Reading Comprehension

Gary Woolley

Reading Comprehension

Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties

Dr. Gary WoolleySchool of Education and Professional StudiesMt. Gravatt CampusGriffith University Brisbane Queensland 4111Australiagary.woolley@gmail.com

ISBN 978-94-007-1173-0 e-ISBN 978-94-007-1174-7DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1174-7Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011928245

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Printed on acid-free paper

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This book is dedicated to my wife, Helen, whose support has made this study possible. Recognition is also due to my mentor, Professor Ian Hay, whose research and encouragement provided inspiration for this book.

Dedication and Appreciation

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Contents

1 Reading Difficulties ................................................................................. 1 1.1 Chapter Overview........................................................................... 1 1.2 What Is Literacy? ........................................................................... 1 1.3 The Concept of Reading Difficulties ............................................. 8 1.4 The Simple View of Reading ......................................................... 11 1.5 Listening Comprehension .............................................................. 11 1.6 Classification of Reading Difficulties ............................................ 12 1.7 Summary ........................................................................................ 13

2 Reading Comprehension ........................................................................ 15 2.1 Chapter Overview........................................................................... 15 2.2 What is Reading Comprehension ................................................... 15 2.3 Comprehension: A Cognitive Process ........................................... 16 2.4 Comprehension and the Active Learner ......................................... 18 2.5 Comprehension Difficulties ........................................................... 20 2.6 Socio-Cultural Context .................................................................. 21 2.7 Task Variables ................................................................................ 23 2.8 Text Variables ................................................................................. 24 2.9 Reader Variables ............................................................................ 262.10 Purpose ........................................................................................... 322.11 Summary ........................................................................................ 33

3 Cognitive Architecture ............................................................................ 35 3.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 35 3.2 Cognitive Architecture ................................................................... 35 3.3 Working Memory ........................................................................... 36 3.4 Long-Term Memory ....................................................................... 40 3.5 Learning Styles .............................................................................. 44 3.6 Summary ........................................................................................ 47

4 Language Processing............................................................................... 49 4.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 49 4.2 Language and Learning Impairments ............................................ 51

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4.3 Decoding Deficits ............................................................................ 524.4 Dyslexia ........................................................................................... 534.5 Language Learning Disabilities ....................................................... 544.6 ADHD .............................................................................................. 594.7 Summary .......................................................................................... 61

5 Word Level and Discourse Processing of Text ...................................... 635.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 635.2 Vocabulary ....................................................................................... 645.3 Quality of Word Representations ..................................................... 665.4 Fluency ............................................................................................. 725.5 Context ............................................................................................. 765.6 Late Emerging Disabilities............................................................... 765.7 Summary .......................................................................................... 79

6 Visualisation ............................................................................................ 816.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 816.2 Forms of Mental Encoding .............................................................. 816.3 The Nature of Visualisation ............................................................. 826.4 Visualisation and Mental Functions ................................................. 846.5 Instruction and Visualisation ............................................................ 886.6 Visualisation and Poor Comprehenders ........................................... 886.7 Linking Visual and Verbal Processes ............................................... 896.8 Visualisation Strategies .................................................................... 926.9 Summary .......................................................................................... 97

7 Using Inferences and Strategic Processing ........................................... 997.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 997.2 Inferential Processing ....................................................................... 997.3 Thinking Frames .............................................................................. 1037.4 Questioning ...................................................................................... 106 7.5 Prediction ......................................................................................... 1087.6 Summary .......................................................................................... 109

8 Dynamic Processing In and Between Texts .......................................... 1118.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 1118.2 Global Text Structure ....................................................................... 1128.3 Exposition Genres ............................................................................ 1148.4 Different Exposition Genres ............................................................ 1198.5 Dynamic Literacies .......................................................................... 1258.6 Summary .......................................................................................... 130

9 Motivation ................................................................................................ 1319.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................ 1319.2 The Self-System ............................................................................... 131

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9.3 Beliefs ............................................................................................ 133 9.4 Motivation and Psychological Needs ............................................. 138 9.5 Autonomy ...................................................................................... 140 9.6 Competence .................................................................................... 142 9.7 Relatedness .................................................................................... 143 9.8 Summary ........................................................................................ 146

10 Self-Regulation, Metacognition and Engagement ................................ 14710.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 14710.2 Self-Regulation .............................................................................. 14710.3 Engagement .................................................................................... 14810.4 Self-Regulation Strategies .............................................................. 15010.5 Self-Regulation Phases .................................................................. 15210.6 Before Reading Phase (Forethought Phase)................................... 15310.7 During Reading Phase (Performance Phase) ................................. 15610.8 After Reading Phase (Self-Reflection Phase) ................................ 15910.9 Summary ........................................................................................ 160

11 Comprehension Is Strategic ................................................................... 16311.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 16311.2 A Structured but Flexible Learning Environment .......................... 16311.3 Self-Questioning and Engagement ................................................ 16611.4 Explicit Teaching ........................................................................... 17011.5 Performance Feedback ................................................................... 17311.6 Summary ........................................................................................ 176

12 Multiple Strategy Frameworks .............................................................. 17912.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 17912.2 Multiple Strategies ......................................................................... 17912.3 Framework of Reading Comprehension ........................................ 18412.4 Purposeful Reading ........................................................................ 19112.5 Multi-Stage Approach .................................................................... 19412.6 Cooperative Groupings .................................................................. 19512.7 Summary ........................................................................................ 197

13 Supporting Learning .............................................................................. 19913.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 19913.2 Supportive Interaction .................................................................... 19913.3 Tutoring .......................................................................................... 20113.4 Summary ........................................................................................ 208

14 Assessment and Comprehension............................................................ 20914.1 Chapter Overview .......................................................................... 20914.2 Metacognitive Assessment ............................................................. 214

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14.3 Responsive Approaches to Assessment ......................................... 21614.4 Summary ........................................................................................ 218

References ........................................................................................................ 221

Index ................................................................................................................. 251

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About the Author

Gary lectures in literacy and learning difficulties with the inclusive education program at Griffith University. Reading comprehension difficulties, memory, cognition, and learning engagement are his particular interests. Gary’s Ph.D. thesis focused on the design of training programs for volunteer tutors to assist students with reading comprehension difficulties. Gary was awarded the Tertiary Student Award for 2007 by Learning Difficulties Australia (LDA) in recognition of the production of an exceptional work, which advances knowledge in the field of learning difficulties.

Gary has taught primary and high school children in public and private school systems for over 30 years. He worked as the Learning Assistance Coordinator in a large school for much of this time. He has written a number of articles and taken part in several research projects in literacy and inclusive education. In 2006 he was part of a team of five lecturers from the University of Canberra that won a Carrick Institute Citation for Teaching and Learning.

Current information about the author can be accessed from http://www.griffith.edu.au/education/school-education-professional-studies-brisbane-logan/staff/ dr-gary-woolley

Gary Woolley Ph.D.

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Introduction

This book discusses reading comprehension and associated learning difficulties. It seeks to outline and elaborate on what constitutes reading comprehension and the types of learning difficulties that impact on reading comprehension outcomes. In doing so, it seeks to address and inform the reader about issues found in the literature on reading comprehension. It highlights the need for a consistent and integrated approach to reading comprehension.

The book details the complex nature of reading comprehension difficulties and the problems related to articulating clear definitions of the various learning difficul-ties and the associated problems with assessment and diagnosis. A model for clas-sifying reading comprehension based on the Simple View of Reading is introduced. Recent conceptualisations of working memory and its functioning in regard to the complex task of reading and comprehension is examined. Explanations as to why reading comprehension is difficult for some children with reading disabilities, such as ADHD, autism, language difficulties, and dyslexia have also been considered.

It is asserted that comprehension is enabled when readers construct mental situ-ation models that incorporate elaborated Text-based information with readers’ avail-able prior knowledge. Situation models are flexible mental representations that are constantly updated to reflect the most recent conceptualisations of read text infor-mation. However, the ability to construct adequate situation models may be largely determined by the efficiency of working memory in effectively allocating cognitive resources. The ability to coordinate and appropriately allocate cognitive resources within a limited working memory is vitally important for effective reading and comprehension.

Many visual and verbal instructional techniques can be utilised to overcome cognitive capacity limitations by utilising the subsystems of working memory more efficiently. Thus, reading comprehension is enhanced when visual and verbal infor-mation are linked in the working memory. Furthermore, it is asserted that the qual-ity of readers’ mental representations can be enhanced when readers are encouraged to visualise story content and to enter into dialogue (in a one-to-one or group instructional setting). Rich dialogue centred on text related mental imagery would enable the reader to make connections between verbal and visual representations in memory in a much more integrated way. Thus, the depth and intensity of the mental

xiv Introduction

representations will be enhanced by the quality of the linking of information within working memory.

A foundational understanding of comprehension at the word and discourse levels is developed. Some evidence-based reading comprehension methods that build effective reading comprehension strategies for children with learning difficulties have been identified. In particular, this book focuses on the effective use of visual and verbal cognitive process to enhance reading comprehension. It also explores the interplay of related aspects that address reading engagement, learning styles, motivation, metacognition, self-regulation, instructional scaffolding, feedback, and multiple strategy frameworks.

Mental imagery, motivation, and self-regulation are associated with reading engagement and skilled reading comprehension. This is because reading compre-hension is a constructive and reconstructive process that is not only influenced by the text and the task demands but is very much determined by personal factors within the reader. For example, mental imagery relies on the utilisation of stored images from past experiences to construct a mental picture of the events unfolding within a story. To some degree this becomes part of the overall developing situation model or mental representation of the story. The assertion is that readers who con-struct mental images as they read are not passive receivers of information but are active participants in the construction of meaning. This process of constructing meaning by contributing from background knowledge is influenced by intrinsic motivation and self-regulating behaviours. Moreover, when young readers become aware of their own thinking processes during reading and view themselves as being strategic in the comprehension process they become more self-efficacious and engaged, leading to a more positive reading self-concept.

The book will discuss how the routine incorporation of multiple comprehen-sion strategies, using a metacognitive framework, can further increase students’ self-regulation and reading engagement. In doing so, it will address Pressley’s (2002a) concern that there is a need to develop more multiple-strategy reading comprehension intervention programs that are rich in individual instructional components without simply having them thrown into the mix and made over-whelmingly complex for teachers to implement. While promoting explicit instruction of reading comprehension strategies the book acknowledges that read-ing comprehension skill development needs to be ongoing and is more effective when it takes place within multiple strategy intervention frameworks that operate over an extended period of time.

The role of assessment is viewed as the key to the development of suitable inter-vention strategies. To be effective it must be theoretically sound, consistent, and reflect the complex nature of reading comprehension. This topic has been placed at the end of the book because it needs to take into consideration many of the princi-ples and key concepts that will be discussed in each of the preceding chapters. However, its importance must not be underestimated. It has often been said that assessment drives curriculum. This implies that the how, what, where, and why’s of assessment determine the direction of the teaching as it relates to the individual or to the group. For example, if one uses assessment to merely look for the problems

xvIntroduction

within the individual then problems will be found. Therefore, the approach taken will determine how a particular individual’s reading behaviour will be understood. For example, if the individual is viewed through a problem focused lense then it will lower the teacher’s expectations for that individual. In other words, one way to consolidate a learning difficulty is to reinforce the notion that all of the problems lie within the learner. However, a more appropriate way to view assessment is to look for the strengths of the individual and to assess the learner’s educational needs. It is asserted that most children have more strengths than weaknesses and assess-ment should reflect the reality of this situation. Hence, when assessment assumes a more positive focus it will also consider the factors outside of the individual that can lead to change and to make a difference.

Finally, the last chapter looks at the role of tutoring and peer support. Parents, siblings, volunteer helpers, and peers are a valuable resource for educators. In prac-tice they have often been either under utilised or have been used inappropriately in the school or home setting. The final chapter will examine the utility of using one-to-one tutoring in all its different forms to supplement existing school pro-grams. However, it cannot be assumed that just by asking someone to help is the solution for children with reading difficulties. The chapter asserts that tutors are very effective when they are appropriately trained and given support programs that are very specific, supportive of the classroom approach, and theoretically sound. Traditionally, reading comprehension has not had the same emphasis as other aspects of reading in these settings. However, it has been shown that trained tutors can support children with reading difficulties when they are provided with a well-constructed intervention framework.

Overall, the book does not seek to be prescriptive but endeavours to outline some foundational principles that can be used to build effective reading comprehension interventions. The teaching ideas and strategies identified are not exhaustive but are merely examples to illustrate basic teaching principles and concepts. Intervention frameworks are designed to structure multiple strategies approaches to teaching reading comprehension. Within these frameworks comprehension strategies and skills are added layer upon layer so that they can be used in reading situations and often simultaneously but always supporting self-monitoring and self-regulating reader behaviour. The ultimate goal for readers is to develop strategic, active, and self-regulating skills that enable then to build meaning as they read.