:17, and 6:8), “the royal word” (Esth 1:19), and “royalclothing” (Esth 6:8 and 8:15). In Esther 2:15, it isused to express the concept of reign. Certainly, theusage in Esther 5:1 of tWkl+m ̂is that of the noun,nonetheless, kingdom is not generally thought of as anarticle of clothing. This author also demonstrates themore conventional means of expressing the concept“royal clothing.” Therefore, the author must be tryingto say something important here, something about therole that clothing plays in this story. What happens tothe characters Haman, Mordecai, and Esther withrespect to clothing? Haman asks for the clothing ofthe kingdom; Mordecai wears the clothing of thekingdom; and Esther clothes herself with thekingdom.

The importance placed on Esther’s royal attire

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points to the folly of this king who promises Estherhalf the kingdom when she is already wearing it. Thetheme of reversal in Esther in combination withEsther’s attire, could be a wry commentary by theauthor on the well-known myth of Ishtar’s visit to thenether world. Ancient readers would also have beenacquainted with Ishtar’s fetish for jewels described ina poem about Inanna in very explicit terms.44

The next question to ask is what use other biblicalwriters have made of the mythologies of the nationsaround them. The multiple references made to bothEgyptian and Canaanite deities in the passovernarratives were discussed earlier in this chapter.Others have seen references to Baal as storm god inPsalms 104:3-4 and Job 26:12-13.45 McCurley sees anallusion to Marduk standing on the back of a defeatedTiamat in Job 9:8.46 The banquet of the elders inExodus 24 may be another image based onBaal/Marduk mythology.47 The prophet Hosea seemsto be alluding to Baal and Asherah in Hosea 14:5-8when he describes Yahweh’s likeness to the dew whichyields crops and a shade-giving tree. In Canaanitemythology, Baal is the bringer of dew and Asherah is

44Pritchard, Volume 2, 195-197.

45Michael David Coogan, Stories From Ancient Canaan,(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978) 77.

46McCurley, Ancient Myths, 32.

47Ibid., 142-144.

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symbolized by the tree.48

Are there ties between Esther and other biblicalbooks which might justify taking Mordecai and Estheras the characters who do God’s work? I believe thereare at least two such references. The first occurs inPsalm 23:5 in which the LORD is said to “prepare atable before me in the presence of my enemies.”Esther’s action is like that of God. She prepares abanquet twice in the presence of Haman, “a foe and anenemy.”

It is curious that we are also given Esther’s Hebrewname, Hadassah, which means myrtle. Furtherinvestigation of the appearance of myrtle in the Bibleresults in several references in Zechariah 1. Inassociation with the myrtle, we find horses which arestanding in a grove of myrtle trees (Zech 1:8). Thepurpose of these horses is to patrol the earth. Alsostanding in the grove of myrtle trees is the “angel ofthe LORD” (Zech 1:10-11). Later, the angel of theLORD sends the horses out to patrol the earth (Zech6:2-3, and 6). It is true that this is not a directconnection with God, however, given the ambiguitywith which the angel of the LORD is used elsewhere, itis very close. It is also true that Zechariah is a latebook. However, the author of Zechariah states thatthe book was written in connection with events whichoccurred during the reign of the Persian king Darius(Zech 1:1). Since Darius is the father of Xerxes who isthe historical king most associated with King

48Ibid., 92.

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Ahasuerus, Zechariah is probably sufficiently early tohave been known by the author of Esther.

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CHAPTER 6PLAYING WITH BIBLICAL

TEXTS: SOME CONCLUDINGREMARKS

The author of Esther beguiles the reader intoasking some serious theological questions under theguise of play. It may be difficult work, but it can beengaging, the author of Esther would say. Esther’sauthor must have written in difficult times. The booksof Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah relate some of theproblems of the post-exilic Hebrew community whichmay have been important to the author of Esther andits intended audience.

Whether they had returned from Babylonian exileor not, the Jews of this time and later must havekeenly felt the absence of God. From the books ofEzra and Nehemiah, we know that the process ofrebuilding the temple was slow and frustrating andthat those Jews who returned to Jerusalem felt that insome sense they were slaves of the Persians. In fact,the possibility that the book of Esther was the productof these returned exiles from Babylon, now living inJerusalem has been proposed by Manfred R.

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Lehmann.49 It is quite possible that exiles who havereturned home, and yet find themselves still inanother country would find it necessary to confront aparticular type of despair. An analogous situation inour own country might be the circumstances ofHispanic Americans who may reside in the home oftheir ancestors, yet find that they are citizens of adifferent country in which a different language isspoken.

Taking the concept of God’s absence to an extremeby not even mentioning God’s name, Esther’s authordemonstrated through humor and keen wit just howridiculous such an idea was. Yet, by treating the fearof his community that God was absent as a seriousone, the author was able not only able to minister totheir despair, but also to remind the people to Whomthey belonged. The author of Esther gained the trustof his community by taking their fear seriously, andthen led them to confront new questions which grewout of past biblical traditions and their presentproblems.

I believe the author of Esther reminded hisaudience of a wide variety of biblical literature whichgoes beyond the scope of this thesis. Through a seriesof loose allusions which individually may seemmeaningless, but which together weave a web of

49While I think that some of Lehmann’s points stretch thingsa bit, his proposal does fit the tone of biting satire found inEsther. For a complete description of his theory, see Manfred R.Lehmann, “A Reconstruction of the Purim Story,” Tradition 12(Winter-Spring, 1972) 90-98.

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recognition, so that the reader suddenly realizes thatthere is a new creation taking place, that God has onceagain “passed over,” that the people have once again“passed through” the sea only to find themselves in awilderness which resembles the formerly promisedland.

Other themes which might have been considered orexpanded upon include: “the merry heart,” the horseas a representation of unbridled passions, wisdom,winning favor, and that which is despised. The themeof the merry heart has connections with numerousnarratives, including: the Levite and his concubine(Judges 19), Abigail and her first husband Nabal (1Sam 25), the revenge of Absalom on Amnon for therape of Tamar (2 Sam 13), and the story of Ruth andBoaz (Ruth). The problem of the unbridled passioncomplements the theme of the merry heart.

Wisdom and hesed both play a role in recalling theJoseph saga. There are additional similaritiesbetween the stories of Esther and Joseph to whichothers have alluded.50 Both tell the story of the rise ofa foreigner to a high level in a royal court. Thisposition enables both Esther and Joseph to save theirpeople. Both rose to their positions due to favor andhesed.

Hesed plays a critical role in other biblicalnarratives as well. These include the search ofAbraham’s servant for Rebekah, Ruth’s story, Daniel’s

50John Craghan, Esther, Judith, Tobit, Jonah, Ruth,

(Wilmington: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1982) 8.

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story, and the prophetic books of Ezra and Nehemiah.There also seem to be some links between Esther

and the book of Job through the themes of wisdomand “stretching out a hand.” The theme of that whichis despised recalls additional biblical narratives. Esauis said to have despised his birthright (Gen 25:34).The Philistine Goliath despised David (1 Sam 17:42),as did Michal when she saw David dancing before theark (2 Sam 6:16). After his adultery with Bathshebaand having Uriah killed, Nathan says that Daviddespised the word of the LORD (2 Sam 12:9-10). InNehemiah 2:19 and 4:4, it is the people of Judah whoare despised. The suffering servant of Isaiah is alsodespised (Isa 49:7 and 53:3).

The book of Esther invited not only the ancientreader to play with biblical texts, but now invites acontemporary reader to laugh. And while we laugh,we may ponder what it is that God is up to even whenGod appears to be absent. What new possibilities isGod creating today? Through what seas of chaos arewe passing? What are the false deities of our time?How are we to navigate through a “secular” societywhich continues to pay homage to the gods of power,anger, and self-centeredness? In reading Esther wecan laugh at the foibles of humanity and play with thebiblical texts to which they point with a renewedappreciation of the Source of our hope.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Andrew, M.E. “Esther, Exodus and Peoples.”Australian Biblical Review 23(October 1975) 25-28.

Brown, Francis; S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs.The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew andEnglish Lexicon. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers,1979.

Clines, J. A. The Esther Scroll: The Story of theStory. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984.

Craghan, John F. “Esther, Judith and Ruth:Paradigms for Human Liberation.” Biblical TheologyBulletin 12 (1) 11-19.

Craghan, John. Esther, Judith, Tobit, Jonah, Ruth.Wilmington: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1982.

Coogan, Michael David. Stories From AncientCanaan. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978.

Falcon, William J. “Ishtar.” Anchor BibleDictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman, 3:521. NewYork: Doubleday, 1992.

Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the

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Book of Esther. Columbia: University of SouthCarolina Press, 1991.

Goldman, Stan. “Narrative and Ethical Ironies inEsther.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament47()15-31.

Gordis, Robert. “Religion, Wisdom, and History inthe Book of Esther: A New Solution to an AncientCrux.” Journal of Biblical Literature 100(3) 359-388.

Heidel, Alexander. The Babylonian Genesis.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.

Herst, Roger E. “The Purim Connection.” UnionSeminary Quarterly Review 28 (Winter 1973) 139-145.

Jackowski, Karol. “Holy Disobedience in Esther.”Theology Today 45 (January 1989) 403-414.

Lehmann, Manfred R. “A Reconstruction of thePurim Story.” Tradition 12 (Winter-Spring 1972) 90-98.

McCurley, Foster R. Ancient Myths and BiblicalFaith: Scriptural Transformations. Philadelphia:Fortress Press, 1983.

Moore, Carey A. The Anchor Bible: Esther.Garden City: Doubleday, 1971.

Niditch, Susan. “Legends of Wise Heroes and

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Heroines.” In The Hebrew Bible, ed. Douglas A.Knight and Gene M. Tucker, 445-463. Philadelphia:Fortress Press, 1985.

Pritchard, James B. The Ancient Near East: AnAnthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1971.

Pritchard, James B. The Ancient Near East:Volume II. Princeton: Princeton University Press,1975.

Robinson, Herbert Spencer, and Knox Wilson.Myths and Legends of All Nations. Totowa:Littlefield, Adams, & Co., 1976.

Sasson, Jack M. “Esther.” In The Literary Guide tothe Bible, ed. Robert Alter and Frank Kermode, 335-342. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard UniversityPress, 1987.

Sheridan, Sybil. “The Five Megilloth.” In Creatingthe Old Testament, ed. Stephen Bigger, 293-317.Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1989.

Yamauchi, Edwin M. “Archaeological Backgroundsof the Exilic and Postexilic Era. Part 2: TheArchaeological Background of Esther.” BibliothecaSacra 137 (546) 99-117.

Zadok, Ran. “Notes on Esther (Etymologies ofPersonal Names).” Zeitschrift fur die

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Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 98 (1) 105-110.