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A grammar ofBarupu:a language of Papua New Guinea
Miriam Corris
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree ofDoctor of Philosophy
Department of LinguisticsUniversity of Sydney
August 2005
This is to certify that:1. except where otherwise indicated this thesis is my own work.2. the study complied with the requirements of the University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee.
Miriam Coms
AbstractThis thesis is a descriptive grammar of Barupu, the easternmost member of the Skoufamily of languages. Barupu is spoken by around 3000 people on the north eoast ofNew Guinea; its grammar has not previously been described.
Barupu is a tone language in which words belong to one of five tone classes andit exemplifies a type of pitch-accent system where for the most part tone is attractedto penultimate stressed syllables and spreads one syllable to the right. Some words,however, have tones lexically specified to one of the final two syllables of the word.
A key feature of Barupu grammar is that there is no oblique marking on NPs - noparticles, adpositions or case markers provide information about a nominal's role in theclause. Instead, Barupu is head-marking. Underived verbs show multiple exponenceof subject, which can take the form of double prefixing or prefixing and infixing.
There is a set of suffixing morphemes that function like applicatives in adding participants to the clause, but which are very atypical in appearing outside verbal inflection and showing extra agreement for subject. Barupu also has a prefixing Benefactiveparadigm that replaces regular subject agreement and can be extended to mark externalpossession. Finally, Barupu is a polysynthetic language and, as such, makes almost nouse of f9rmal subordination.
Appendices to this thesis include a set of interlinearised texts and a draft of aBarupu-English dictionary with an English-Barupu finderlist.
11
AcknowledgementsFirst I would like to thank the people of Barupu for welcoming me to their village andtaking the time to teach me about their language. Thank you especially to Philip andMaria Bakema and family for giving me a place to live and looking after me so well.
Also in Barupu village, thanks to Matthew Nakombo, Carl Aveni, Michael Mollis,John Tawiri, Maria Walan, Rita and Gloria; the teachers of the Mariele Ventre Barupuprimary school and Barupu elementary school: Elizabeth Moskir, Cathleen Amunti,Paula Akove, Matilda Funil, Peter Wampai, Ignas, Arnold, Matthew Moroka, Christopher Merecki, Joanne Karawa and of course Headmaster Eugene Bidau.
At Sydney University my biggest thanks go to my supervisor Bill Foley for generously sharing his knowledge, for his encouragement and support throughout, and notleast for making it possible to for me to travel to Papua New Guinea. Thanks alsoto my associate supervisors: Mark Donohue, for introducing me in person to Barupuand Papua New Guinea and for many enlightening discussions and Toni Borowsky, inparticular for her comments and advice on Chapters 2 and 3. Thanks, too, to otherstaff members and visitors in the department, Jane Simpson, Michael Walsh, MarkHarvey and IlaJ;la Mushin, who have offered guidance and always had time to answerquestions.
I am also very grateful to Lila San Roque and Melissa Crowther for leaving such agood impression of linguistics students when they visited Barupu village in 2000, fortheir and Mark Donohue's excellent initial work on Barupu, and also for their constantcare, friendship and support over the years.
Many people eased the difficulties of fieldwork. In Port Moresby: Jim Robins ofthe National Research Institute arranged my research visa and went beyond the callof duty in helping me get around. Hugh Davies helped with contacts in Aitape. InVanimo and Aitape: Phillip Tjeong, Brett Kirkwood, Bishop Austin Crapp, FatherTim, Paul and Miriam Vavena, John and Isabella Bidau, and David and Sarah Rumbleprovided welcoming places to stay as well as good company and food. Lynette andthe staffof the Sandaun Motel were always helpful. Special thanks to Ben and MandyPehrson and Debbie Larkins of SIL for inviting me to their orthography workshop atArop village in 2003 and putting me up at short notice.
Thanks to my various employers for flexibility and understanding: Julie Vonwiller at Appen and Linda Barwick at PARADISEC. Thanks too to Linda and NickThieberger for setting up PARADISEC and providing a safe place for audio recordings. Thank you to Peter Austin and the Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Documentation Project for their generous support between 2003-2005.
III
Acknowledgements IV
Thanks too to my co-postgrads for discussions and general camaraderie: NicolettaRomeo, Barbara Jones, Sarah Lee, Hilario de Sousa, Adam Blaxter Paliwala, MyfanyTurpin, Joanne Page, Joe Blythe. Thanks to Fiona Blake for giving me an excuse tosee a bit more of PNG.
Thanks to Jean Bedford for mammoth proofreading efforts; to her and Peter Corrisfor reading drafts and offering encouragement and suggestions and to Ruth Corris andKate Cummins at the National Archives of Australia for help with document searches.Thanks to Jane Wallace and Simon Cant, at last, for 1999. Thanks also to Georgia forfriendship and knowing what it's like.
Finally thanks to Phil, for everything.
2.2.22.2.32.2.4
Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Glossing conventions and abbreviations
Maps
1 Barupu lauguage and speakers1.1 Linguistic grouping and history .1.2 Economic and cultural life . . .1.3 Grammar overview . . . . . . .1.4 Language use in the community
1.4.1 Loan words . . . . . . .1.5 Previous work . . . . .
1.5.1 Sissano contact-Laycock (1973b) .1.6 Fieldwork for this study.
1.6.1 Ethics.................
2 Phonology2.1 Syllable structure
2.1.1 Reduplication.2.1.2 CR'onsets...
2.2 Consonants . . . . . .2.2.1 Stops Ip,t,k,bl .
2.2.1.1 Ik/.2.2.1.2 It,pl2.2.1.3 fbiTrill IrlNasals Im,nJGlides.2.2.4.1 fbi and Iwl
2.3 Vowels .2.3.1 Avoiding VV sequences
2.3.1.1 Glide formation2.3.1.2 Palatalisation..2.3 .1.3 Vowel deletion .
v
ii
iii
xv
xxi
1289
111112131717
192021222224242525262627282933333537
CONTENTS VI
2.3.1.4 fa! 382.4 Suprasegmental phonology - tone and stress 38
2.4.1 Monosyllables 392.4.2 Polysyllables............ 442.4.3 Stress................ 482.4.4 Interaction between stress and tone 522.4.5 Reduplication and tone . . . . . . . 582.4.6 Tone lexically assigned to syllables and glide epenthesis 592.4.7 Tone sandhi - verbs. . . . 592.4.8 Tones and epenthetic glides 612.4.9 Tone and noun compounds 62
2.5 Orthography............. 63
3 Infteetional verb morphology3.1 Subject marking .
3.1.1 Class I .....3.1.2 Class II . . . . .
3.1.2.1 Irregular Class II verb -ye 'hit, kill'3.1.3 Class III .3.1.4 Class IV .
3.2 Object marking .3.2.1 Allomorphy.
3.2. J.l 3SG.F3.3 Other verbal inflection .
3.3.1 Suppletion '"3.3.2 Verbs taking co-referential prefix and suffix
66676772787985868990919191
4 Word classes4.1 Nouns
4.J.l
93949697979899
100100105105106112115117117118119120
Other nominals . . . . . . .4.1.1.1 Personal pronouns4.1.1.2 Interrogative pronouns.4.1.1.3 Proper names
Intransitive verbs . .Monotransitive verbsAmbitransitive verbsDitransitive verbs . .Pseudotransitive verbsAdjectival verbs ..4.2.6.1 Numerals.
4.2.7 Copulars .....4.2.8 Temporal verbs . .4.2.9 Weather predicatesClosed word classes .4.3.1 Temporals .....
Verbs4.2.14.2.24.2.34.2.44.2.54.2.6
4.3
4.2
4.3.24.3.34.3.44.3.54.3.64.3.74.3.84.3.94.3.104.3.114.3.12
Locationals . .Manner wordsIntensifiers . .Other modifiers .Particles .....Conjunctions . .heku'REFLexive'beka 'like' ..Demonstratives .Quantifiers . . .Greetings, interjections and address terms
CONTENTS Vll
123124125126128129130130131131132
6.2.36.2.46.2.56.2.6
5 Noun phrases5.1 Compound heads . . . . .
5.1.1 Tight compounds .5.1.2 Loose compounds5.1.3 N+V compounds .5.1.4 Combinations of compounds .
5.2 Adjectives...............5.2.1 Reduplication .5.2.2 Adjectives vs. N+V compounds
5.3 Possession.......5.4 Demonstratives . . . .
5.4.1 elM - DPROX5.4.2 boro - DMID
5.4.3 ere/bere - DDiST
5.4.4 emo/bemo - DREF .5.4.5 era - DIRR
5.5 Quantifiers......5.6 Relative clauses ...5.7 Nominal conjunction
5.7.1 Listing ...5.7.2 lnclusoryconstruction5.7.3 Singular conjunction - re-5.7.4 Dual and plural conjunction - ave-
6 Clause structure6.1 Grammatical functions6.2 Verbal clauses . • . . .
6.2.1 Intransitive clauses6.2.2 Monotransitive clauses
6.2.2.1 Reflexive and reciprocal .Ditransitive clauses .Instruments . . . . . .Location and Reason'Adjunct' nominals ..
134135136138140141141144144146146148150150152155158159163163164164165
167167173173174175177178180185
6.2.6.1 NP types . . . .6.2.6.2 Obligatoriness.
6.2.7 Post-verbal modifying slot6.2.8 Summary of word order in underived clauses6.2.9 Added objects. . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 The grammatical status of verb agreement ..6.3.1 Bound pronominals and referentiality6.3.2 Unification of information .6.3.3 Omission of secondary objects . . . .
6.4 Word order variations and other pragmatic marking6.4.1 Post-verbal Pi .6.4.2 Topicalisation.6.4.3 Free pronouns.6.4.4 NP clitic
6.5 Non-verbal predicates.6.5.1 Nominal predicates .
6.5.1.1 Genitive predicates6.5.1.2 -ave 'be, become' .6.5.1.3 Resemblance and naming
6.5.2 Adjectival predicates .6.5.3 Locative and existential predicates
6.5.3.1 Predicate possession .
CONTENTS viii
189190190191191193194198199199199201203207210210212212213214215216
7 Complex predicates and complex verbs 2187.1 Serial verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.1.1 Goal-directed manner of motion . . . . . 2227.1.2 Causing Goal-directed downward motion 2247.1.3 Aspect 2267.1.4 Goal-directed carrying 2267.1.5 Instrumental 2287.1.6 Cause-effect 231
7.2 Complex verbs 2337.2.1 ADVBl 236
7.2.1.1 -eri/-ari SEParation 2367.2.1.2 -ro/-o SHORT distance/time 238
7.2.2 Directionals.............. 2397.2.2.1 Comparison of bound directionals and direction of
motion serial verbs 2447.2.2.2 -/de and -00 2457.2.2.3 -ro HIDden. 246
7.2.3 Adding participants. . 2487.2.3.1 Locationals 2497.2.3.2 Combinations and ordering 2557.2.3.3 VALencyl......... 2567.2.3.4 VALency,: -f, -e. -6, -0, -ai- 259
7.2.47.2.5
Combinations and ordering. .Subject inflection and position
CONTENTS IX
265266
8 Beneficiary and Possessor8.1 Beneficiary .8.2 Possessor marking .
8.2.1 Possessed secondary object.8.2.2 Possessed locative .....
8.3 Adjectival predicates and predicate possession.8.4 Adjunct nominal constructions8.5 Full paradigm and discussion . . . . . . . . . .
9 Status, modality and aspect9.1 Status and time . . . .
9.1.1 lrrealis in the past. .9.2 Non-declarative speech acts.
9.2.1 Negation .9.2.2 Content interrogation .9.2.3 Polar interrogation . .9.2.4 Imperative and hortative/jussive9.2.5 biaka...........
9.3 Aspect .9.3.1 Reduplication - iterative9.3.2 -kie - 'for a while' .9.3.3 -kie-na - exhaustive .9.3.4 Verb + 'go along' - 'for quite a while'9.3.5 nia - persistive .9.3.6 bi'iuni - constrastive persistive9.3.7 beni - perfect .
10 Complex sentences10.1 Complements .
10.1.1 Immediate perception.10.1.2 Cognition10.1.3 Utterance . . . . .10.1.4 Modals . . . . . .
10.1.4.1 Wanting10.1.4.2 Ability .10.1.4.3 Control.10.1.4.4 Permission.
10.1.5 Properties and value judgements10.2 Simultaneous and sequential coordinations.
10.2.1 ya 'and' . .10.2.2 kope 'then' . . .10.2.3 ra 'but' . . . . .
10.3 Adverbial coordinations.
271272278279281282284287
290292294295295299302304304305306309309310310311311
313314314318321323324328330331331332333333335335
10.3.1 Conditional, temporal, purpose, manner10.3.2 Conjunctions . . . . ...
10.3.2.1 ke 'purpose' ..10.3.2.2 bora 'purpose' .10.3.2.3 ta'reason' ..
10.3.3 Verb morphology . . ...10.3.3.1 Simultaneous10.3.3.2 Concessive.
10.3.4 Place .
CONTENTS x
336341342342344344344345346
A Texts 347
B Barupu-EngIish draft dictionary and English-Barupu finderlist 366
C Sources 405
Bibliography 406
List of Tables
1
1.11.2
2.12.22.32.42.52.62.72.82.92.102.112.12
2.132.142.152.162.172.182.192.20
3.13.23.33.43.53.63.73.83.93.10
Class III verbs . . . . . .
Borrowings from SissanoDirectionality of borrowing unclear
Syllables .CR-initial words. . . . .Alternating: CR ~ CVRConsonant phones. .Consonant phonemesWord-initial contrastsIntervocalic glides. .Vowels .Distribution of [0] and [:l] .Contrasts in stressed syllables: [0] and [3]Vowel and vowel-glide alternations . . . .Near minimal quadruplets showing tonal contrasts on open monosyl-lables .Tones on words with glide codasTones on words with nasal codasDisyllabic tone melodiesTrisyllabic tone melodies . . . .Assignments by rule .Lexical specifications to particular syllablesOrthographic conventions .Tone marking . . . .
Structure of the verbClass I prefixes . . .Free pronouns ....Class I example paradigmsSome Class I verbs .Some Class 11 verbs . . .Class II prefixes . . . . .Consonants and featuresVowels and features . . .Class 11 example paradigms .
Xl
XVlll
1415
2022222323242829313135
404040454547476465
66676869727273747475
LIST OF TABLES xu
3.113.123.133.143.153.163.173.183.193.203.213.223.233.24
4.14.24.34.44.54.64.74.84.94.104.114.124.134.144.154.16
5.15.25.35.45.5
6.16.26.3
7.17.27.37.4
-ye 'hit' '" ....Class 1II verbs . . . .Class III morphemesClass III example paradigmsClass 1II Ramo and Sumo .Puare sample paradigmSome Class IV verbs . . .Class IV morphemes .. .Class IV example paradigm .Object suffixes .Object suffix example paradigms with 3SG.F subjectObject suffix example paradigms with 3SG.F subjectVerbs with final vowel change for 3SG.F
-tiiipe 'bad' and -bOVD 'sleep' .
Free pronouns . . . . .Some intranistive verbsSome STVs .SomeNSTVs .Some ambitranstive verbs .Some involuntary state verbsAdjectival verbs .Temporal verbsTemporals ...Locationals . .Manner words .Intensifiers. . .Other verb modifiersParticles ...ConjunctionsGreetings ...
Current systemPossible earlier systemSomeNFRCs ..Some adjectives . . . .Demonstratives . . . .
Participants and their codingAdjunct nominals with 'light' verbsAdjunct nominals with 'heavy' verbs.
Serial verbs by semantic type . . . . .Agreement consonants . . . . . . . .Some verbs obligatorily taking -eri/-ari .Inflecting intransitive directionals ...
7980808182848585868788899092
97100101102105108112117120123124125126128130132
137137140142147
170186187
220236237240
LIST OF TABLES Xlll
7.5 Hidden ........ 2467.6 Transitive locationals 2497.7 -0 'give' ....... 267
8.1 Some body-part Actor predicates 2868.2 Some body-part Experiencer adjunct nominal constructions . 2878.3 Subject BeneficiarylPossessor combinations - underlying 289
9.1 Temporal words . . 293
10.1 Status oppositions . 335
B.I .......... 366
List of Figures
1 North coast of Papua New Guinea . . . . . . .. XXI
2 Barupu and surrounding villages. Approximate scale Icm = 2.5kms XXII
1.1 Laycock's internal grouping of the Sko[u] Phylum. 21.2 Macro Skou 2
2.1 a 'rain' 422.2 M 'fish' 432.3 Ii 'bellybutton' 442.4 oro 'net' . . 482.5 apara 'possum' 492.6 aivoro 'tree kangaroo' . 492.7 oro 'house' . . 50
5.1 Ordering ofelements in the noun phrase 1345.2 Person hierarchy ..... 163
6.1 Groupings of P, T and R. 1716.2 Barupu groupings of Pu, Pi, T aod R 171
7.1 Structure of the Barupu complex verb 2337.2 Structure ofa verb with a 'putative applicative' 2687.3 Apparent structure '" .... . . 269
xiv
Glossing conventions andabbreviations
In this thesis I have mostly followed The Leipzig Glossing Rules (Seehttp://www.eva.mpg.dellingua/files/morpheme.html- Version accessed Sepetember2004). The only exception is that I have not represented reduplication with a tilde, Ihave used a hyphen. The rules I have used are as follows:
Glossing conventions
• A hyphen (-) indicates a morpheme break (including reduplication);
• (=) represents c1iticisation;
• infixes are enclosed in angle brackets ( () );
• when one word in Barupu requires glossing with two elements, these areseparated by full stops, e.g. Barupu -k6e is glossed as 'go.up';
• person and number labels are not separated by fullstops, e.g. Iso, not I.so;
• gender is separated with a full stop, e.g. Iso.F;
• an asterisk (*) before an example sentence indicates that the sentence isungrammatical;
• a hash (#) before an example sentence indicates that the sentence isgrammatical but not with the intended meaning;
• a question mark (?) before an example sentence indicates that the sentence isborderline grammatical - that is, somewhat accepted in elicitation but notnaturally attested;
• Tok Pisin and English words in example sentences are represented in romanfont and glossed in upper case.
Where words have different meanings, the meaning that pertains for that examplesentence will be the gloss it is given. For example, the word pi! can be used to mean
xv
Glossing conventions and abbreviations XVI
'hair', 'fur' and 'leaf' and by extension it is used in compounds to express extremitiesof body parts - for example, fingers and nipples. If, for example, it is being used tomean 'hair', it will be glossed as 'hair'.
Where the orthographic representations are segrnentable into morphemic glosses,they will appear in three-line glosses. If, however, the surface form is notsegrnentable example sentences will have four-line glosses; the second line will be amorphophonemic underlying representation.
Glossing conventions and abbreviations XVll
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in the glossing of example sentences:
123ATADVAGAMIDAPPLAWAYBENCONCCQDDISTDIRRDMIDDOWNDPROXDREFDUEXCLEXTVFFROMFRUSGIVEHIDINTSIPQIRRMNEARNEGOBLGONPLPLNPRMPNPOLPQ
first personsecond personthird personaddress termadversativeagreementamid, among, throughapplicativethither, short whilebeneficiaryconcessivecontent questiondistal deictichypothetical deicticmiddle deicticdownwardproximal deicticdiscourse deicticdualexclamationexhaustivefemininefrom, detrimental .frustrativedativehiddenintensifierirrealis polar questionirrealismasculinenearnegativeobligationonpluralplace nameprominenceproper namepolaritypolar question
PURP.PURP2REASREDUPREFLREGRLSEPSHORTSGSIMULSRNDTOWARDTVFUNDERUPVALWITHWITHOUT
purposepurposereasonreduplicationreflexiveregardingrealisseparationshort distance, timesingularsimultaneoussurroundhither, towardstruth value focusunderneathupwardvalencywith, to, dative of interestwithout
Glossing conventions and abbreviations XVIII
Glossing complex verb agreement
Barupu verbs show multiple, and in some cases discontiguous, exponence of subject.There are four conjugation classes as described in full in Chapter 3 that take prefixesor prefixes and infixes indexing most of the features of the subject.
For example, Class III Barupu verbs have prefixing and infixing agreement. The infixis a consonant which always appears between two final vowels, but the consonant byitself itself does not distinguish all the inflectional features - some of theinformation is located in at least a prefixed vowel, and in some cases by a longerprefix. The examples in Table 1 are shown with the realis prefix k-.
Table 1 Class III verbs
SO I M k-a-ko-n-eF k-e-ko-n-e
2 M k-a-kO-m-eF k-o-kO-m-e
3 M k-a-koeF k-o-koe
DU 1 k-epi-ko-p-e2 k-oropu-ko-p-e3 k-ere-ko-p-e
PL I k-e-kO-m-e2 M k-o-ko-p-e
F k-eve-ko-r-e3 M k-e-ko-p-e
F k-ere-ko-r-e-koe 'go.up'
As shown in the table and discussed in Chapter 3, it is not possible to divide thefeatures consistently between the prefixes and the infix. Both affixes are thus glossedas marking the whole category. An infix will be indicated by angle brackets ( () ) in theBarupu examples and the gloss, and the gloss for the infix will appear before the glossof the verb. Realis is glossed as RL.
(1) k-e-ko(n)eRL-I SG.F-(lsG.F)go.up'IF went up.'
(2) k-a-ko(n)eRL-I SG.M-( ISG.M)gO.up'1Mwent up.'
(3) k-o-ko(p)eRL-2PL.M-(2pL.M)gO.Up'YouM went up.'
Glossing conventions and abbreviations xix
(4) k-e-ko(p)eRL-3pL.M-(3pL.M)gO.up'TheYM went up.'
(5) k-a-kOeRL-3sG.M-go.Up'He went up.'
(6) k-o-koeRL-3sG.F-gO.up'She went up.'
(7) k-epi-ko(p)eRL-IDU-(IDU)gO.Up'We two went up.'
(8) k-ere-ko(r)eRL-3 PL.F-(3PL. F) go.up'TheYF went up.'
(9) k-oropu-ko(p)eRL-2DU-(2DU)gO.Up'You two went up.'
A non-low vowel after a nasal can be omitted, in this case !he word will be glossed asfollows:
(10) k-e-ko(n).RL-l SG.F-(l SG.F)gO.up'IF went up.'
Phonological representations
In Chapter 2, phonemic representations will be enclosed within forward slashes (I I)and phonetic representations will be enclosed in square brackets ([ D. In !heorihography discussion, graphemes are enclosed in angle brackets (»). Elsewhere,unless specifically stated, examples will all be given in current orihography,represented in italics. The orthographic conventions are described in §2.5.
The exception is the representation of tone. Barupu has five tones: L, H, LH, HL andHLH and in the current Barupu orthography, tone is not consistently marked. In thisthesis I use !he following conventions:
• In sutface realisations presented in phonetic square brackets, low-pitch ismarked with a grave: [a] and mid-pitch is marked with a macron: raj. Inorthographic representations these pitches are unmarked.
Glossing conventions and abbreviations xx
• In both phonetic and orthographic representations, falling pitch is representedby a circumflex: [a], rising pitch is represented by a wedge: [a] and high pitchis represented by an acute: [ill
• In phonemic representations words with predictable tone assignment arerepresented between phonemic brackets with the tone in uppercase followingthe word: e.g. Ineni/-LH ISG.F - this word has rising tone and the predictablesurface form [neni]. Words with tones lexically assigned to particular syllablesare represented between phonemic brackets with the tone marked on thelexically specified syllable with a diacritic: e.g. I-mentanl 'small', this word hasan H tone lexically specified on the penultimate syllable and has the surfaceform [mentim].
Sources
Many of the monoclausal examples in this grammar were gathered in personalelicitation sessions. Where possible, however, I have tried to use natural examplesfrom narrative texts collected in Barupu village. Some data also comes from songs,written dictionary definitions as well as elicitations carried out by Donald Laycock.The source of an example sentence will be indicated in square brackets. The list ofsources and abbreviations can be found in Appendix C. Where an example has nosource, it should be taken as elicited.
Maps
'ulung:
Figure 1 North coast ofPapua New Guinea
XXI
Maps XXll
Barupu
Ramo-Arop 1
• Pou
Figure 2 Baropu and surrounding villages. Approximate scale lem = 2.5kms
