RAPID ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES IN THE WESTERN …eprints.ibb.waw.pl/1364/1/Znoj et al..pdf2017, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary Antarctic Peninsula (Convey et al., 2009). This region is

Znój et al.: Rapid environmental changes in the Western Antarctic Peninsula region due to climate change and human activity

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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 15(4):525-539. http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1504_525539

2017, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary

RAPID ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES IN THE WESTERN

ANTARCTIC PENINSULA REGION DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

AND HUMAN ACTIVITY

ZNÓJ, A.1 – CHWEDORZEWSKA, K. J.

1 – ANDROSIUK, P.

2 – CUBA-DIAZ, M.

3 – GIEŁWANOWSKA, I.

2

– KOC, J.2 – KORCZAK-ABSHIRE, M.

1* – GRZESIAK J.

1 – ZMARZ, A.

4

1Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics PAS, Department of Antarctic Biology

Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland

(e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

2Department of Plant Physiology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury

Oczapowskiego 1A, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland

(e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

3Departamento de Ciencias y Tecnología Vegetal, Universidad de Concepción

Juan Antonio Coloma 0201, Los Ángeles, Chile

(e-mail:[email protected])

4University of Warsaw, Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies Department of

Geoinformatics, Cartography and Remote Sensing

Warsaw, Poland

(e-mail:[email protected])

*Corresponding author

e-mail: [email protected]

(Received 23rd Jan 2017; accepted 3rd Jul 2017)

Abstract. The Antarctic and the Southern Ocean are a critically important part of the Earth system. The

climatic, physical, and biological properties of this region are closely linked to other parts of the global

environment. 200 years of direct human impact, recent climate amelioration and changes in the main

sources and circulation of biogenic compounds as well as accumulation of industrial contaminants have

significantly affected the whole ecosystem. Particularly sensitive is the region of the Western Antarctic

Peninsula, which is considered to be one of the hot spots of the Earth. In this paper, we review recent

literature and compare it with historical data to estimate and predict the consequences of this process. The

Antarctic ecosystems can no longer be regarded as pristine. Global as well as local human influence has

transgressed the barriers isolating that continent from the rest of the World, causing previously observed

changes to accelerate.

Introduction

The specificity of Antarctic conditions

Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Together they occupy about one-

third of the southern hemisphere. The Antarctic continent and associated islands are

situated at a distance of nearly 1000 km from South America and of 4000–5000 km

from Australia and South Africa. The isolation process began with the breakup of

Gondwana and was enhanced and then maintained by the development of the

atmospheric Polar Vortex and oceanic Antarctic Polar Front (Clarke et al., 2005; Barnes

et al., 2006). Terrestrial ecosystem development is limited to only 0.34% of ice-free

areas of the whole surface of Antarctica, mainly concentrated on coastal zones of the

mailto:[email protected]


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Antarctic Peninsula (Convey et al., 2009). This region is characterized by insular

occurrence of exposed ice-free grounds and also by patchy and discontinuous soil

distribution, displaying one of the harshest environmental conditions found on Earth

(Convey et al., 2014). Low temperatures, limited liquid water availability, a specific

light regime, elevated ultraviolet-B radiation levels, desiccating and destructively strong

winds, poorly developed soils with low organic matter and nutrient content, slow

organic matter decomposition, irregular nutrient distribution (from nutrient-deficient

habitats to the ones extremely enriched in nutrients by e.g. huge breeding colonies of

seabirds), high salinity in many locations (due to marine influences), the presence of

permafrost, freeze–thaw events, cryoturbation, solifluction or ablation significantly limit

the development of terrestrial communities (Chwedorzewska, 2009; Convey et al.,

2014). Thus, characteristic features of Antarctic organisms are high stress tolerance,

wide ecological amplitude but with minor competitive ability or investment in dispersal

strategies, reduced reproductive investment and output, and extended lifespans and life

cycles (Convey, 1996, 2000). Variability in abiotic conditions is recognized as a key

feature affecting organism responses (e.g. Tufto, 2000). Antarctic terrestrial organisms

display biochemical, physiological and anatomical adaptations that allow them to

withstand prolonged periods of freezing, desiccation and abrasion (Olech, 2004;

Giełwanowska and Szczuka, 2005; Wasley et al., 2006; Ochyra et al., 2008).

Most taxa are represented in the Southern Ocean, with Antarctica’s shelf waters are

particularly rich in this regard (Brey et al., 1994; Clarke and Johnston, 2003; Siciński et

al., 2011). Moreover, biomass and productivity of both oceanic and near shore systems

are massive. The Antarctic marine environment is certainly characterized by extreme

physical characteristics, most notably low water and air temperatures, annual extremes

in light regime, wind speeds, disturbance and isolation. Yet, the Southern Ocean is the

most thermally stable environment on Earth. Sea temperature fluctuation in Antarctica

is seasonal, but unlike other environments, temperatures are remarkably stable in winter.

Salinity in the Southern Ocean is also highly constant, even in near shore waters. The

constraints for marine life are characterized by resource limitation associated with

strong seasonality (Peck et al., 2005). Phytoplankton growth is restricted to a maximum

of 3–4 summer months. Thus, the phytoplankton-dependent organisms endure a winter

of low food supply. Unlike terrestrial species, marine organisms do not freeze and must,

therefore, maintain physiologically active tissues throughout the year, utilizing

strategies that minimize losses in winter (Peck et al., 2006).

Literature review

Climate change in the Antarctic

Climate change in Antarctica has been characterized by regional differences. So far the

Western Antarctic Peninsula – the repository of most Antarctic terrestrial biodiversity is

warming rapidly (Nicolas and Bromwich, 2014), partly due to the southern shift in the

polar jet stream (fast flowing, narrow, meandering air current located near the altitude of

the tropopause and westerly winds; Robinson and Erickson, 2014).

Temperature and water availability are the most important factors for the biology of

Antarctic terrestrial organisms. Thus, even a small shift, especially in precipitation and

liquid water availability, may have a profound biological impact on sensitive polar

ecosystems (Chwedorzewska, 2009). Especially the maritime Antarctic region

experiences the most pronounced and rapid changes regarding those factors. The


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temperature records collected in the Antarctic Peninsula region during the last fifty

years show its warming by about 0.5°C per decade (Bromwich et al., 2013). This recent

rapid regional temperature increase has caused glacier retreat (Smith et al., 1999), snow

cover reduction (Fox and Cooper, 1998), an increase in the duration of the warm period

and in the number of cumulative days with temperature above 0oC (Vaughan, 2006).

Earlier spring thaws and later autumn freeze may have already significantly extended

the vegetation season. Climate warming is also associated with an increase in

availability of liquid water, which is more important for terrestrial communities than the

increase in temperature alone. There were also changes in cyclonic activity patterns

around the Antarctic, followed by changes in precipitation intensity and form

(precipitation increasingly occurs as rain) (Bromwich et al., 2013; Kennedy, 1993;

Quayle, 2003) with noticeable increase in total precipitation during the year (Turner et

al., 2005). Beside direct precipitation, water availability in terrestrial habitats is

governed by seasonal snow and glacial melt. In a range of maritime Antarctic sites,

rapid rates of glacial melting and loss of ‘permanent’ snow banks have been observed

(e.g. Fox and Cooper, 1998; Quayle, 2003). The increase in temperature cause rapid and

earlier snow and ice cover melting, thus may exhaust freshwater reserves before the end

of the vegetation season, increasing the risk of local drought. Furthermore, as the

warming increases the frequency of winter thaws, it may lead to sub-snow ice layer

formation on the ground surface, which has a destructive impact on terrestrial organisms

(Arnold et al., 2003). Recently, a rapid glacier retreat in the whole Antarctic Peninsula

region has been observed, causing emergence of vast postglacial areas (Favier et al.,

2014). Permafrost is a very characteristic feature of Polar Regions. It restricts the water

exchange to the active layer that thaws on a seasonal basis. Vegetation, the active layer,

and the underlying permafrost are strongly linked, being key components of terrestrial

ecosystems. Permafrost warming and active layer thickening were mainly attributed to

mean air temperature rise, although in several cases the role of snow cover, soil

properties and the overlying vegetation was emphasized (Romanovsky et al., 2010;

Guglielmin et al., 2014). Over shorter timescales, the rise in temperature can have a

strong effect on permafrost degradation. Withdrawal of permafrost due to warming

increasingly contributes to nutrients loads in the subsurface waters. Soil frozen for

thousands of years releases both water and nutrients, therefore seasonally the melt water

can be extremely rich in biogenic elements, mainly phosphorus (Hobbie et al., 1999).

Increased nutrient inflow has the potential to alter trophic interactions in Antarctic

terrestrial ecosystems (e.g. Laybourn-Parry, 2003; Nędzarek et al., 2014). Deglaciation,

intensification of weathering processes and permafrost decline, along with changes in

the abundance of breeding populations of birds and pinnipeds (which have direct impact

on the amount of nutrients transferred onto the land from the sea) cause dynamic

changes in nutrient distribution and availability (e.g. Clarke et al., 2007; Smale and

Barnes, 2008; Montes-Hugo et al., 2009). All those changes lead to a disturbance of

terrestrial and freshwater communities, causing biodiversity decrease or/and changes in

species composition. Huge amounts of meltwater coming from glaciers alter the

freshwater balance in terrestrial ecosystems and at the same time generate an inflow of

large amounts of nutrients to the sea. It also reduces the salinity of water in the coastal

marine zone. Melting glaciers are causing a huge inflow of mineral suspension into the

sea that results in silting of the bottom and affects the benthic communities as well as

production of phytoplankton. At open sea, changes in the range of sea ice cover have

been observed, which is also linked with the phytoplankton and zooplankton


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productivity (Clarke et al., 2007; Smale and Barnes, 2008). Furthermore, glacial

meltwaters carry a substantial load of microbial cells. Castello and Rogers (2005)

suggest that between 1 x 1017

and 1 x 1021

viable microorganisms are liberated each

year by global glacier melt. Those microbes may have a profound influence on the

composition of terrestrial and marine microbial communities, either by addition of

highly competitive opportunists or providing genes of adaptive value (Świątecki et al.,

2010; Dziewit et al., 2013; Zdanowski et al., 2013).

Global human impact

Antarctica is an area least affected by anthropogenic activity. However, recent

regional rapid warming events of Western Antarctica have indicated that this area is as

much affected by the impact of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous

oxide, ozone and chlorofluorocarbons as any other global site (Bargagli, 2008).

Anthropogenic climate change not only directly affects the environment but also exerts

other stressors.

The Southern Ocean circulation is a physicochemical boundary that isolates

Antarctica from other oceans, therefore volatile contaminants reach Antarctica mainly

via atmospheric transport from lower latitudes (Wania and Mackay, 1993; Wania, 2003;

Choi et al., 2008). In the continental Antarctic, dense and cold air masses flow

(katabatic winds) towards the coast. The katabatic drainage flow is compensated by the

high troposphere air flow from the mid-latitudes, which also transports pollutants. This

long-distance transport is affected both by circumpolar low-pressure systems and by the

high pressure system over the Antarctic plateau (Shaw, 1998). This way, many

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such as hexachlorobenzene,

hexachlorocyclohexanes, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, endrin and heptachlor entered

Antarctica and the Southern Ocean (e.g. www.unep.org). Snow precipitation is a very

efficient mechanism for cleaning the air of airborne contaminants since snow can collect

those compounds, transport them to the ground and accumulate in successive layers.

Global distillation or fractionation by condensation in cold environments have been

proposed as mechanisms whereby the Polar Regions may become sinks for some POPs

(Wania and Mackay, 1993). Degradation of deposited POPs is very slow in the Polar

Regions due to low temperatures and winter darkness. Most of the POPs get entrapped

and incorporated into the Antarctic ice cap (Bennett et al., 2015).

POP concentrations in Antarctic organisms were generally low as compared to those

reported for marine and terrestrial species at lower latitudes, and they are still among the

lowest in the world. Yet, POPs are recorded in every level of the trophic chain and the

phenomenon of biomagnification plays a more important role than the bioaccumulation

itself (Szopińska et al., 2016), due to specific physiology and ecology of Antarctic

organisms, especially their longer life spans. Top predators have a high risk of becoming

sinks for POPS. Indeed, in some species the levels reported were occasionally high and

comparable to those found in regions with a strong human impact (Corsolini, 2009).

Direct human impacts

Antarctica never had indigenous human populations. However, over the last 200

years, exploitation, exploration and research along with recent regional climate changes

have significantly affected this remote region (Chwedorzewska, 2009). Some aspects of

previous human disturbance of the Antarctic marine ecosystems still have particularly

important implications, like the nineteen to mid-twentieth century commercial


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exploitation of fur seals and whales, which led to almost total extinction of these species

in the Southern Ocean (Fraser et al., 1992).

In the last three decades, sudden development of scientific and tourist activity have

been noted (Montes-Hugo et al., 2009; Chwedorzewska and Korczak, 2010). Every year

a considerable number of tourists visit Antarctica, particularly the Antarctic Peninsula

region (Figure 1). Combined with a number of scientific expeditions accompanied by

huge amounts of cargo and equipment, human activity exerts noticeable impact on

terrestrial ecosystems (Chwedorzewska and Korczak, 2010; Hughes et al., 2012). This

activity requires the use of generators and heavy vehicles as well as construction of

buildings, landing strips, roads, fuel reservoirs, etc. Waste disposal and incineration,

sewage management and fuel combustion are further points of concern. Supply delivery

to the stations, which usually takes place at the beginning of the Antarctic summer, are

logistically complicated operations which require the use of heavy marine and land

machinery to transport up to several thousand tons of cargo (Rakusa-Suszczewski and

Krzyszowska, 1991). These procedures can have a strong effect on surrounding

ecosystems, locally generating chemical pollution and directly damaging or altering

soil, vegetation and freshwater ecosystems (Hale et al., 2008).

The highest impact has been reported around large stations like McMurdo Station,

Ross Island (US Antarctic research centre) (Mazzera et al., 1999; Negri et al., 2006),

whereas, according to research which has continued since the 1990s, the impact of small

sized stations is rather minor (Rakusa-Suszczewski and Krzyszowska, 1991; Bargagli et

al., 1998). Human activity associated with scientific research bases as well as with

tourism concentrates mainly on small coastal ice-free areas with favourable topography

and good microclimate condition (Rakusa-Suszczewski and Krzyszowska, 1991;

Terauds et al., 2012) with developed tundra communities, and animal gathering sites

(mainly huge breeding areas of sea birds and pinnipeds) (Chwedorzewska and Korczak,

2010). This combination indicates sites of high ecological value and sensitivity, which

drastically magnifies the risk of deleterious human impacts.

Figure 1. Tourists visiting Antarctic Station on King George Island (South Shetland Islands,

Western Antarctica) in the austral summer (Photo: A. Znoj)


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Biological contamination

Human presence in the Antarctic also brings other threats, potentially even more

dangerous for the ecosystem than POPs. Climate change along with increased human

activity in this region create opportunities for some outside species to invade and

colonize maritime Antarctic (Hughes and Worland, 2010; Hughes et al., 2012;

Chwedorzewska et al., 2015). In spite of the significant number of tourists visiting the

Antarctic Peninsula region (www.iaato.com), the main colonization events seem to be

associated with the supply routes of polar stations rather than with tourism (Lee and

Chown, 2009; Chwedorzewska and Korczak, 2010; Chown et al., 2012). Packing

materials, vehicles, imported fresh foodstuffs, adhered soil, scientific equipment,

building materials, clothing and footwear are considered as a potential vectors for alien

species propagules (e.g. Lityńska-Zając et al., 2012; Augustyniuk-Kram et al., 2013;

Chwedorzewska et al., 2013). On the other hand, due to amelioration of environmental

condition of the Antarctic Peninsula region and changes in cyclonic activities (Kennedy,

1993), increased appearance of non-native birds species from lower latitudes was

observed (e.g. Korczak-Abshire et al., 2011; Gryz et al., 2015) which can be responsible

for the spread of alien propagules or/and pathogens threatening native species (Grimaldi

et al., 2011).

Rapid changes in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystem

One of the most visible effects of climate change in the Antarctic Peninsula region is

the fluctuation of sea ice coverage and dramatic glacier retreat (Bromwich et al., 2013).

This process can lead to changes in ocean productivity, like alterations in plankton

community composition and the most important changes in krill (Euphausia superba)

recruitment and abundance (Ducklow et al., 2007). Krill, a key species of the whole

Antarctic marine ecosystem, is also the biggest protein source in oceans and forms a

critical trophic link between primary producers and upper-level consumers (fish,

pinnipeds, cetaceans, and marine birds). Krill is also a very valuable commercial

resource, intensively exploited from the early 70s (Nicol et al., 2012; Murphy et al.,

2013). Stability of terrestrial communities is directly connected with constant supply of

fertilizer from the sea - mainly droppings of breeding sea birds and pinnipeds (krill

consumers). Population size fluctuations due to climate change (e.g. Korczak-Abshire et

al., 2012; Korczak-Abshire et al., 2013) and fishery can directly influence terrestrial

communities e.g. particularly the structure of ornithocoprophilous vegetation

(Chwedorzewska and Korczak, 2010). Such fluctuation has been recently observed in

Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella), marked by a very rapid increase in

population size to the levels that are greater than those existing before their exploitation

in the nineteenth century. The presence of large numbers of fur seals on land has led to

the rapid deterioration and changes in terrestrial tundra communities over large areas of

ground accessible from the coast, where the majority of well-developed terrestrial

ecosystems are found. It has also led to the rapid eutrophication of limnetic ecosystems

accessible to the fur seals (Favero-Longo et al., 2011).

In the maritime Antarctic, development of terrestrial communities is controlled by

extreme environmental conditions rather than biotic interactions. Those communities

are expected to be very sensitive to changes in climate or consequential processes

(Bargagli, 2005; Frenot et al., 2005). The consequences are thought to include increased

diversity, biomass and trophic complexity, all of which enable development of a more


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complex ecosystem. Changes in the natural distribution ranges of native species or

entire communities are also predicted. In the face of weakening natural barriers isolating

Antarctica, it may be possible for single species or even whole communities to migrate

from temperate zones to Polar Regions and shift the vegetation zones towards higher

latitudes (Convey, 2006). Thus, most likely, further complications will arise from the

complexity of species interactions. Some alien species transferred by humans may

rapidly adapt to new conditions and engage in competition with native species (Molina-

Montenegro et al., 2012). The most studied examples of such an event is the appearance

and expansion of the annual meadow grass Poa annua (Figure 2) in the vicinity of the

Antarctic stations situated along the Antarctic Peninsula (e.g. Wódkiewicz et al., 2013;

2014; Molina-Montenegro et al., 2014; Galera et al., 2015; 2016; Kellmann-Sopyła and

Giełwanowska, 2015; Kellmann-Sopyła et al., 2015; Giełwanowska and Kellmann-

Sopyła, 2015). While the contemporary Antarctic biota show the ability to survive

abiotic environmental extremes, its competitive abilities are very poorly developed and

even whole communities are vulnerable to increased competition of opportunistic

invaders (Bargagli, 2005; Chwedorzewska and Bednarek, 2011; Hughes et al., 2012;

Androsiuk et al., 2015).

Figure 2. Poa annua in the vicinity of Polish Antarctic Station “Arctowski” on King George

Island, South Shetland Islands, Western Antarctica (Photo: A. Znoj)

Expansion of the distribution ranges of indigenous species within Antarctica is also

possible, since two native Antarctic species have been already identified as having long-

distance dispersal potential (Convey and Lewis Smith, 1993) and are the most studied

examples of a biological response to the recent environmental warming in maritime

Antarctic (Convey and Lewis Smith, 1993; Gerighausen et al., 2003). Some populations

have already increased by two orders of magnitude in size during the last three decades,

and there has been a change in the balance of reproductive strategy utilization towards


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successful sexual reproduction by increasing the probability of establishment of

germinating seedlings (Convey, 1996; McGraw and Day, 1997). A rapid increase in the

population size has also been observed amongst bryophytes and microbiota in maritime

Antarctic (Convey and Lewis Smith, 1993; Green et al., 1999). The most unpredictable

and difficult to monitor is the appearance of alien microorganisms, including pathogens

able to cause an epidemic (Kerry et al., 1999). Pollution, increased connectivity, and

global environmental change affecting pathogens and their vectors’ migration at high

latitudes are likely to drive future disease emergence in this region (Grimaldi et al.,

2011).

The most dramatic effect of climate warming in maritime Antarctic is the rapid

retreat of glaciers (Zdanowski et al., 2013). Glacier forefields experience one of the

most important vegetation changes: colonization and primary succession of huge areas

devoid of vegetation uncovered from under the ice (Olech et al., 2011). Ice cap

reduction may also profoundly increase the amount of mobile POPs contaminants

entrapped so far in glaciers (secondary source of pollutants). Glacial melt may carry

those pollutants to nearby lakes or coastal marine zones, thereby spreading them and

increasing their entry into trophic webs (Rakusa-Suszczewski and Krzyszowska, 1991;

Corsolini and Focardi, 2000; Ainley et al., 2005) causing increased POP accumulation

in long-lived Antarctic organisms (Walther et al., 2002).

Discussion

Entire Antarctica, governed internationally by the decisions of the Antarctic Treaty

countries, has a status of a natural reserve. Members of the Antarctic Treaty, the

Consultative Parties, have committed themselves to the comprehensive protection of the

Antarctic environment. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic

Treaty (also known as the Madrid Protocol or Environmental Protocol,

http://www.ats.aq/e/ep.htm) entered into force in 1998. This document puts in place a

framework for the protection of Antarctica’s environmental, scientific, historic,

wilderness and aesthetic values. However, the Antarctic Protected Area system

(http://www.ats.aq/documents/recatt/Att004_e.pdf) is still immature and further

implementation of the existing management tools may be required to protect the diverse

range of vulnerabilities, qualities and spatial scales represented in different fields of

science (e.g. Hughes et al., 2015, 2016).

Conducting research on such a complex and remote ecosystem needs critical

comparison over a long period. The main problem is that scientific activity in the

Antarctic is very recent, for example, the first very robust meteorological records came

from the 1950s from Faraday Station and the first data on the occurrence of

anthropogenic pollutants comes from the 1960s. There are a lot of gaps in data

sequences. Due to high costs of expeditions and very harsh environmental conditions,

vast areas are still unexplored, with some places inaccessible. The development of

Antarctic research has been conducted in fact for only a few decades, over which

analytical methods have undergone continuous changes, thus making comparison with

the oldest data very hard and sometimes even impossible. Often, information is scarce

or lacking very crucial data, for example data concerning the biology of the sampled

species, lack of knowledge of baseline conditions or concurrent natural phenomena that

mask their effects, also research results are presented in various units, which makes

them difficult to compare (Szopińska et al., 2016).


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Most importantly, in many fields, there is no proper long-term monitoring system, or

it is only now being developing. Rapid changes in the Antarctic ecosystem are

becoming a serious issue that needs to be more effectively investigated. In fact, in

Antarctica, only the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living

Resources (CCAMLR) manages sustainable fishery in this region, running very broad,

long-term monitoring (CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program – CEMP), which

started in the late eighties. CEMP's major function is to monitor the key life-history

parameters of selected dependent species to detect changes in the abundance of those

being harvested. ‘Dependent species’ are marine predators for which species targeted by

commercial fisheries are a major component of their diet (https://www.ccamlr.org).

Officially launched at the end of 2011 and still developing was the Southern Ocean

Observation System (SOOS), which seems to fulfill the needs of a modern monitoring

system. SOOS is an international initiative of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic

Research (SCAR) and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR). SOOS

mission is to facilitate the collection and delivery of essential observations of dynamics

and changes in the physical, chemical, geological and biological parameters of the

Southern Ocean system to an all international scientific community to advance

understanding of the Southern Ocean and to address critical societal challenges. The

SOOS tries to develop a cyberinfrastructure, where marine assets would include a

mixture of both autonomous and non-autonomous platforms. Combined with satellite

remote sensing, the data would be relayed to ground stations in real time, where

mathematical ocean models would produce near real-time state estimates of each of the

parameters in the system (https://www.soos.aq).

Conclusions

Recent and historical selective overexploitation of some key species, unexpected

increase in the population of some other, anthropogenic climate change, alien species

pressure, local production and long distance transportation of pollutants, their

accumulation in the ice cap and very slow degradation in polar conditions show that

Antarctic ecosystems can no longer be regarded as pristine. Global anthropogenic

activities along with local human influence weakened the barriers that isolate this

continent from the rest of the world, causing an acceleration of the already observed

changes. The main problem in such remote regions like Antarctica is that some

consequences of human pressure may remain undetected because of the lack of

monitoring systems, limited knowledge of baseline conditions or concurrent natural

phenomena that mask their effects (Tin et al., 2014). Thus, it is very important to

develop new effective monitoring systems. In Antarctica, the remote sensing techniques

have opened up new opportunities for ecosystem monitoring. Satellites as well as

manned and unmanned aircraft enable the collection of data from a local to global scale,

which can be easily integrated with “ground” base data. The most promising seem to be

very recent developments in the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for remote

sensing applications (e.g. Goetzendorf-Grabowski and Rodzewicz, 2016), which

provide new opportunities for high-resolution ecosystem mapping and monitoring, but

still, application of this technology to collect environmental data is a relatively new

phenomenon in polar regions (e.g. Korczak-Abshire et al., 2016; Dąbski et al., 2017).

https://www.soos.aq/


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Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Scientific Research and Higher

Education [grant number 2013/09/B/NZ8/03293].

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