Editorial · Rajamohanreddy Tippaluri, Janmejoy Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay Village Development Plan for Rural Settlements in a 53 Metropolitan Region – Case Study of Mitraon

Cover Design by Prof. (Dr.) Diwakar S. Meshram

Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 13 x 3, July - September 2016

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Editorial

Jyoti Jain Tholiya in her paper “Crime Mapping: A GIS based Spatial Optimization Approach in Toledo, Ohio, USA” investigates shooting incidents in Toledo, OH, USA for the year 2012. The study employs a Hot Spot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi) and Cluster and Outlier analysis (Local Moran’s I) tools to provide decision-makers with an understanding of the spatial patterns of shooting incidents occurred in Toledo, which will enable the law enforcement departments to make more informed decisions about how to allocate police resources. Considering the common results of Local Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi, the study reveals that census tracts 34 and 44 represent the cluster of high shooting incidents and census tracts 62 and 64 represent the cluster of low shooting incidents in Toledo. Therefore, census tract 34 and census tract 44 should be more focused by law enforcement agencies in Toledo.

In his paper “Multi-Actor’s Scenario for Measuring Metropolitan Governance and Spatial Planning in Bengaluru”, H. S. Kumara, Ph.D. calls for better governance in India by examining the rapid process of urbanization and the growing number of metropolitan cities and their regions. This paper argues that spatial planning really matters for measuring the governance at metropolitan scale. This study explores metropolitan governance and spatial planning and its interrelationship issues, concepts and evolution of spatial planning in India and critically examines the multi-actors’ scenario for measuring metropolitan governance by means of spatial planning in this context by reviewing various master plans, concept of multi-actors viewpoint on role of spatial planning related to zoning regulations, master plan implementation and effective service delivery issues. The paper concludes that the spatial planning of Bengaluru directly impacts on measuring metropolitan governance.

Rajamohanreddy Tippaluri, Janmejoy Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay are the authors of a paper titled “Planning for Urban Agriculture – A Case Study of Newly Added Peri-Urban Areas of Hyderabad”. This paper also deals with the complexities of urbanizing India, which is witnessing rapid urbanization and unprecedented population growth. As per census 2011, present population growth rate is 1.26 percent and rate of urbanization is 33 percent. This is leading to massive migration of people from rural areas to urban areas. Most of these people are landless agricultural labourers in search of better living conditions. The expanding cities are continuously absorbing urban fringe areas, which are mostly agricultural land. This migration is causing increased stress on urban food security, water supply, land and urban infrastructure. Poor migrants are struggling in the grip of urban poverty. These phenomena are damaging sustainability of our cities and resulting in unemployment, increasing crime rate, pollution, slums, squatters, environmental degradation, urban food scarcity and malnourishment.

In the paper titled as “Village Development Plan for Rural Settlements in a Metropolitan Region: A Case Study of Mitraon Village, Najafgarh Block, Delhi” authored by Anjan Sen, Ph.D.; the transformations of the village in the periphery of a large metropolis is examined and it is observed that land-use plan aims at eco-friendly and economic utilization of 113 ha of wastelands, and 24 ha of vacant plots within the settlement


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by the year 2021. The wasteland will be diverted for silvi-pastures (35 ha), green belt (60 ha), and reservoir (18 ha) while the vacant plots will be used for recreational (19 ha), institutional (3.5 ha), commercial (0.5 ha), and movement channels (1 ha).

A descriptive study on “Urbanization Impacting Natural Resources in and Around Dehradun City” is conducted by Ashwani Luthra Ph.D., who observed that Dehradun developed in the Doon Valley on the foothills of Himalayas has gained importance since its declaration as a temporary capital city of Uttarakhand in 2000, but the growth of city has been at the cost of unpalatable utilisation of natural resources. Rapidly increasing population has constructed their habitats on either the agricultural or forest or water bodies or green lands. Many of the slums have come up along river Bindal and Rispana, presenting poor quality of life in habitat on the one hand and unwise use of river bed on the other hand. Sewer and sullage of the city is illegally discharged in these rivers causing pollution and adversely impacting aquatic life. Loss of agricultural land is a direct loss to economy and development on forest land is a threat to national wealth. Present paper attempts to highlight the sustainability concerns to natural resource management due to urbanization in Dehradun city.

Ritu Raj Kaur has written the paper titled “Plasma Gasification: An Alternative Solution for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal”. Municipal solid waste management has always been a major concern in India from its collection to transportation, treatment till the final disposal. The challenges of managing Municipal Solid Waste are enormous ranging from safe disposal with least environmental impacts to cost intensive methods and huge land requirements for the final disposal. There are various methods and technologies worldwide to deal with the safe disposal of solid wastes. This paper outlines the benefits of Plasma Gasification over the existing practices such as conventional landfills, incineration, etc. Various benefits of plasma gasification are accounted for including less land requirement, negligible pollution, suitable technology for treating all type of wastes, use of waste as alternative resource for production of renewable energy, etc.

The last paper titled “Planning and Design Solution for Informal Sector” is contributed by Nidhi Nayyar and Ankita Singh. The authors argue that Public Spaces are the most vulnerable areas for the informal sector to encroach upon as they are the hot-spots for the industry. Street vendors, small scale businesses and other informal economies often characterize the public space through originality, efficiency and temporality. Though, the goods and services provided are consumed by all sections of the society, people working in informal sector require formal recognition and protection. Lack of legally provided space forces them to intrude upon the public space. This paper explores how informal processes may enlighten the urban planner of India and seeks to develop a system for inclusive planning strategies.

Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. Editor

Cover Design by Prof. (Dr.) Diwakar S. Meshram


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Content

Crime Mapping: A GIS Based Spatial Optimization Approach 1 in Toledo, Ohio, USAJyoti Jain Tholiya

Multi-Actors’ Scenario for Measuring Metropolitan Governance 15 and Spatial Planning in BengaluruH. S. Kumara, Ph.D.

Planning for Urban Agriculture – Case Study of Newly Added 32 Peri-Urban Areas of HyderabadRajamohanreddy Tippaluri, Janmejoy Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay

Village Development Plan for Rural Settlements in a 53 Metropolitan Region – Case Study of Mitraon Village, Najafgarh Block, DelhiAnjan Sen, Ph.D.

Urbanization Impacting Natural Resources 71 in and around Dehradun City: An AccountAshwani Luthra, Ph.D.

Plasma Gasification: An Alternative Solution 87 for Municipal Solid Waste DisposalRitu Raj Kaur

Planning and Design solution for Informal Sector 93Nidhi Nayyar and Ankita Singh


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1Jyoti Jain Tholiya

1. INTRODUcTION

Police departments often experience limited resources. The current study of shooting incidents can help optimizing resource allocation and improving the existing police service to crime incidents occurring around the city of Toledo, OH. Analyzing the high and low crime locations will help combating the crime and will provide a secured and fear-fee life to the general public. The current study seeks to answer my research question: Where are the clusters of high and low shooting incidents in Toledo, OH, USA, which can help determine the areas where police resources should be focused? My null hypothesis is that the observed pattern of shooting incidents in Toledo is not different from a random pattern i.e. expected pattern.

The current study mainly uses the Local Spatial Autocorrelation Statistics (LISA) that refer to the local version of Moran’s I, Geary’s C, and general G-statistics in which a spatial autocorrelation value is derived for each areal unit in order to capture the spatial variability of spatial autocorrelation at local scale (Wong and Lee 2005).

In this study, shooting incidents in Toledo, OH for the year 2012 has been investigated and analyzed in ArcGIS for Desktop, version 10.2 using the Spatial Statistics Hot Spot Analysis tool (Getis-Ord Gi algorithm) and Cluster and Outlier Analysis tool (local Moran’s I algorithm). Both assess every feature within the context of its neighboring features in order to determine whether or not high or low values of shooting incidents are clustered spatially. The analyses will help

Jyoti Jain Tholiya, Assistant Professor, Dr. D. Y. Patil School of Architecture, Charoli, Pune

Spatially Integrated Social Science (SISS) Program, University of Toledo, OH

AbstractThe current study investigates shooting incidents in Toledo, OH, USA for the year 2012. The study employs a Hot Spot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi) and Cluster and Outlier analysis (Local Moran’s I) tools to provide decision-makers with an understanding of the spatial patterns of shooting incidents occurred in Toledo which will enable the law enforcement departments to make more informed decisions about how to allocate police resources. Considering the common results of Local Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi the study reveals that census tracts 34 and 44 represent the cluster of high shooting incidents and census tracts 62 and 64 represent the cluster of low shooting incidents in Toledo. Therefore, census tract 34 and 44 should be more focused by law enforcement departments of Toledo, OH.

Crime Mapping: A GIS based Spatial Optimization

Approach in Toledo, Ohio, USAJyoti Jain Tholiya


2Jyoti Jain Tholiya

in understanding the spatial patterns of shooting incidents and will assist in important policy or resource allocation decisions based on clusters of high crime activity within the city.

One of the objectives of this study is to compare the all three local measures of spatial autocorrelation, which are Local Moran’s I, Local Geary’s C ratio and Local Getis-Ord Gi (general G-statistics), however, ArcGIS does not have a tool to measure the local Geary’ C ratio. Therefore, the study compared only Local Moran’s I and Local Getis-Ord Gi, which I consider the limitation of this study.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The Hot Spot Analysis tool calculates the Getis-Ord Gi statistic for each feature in a data set by looking at each feature within the context of neighboring features (Wilpen and Kurland, 2011). The resultant z-scores and p-values tell where are the features with either high or low values cluster spatially (ArcGIS 10.2 help). To be a statistically significant hot spot, a feature will have a high value and be surrounded by other features with high values as well. The calculations are based on the following formulas:

Fig. 1: Source- ArcGIS 10.2 help

The Getis-Ord local statistic is given as:

∑ ∑

∑ ∑

n n

i,j j i,jj=1 j=1*

1 2n n

2i,j i,j

j=1 j=1

G

w x - X w=

n w - w

S =n-1

------------(1)

where xj is the attribute value for feature j, wij is the spatial weight between feature i and j, n is equal to total number of features and:

∑n

jj=1X

x=

n ------------(2)

( )∑n 22

jj=1

nS =

x - X

n

------------(3)

The G*i statistic is a z-score so no further calculations are required


3Jyoti Jain Tholiya

The Z-scores are standard deviations which tell us whether we can reject the null hypothesis or not. The p-value is a probability that the observed spatial pattern was created by some random process. Both z-scores and p-values are associated with the standard normal distribution as shown in Fig. 2.

The Cluster and Outlier Analysis tool identifies spatial cluster of high values (HH), cluster of low values (LL), and a spatial outlier (i.e. HL or LH: high values surrounded by low values or vice-versa). The tool calculates a local Moran’s I value, a z-score, a p-value, and a code representing the cluster type for each statistically significant feature (Wilpen and Kurland, 2011).

The z-scores and p-values represent the statistical significance of the computed index values. The z-scores and p-values have been explained in above section of ‘The Hot Spot Analysis Tool’ and also in Fig. 2. The calculations are based on the formulas in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2: Source - ArcGIS 10.2 help


4Jyoti Jain Tholiya

Fig. 3: Source - ArcGIS 10.2 helpThe Local Moran's I statistic of spatial association is given as:

( )∑

ni

i i, j i, j2j=1, j¹ii

x - XI =

Sw x - X

------------(1)

were xi is an attribute for feature i, X is the mean of the corresponding attribute, wi,j is the spatial weight between feature i and j, and:

( )∑n 2

jj=1,j¹i2 2

iS

x - X= - X

n-1 ------------(2)

with n equating to the total number of features.The zIi - score for the statistics are computed as:

[ ][ ]i

i iI

i

zI - E I

=V I

------------(3)

where:

[ ]

∑n

ijj=1,j¹i

iE

wI = -

n-1 ------------(4)

[ ] [ ] 22

i i iV I = E I -E I

------------(5)

3. DATA AND METHODSThe shooting data was obtained from Toledo Blade website (http://toledobladedata.com). The data includes a point shapefile of total 383 shooting incidents in Toledo, OH for the year 2012 (Fig. 1). Shooting incidents are comprised of 173 homicides incidents, 140 incidents of shooting occurred in air, and 70 incidents of shooting occurred at residence. Study used US census tract boundary which was obtained from Census Bureau website (www.census.gov).

3.1 Data Projection The study will incorporate distance component in the analysis. Therefore, in order to minimize the distortion of distance calculations the data has been projected into projected coordinate system rather than keeping it in a Geographic Coordinate System based on degrees, minutes, and seconds. The shapefile was projected into NAD 1983, UTM; Zone 17 that preserves distances.

3.2 Data IntegrationBoth Hot Spot Analysis tool and Cluster and Outlier Analysis tool in ArcGIS will be using require weights, therefore the point data was aggregated prior to analysis. The study used census tract polygon shapefile to aggregate shooting incidents


5Jyoti Jain Tholiya

then the Spatial Join tool was used to count the number of events in each census tract. The resultant field containing the number of events in each census tract (Fig. 5) becomes the input field for analysis. The total 384 shooting incidents were aggregated into 67 census tracts in the study area.

3.3 Finding an Appropriate Scale of Analysis Before we run our Hot Spot Analysis tool (Getis-Ord Gi*) and Cluster and Outlier Analysis tool (Anselin Local Moran’s I), we need to choose the right distance band, which is an important part of the analysis. The patterns will vary based on the scale we choose, for example, if we analyze our shooting incidents at the national level we might see the clusters of high and low shooting incidents in several states, similarly, if we look at it at a census tract level we may find several tracts where there is a problem. Each of these analyses requires a very different distance band that matches the scale of our analysis.

The study uses the Incremental Spatial Autocorrelation tool which finds a distance band that exhibits maximum spatial autocorrelation. Whenever, we see the spatial clustering, it is due to underlying spatial processes at work. The distance band is the distance where those spatial processes are most active, or most pronounced. The Incremental Spatial Autocorrelation tool measures the Spatial Autocorrelation at increasing distances and creates a graph of the z-scores at each distance (Fig. 6). In order to identify an appropriate scale of analysis we select the distance associated with the statistically significant peak. The tool

Fig. 4: Shooting Incidents (red dots) in Toledo, OH


6Jyoti Jain Tholiya

gives the two peaks of the maximum spatial autocorrelation. The current study used the peak where the distance is 3203.60 meter.

Hot Spot Analysis (Getis-Ord Gi) and cluster and Outlier Analysis (Anselin Local Moran’s I) Tools : Both Hot Spot (Getis-Ord Gi) and Cluster and Outlier (Anselin Local Moran’s I) analysis tools were run using the threshold distance of 3203.60 meter. The input parameters used

Fig. 5: Shooting Incidents Aggregated Per census Tract

Fig. 6: Spatial Autocorrelation by Distance


7Jyoti Jain Tholiya

Fig. 7: Hot Spot Analysis (Getis-Ord Gi*)

for Hot Spot analysis and Cluster and Outlier analysis are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 respectively.

Fig. 8: cluster and Outlier Analysis (Anselin Local Moran’s I)


8Jyoti Jain Tholiya

4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The result of the Hot Spot Analysis tool (Fig. 9) exhibit each census tract, which is symbolized based on whether it is part of a statistically significant hot spot, a statistically significant cold spot, or is not part of any statistically significant cluster. The red areas are hot spots or areas where high numbers of shooting incidents are surrounded by other areas with high numbers of shooting incidents. The blue areas are cold spots or areas where low numbers of shooting incidents are surrounded by other areas with low numbers of shooting incidents. The beige areas are not part of statistically significant clusters. Statistical significance is

Fig. 9: Local Getis-Ord Gi


9Jyoti Jain Tholiya

based on p-values and z-scores that are calculated in Hot Spot Analysis tool (Fig. 10).

The calculated z-scores are interpreted as for statistically significant positive z-scores, the larger the z-score the more intense the clustering of high values (hot spot) and for statistically significant negative z-scores, the smaller the z-score the more intense the clustering of low values (cold spot).

Using the standard marker of z-scores i.e. +/- 1.96 at 5 percent statistical significant level (i.e. 95 percent confidence level), the total 8 census tracts (i.e.

Fig. 10: Local Getis-Ord Gi* and Related Statistics


10Jyoti Jain Tholiya

tract 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 44, and 103) were found with z-score > 1.96 which exhibit statistically significant clustering of high values (hot spot) and only 2 census tracts (i.e. tract 62 and 64) were found with z-score < -1.96 which exhibit statistically significant clustering of low values (cold spot) in the study area. The rest of the 57 census tracts were found with z-score between -1.96 and 1.96 which means they were not found as statistically significant clusters. Therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis in those 57 census tracts of our study (see Fig. 11).

Fig. 11: z[ Gi* ]-scores at 95% Confidence level



The result of the Cluster and Outlier (Anselin Local Moran’s I) analysis tools (Fig. 12) exhibit each census tract, which is symbolized based on whether it is part of

Fig. 12: Local Moran’s I



a statistically significant cluster of high values (HH), cluster of low values (LL), a spatial outlier (i.e. HL or LH: high values surrounded by low values or vice-versa) or is not part of any statistically significant cluster. The red areas are high value clusters, or areas where high numbers of shooting incidents are surrounded by other areas with high numbers of shooting incidents. The blue areas are low value clusters or areas where low numbers of shooting incidents are surrounded by other areas with low numbers of shooting incidents. The green areas are low-high outliers or areas where low numbers of shooting incidents are surrounded by the areas with high numbers of shooting incidents. The gray areas are not part of statistically significant clusters. Statistical significance is based on p-values and z-scores that are calculated in Cluster and Outlier Analysis tool (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13: Local Moran’s I and Related Statistics



ArcGIS help section interpreted that a positive value for I indicate that a feature has neighboring features with similarly high or low attribute values; this feature is part of a cluster. A negative value for I indicates that a feature has neighboring features with dissimilar values; this feature is an outlier.

Using the standard marker of z-scores i.e. +/- 1.96 at 5 percent statistical significant level (i.e. 95 percent confidence level), 3 census tracts (i.e. tract 26, 36, and 44) were found with z-score > 1.96 which exhibit statistically significant clustering of high-high values, 2 census tracts (i.e. tract 62 and 64) were found with z-score

> 1.96 which exhibit statistically significant clustering of low-low values and only 2 census tracts (i.e. tract 34 and 39) were found with z-score < -1.96 which exhibit statistically significant low-high outliers in the study area. The rest of the 60 census tracts were found with z-score between -1.96 and 1.96 which means they were not found as statistically significant clusters. Therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis in those 60 census tracts of our study (Fig. 14).

While comparing the results of Local Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi at 5 percent statistical significant level, both exhibit that census tract 34 and census tract 44 as statistically significant clusters of high values. Also, both exhibit that

Fig. 14: z[ Ii ]- scores at 95% confidence level



census tract 62 and census tract 64 as statistically significant clusters of low values.

Considering the common results of Local Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi* the study answers my research question that census tract 34 and 44 represent the clusters of high shooting incidents and census tract 62 and 64 represent the clusters of low shooting incidents in Toledo, OH. Therefore, census tract 34 and 44 should be more focused by law enforcement departments.

5. cONcLUSIONS The current study has used a Hot Spot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi) and Cluster and Outlier analysis (Anselin Local Moran’s I) tools to provide decision makers with an understanding of the spatial patterns of shooting incidents occurred in Toledo, which will enable the law enforcement departments to make more informed decisions about how to allocate police resources.

The Toledo city authorities can use this analysis to decide if adding new or relocating existing police stations might improve their response to shooting incidents occurring within the city. The current study encourages a future study of exploring why certain areas in the city have high and low clusters of shooting incidents and what are the factors that cause incidents of homicide, shooting in air, and shooting inside the residence in Toledo, OH, USA.

REFERENcESAnselin, L., Griffiths, E. and Tita, G. (2008) ‘Crime Mapping and Hot Spot Analysis’, in Richard Wortley and Lorraine Mazerolle (eds.) Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis, Routledge, New York.Frizado J., Smith, B.W., Carroll, M.C. and Reid, N. (2009) Impact of polygon geometry on the identification of economic clusters, Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, Vol. 2, pp. 31-44.Gorr, W.L. and Kurland, K.S. (2011) GIS Tutorial for Crime Analysis, Environmental Systems Research Institute Press, New York Street, Redlands, CA.Murray A.T. and Wei, R. (2013) Exploring Spatial Patterns of Crime Using Nonhierarchical Cluster Analysis, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 224, pp. 52-64.Myint, S.W., and Lam, N. (2005) Examining Lacunarity Approaches in Comparison with Fractal and Spatial Autocorrelation Techniques for Urban Mapping, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 71, No. 8, pp. 927-937.Myint, S.W., Wentz, E.A. and Purkis, S.J. (2007) Employing spatial metrics in urban land use/land cover mapping: comparing the Getis and Geary indices, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 73, No. 12, pp. 1403–1415.Rey, S.J., Murray, A.T. and Anselin, L. (2011) Visualizing Regional Income Distribution Dynamics, Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, Vol. 4, pp. 81-90Wang, F. and Minor, W.W. (2002) Where the Jobs Are: Employment Access and Crime Patterns in Cleveland, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 92, No. 3, pp. 435-450.Wong, D.W.S. and Lee, J. (2005) Statistical Analysis of Geographic Information with ArcView GIS and ArcGIS, John Wiley and Sons, London.


15H.S. Kumara, Ph.D.

H.S. Kumara Ph.D., Assistant Professor, in Urban and Regional Planning, Institute of Devel-opment Studies, Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysuru-570006. Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUcTION

Cities are engines of national and global growth. Urban areas account for half the world’s population, but generate around 80 percent of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Seto and Dhakal, 2014). The pattern of urbanization in India is characterized by continual concentration of population and activities in large cities (Kundu, 1983). This is manifested in a high percentage of urban population being concentrated in Class I towns and its population has systematically gone up over the decades in the last century. Around 70 percent of urban population were concentrated in Class I UAs/towns during 2001-11. The growth rate of population in the metropolitan cities in India has shown a remarkable increase since 1951. This is due to the marked concentration of economic activities, attracting more people from the country-side as well as from smaller urban centers.

The growth of urban population has created serious challenges and imposing greater demands for municipal governments in India. One of the interesting phenomenon is continual increase of metropolitan cities and their population as these metros adding up to about 160.50 million, accounting for 42.56 percent of the total urban population (Census of India, 2011). Most metropolitan areas are characterized by multiple municipalities each delivering services within their own jurisdiction (Enid Slack, 2007). The popular perception is that urban areas are better served with regard to water supply, sanitation and other amenities. But the perception of well serviced cities hides the harsh reality of gross

AbstractRapid process of urbanization and the growing number of metropolitan cities and their regions call for better governance in India. This article attempts to argue that spatial planning really matters for measuring the governance at metropolitan scale. This study explores metropolitan governance and spatial planning and its interrelationship issues, concepts and evolution of spatial planning in India and critically examines the multi actors’ scenario for measuring metropolitan governance by means of spatial planning in context with reviewing various master plans, concept of multi-actors viewpoint on role of spatial planning related to zoning regulations, master plan implementations and effective service delivery issues. This paper concludes that the spatial planning of Bengaluru directly impacts on measuring metropolitan governance.

Multi-Actors’ Scenario for Measuring Metropolitan Governance

and Spatial Planning in Bengaluru H. S. Kumara, Ph.D.



inequalities. In urban India there is tremendous pressure on civic infrastructure systems like water supply, sewerage and drainage, solid waste management, etc. Recent data suggest that water supply is available for only 2.9 hours per day across cities and towns and the non–revenue water that includes physical and revenue losses, account for 40–60 percent of total water supply (Chris Johnson, 2012). According to Census of India 2011, 32.7 percent of the urban population has access to a piped sewer system and 12.6 percent of the urban population still defecates in the open. Installed sewage treatment capacity is only 30 percent as per Central Pollution Control Board Report 2009. Out of 423 Class I cities, only 65 have a formal city bus service as of 2012 (HLCFI, 2012). National Sample Survey had given press note on Housing Condition and Amenities in India, 2008-09, data reveals that 74 percent of urban households with ‘tap’ as major source of drinking and nearly 22 percent of urban households did not have bathrooms.

2. METROPOLITAN GOVERNANcE AND SPATIAL PLANNING

The following issues are common in Metropolitan cities.

• Fragmentation and jurisdiction conflicts (Shah, 2012);

• Metropolitan Spatial (Master) Plans have nearly no relationship with the governance structures and poor implementability;

• Metropolitan service delivery and unsustainable land use (spatial planning) (Kasperson et al, 1995);

• The urban development patterns and the forms of urbanization are often thousands of individual location decisions, and bear little relationship to a land use plan, even if one exists (Gerard Divay et al. 2002);

• Lack of basic services such as public transportation, fresh water, parking areas, waste management, sanitation and public toilets etc. (IFS, 2010); and

• In general, mega and metropolitan cities are in the forefront of governance challenges, with implications for human civilization (Castells, 1998).

3. MEASURING METROPOLITAN GOVERNANcE AND SPATIAL PLANNING

Governability can be defined theoretically as the “permanent balancing process between governing needs and governing capacities” (Kooiman, 1990). A society is governable when there is little difference between needs (problems) and capacities (solutions) (Eduardo et al, 2008). The most renowned contribution was given by Tiebout (1956), which had revealed that most of the studies on governance of metropolitan areas have focused primarily on the cost efficiency of providing public services. Metropolitan Governance is consensus building mechanism of extraordinary complexity (Lefevre, 1998). “Metropolitan Governance” is not a scientifically settled term, yet (Norris, 2001). It may be better explained as a combination of mechanism of self-government for metropolitan regions which are to enable the issue oriented cooperation and



patterns of conflict resolution between actors of different logics of action (economic, political and associative).

Spatial planning is defined as a process by which land use and development plans for areas or regions are formulated and implemented (Cousin, 2002). Spatial planning involves "critical thinking about space and places as the basis for action or intervention", according to the Royal Town Planning Institute’s New Vision for Planning (RTPI, 2007). Friedmann (1987) defines modern planning practice as a social and political process in which many actors, representing many different interests, participate in a refined division of labour. Healey (2003) considers planning as, “a governance activity occurring in complex and dynamic institutional environments shaped by wider economic, social and environmental forces that structure, but do not determine specific interactions”. Shaw and Nadin (1996) further elaborated; spatial planning refers to the methods used largely by the public sector to influence the future distribution of activities in space. As defined by the European Conference of Ministers Responsible for Regional / Spatial Planning (CEMAT), “Spatial planning refers to the methods used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces at various scales as well as the location of the various infrastructures, recreation and nature areas” Land use planning is a process concerned with the determination of land uses, the general objectives of which are set in legislation or in some document of legal or accepted standing (Barry Culling worth and Vincent Nadin, 2003). Spatial planning for cities has “traditionally been concerned with the allocation of land for various uses, the control of development and the installation of infrastructure” (Rakodi, 1993). Traditional planning developed targets for land uses and densities in particular areas, and infrastructure planning was intended to follow spatial planning (Biermann, 1998; Graham and Marvin, 2001). The Committee on Urban Management of Bengaluru city (1997) had conceived planning is by far the most important tool for coming with the increasing demands made by the growth of the city on housing, infrastructure and amenities. The National Commission on Urbanization (NCU, 1988) identifies that the main spatial problem that the country is currently facing is excessive concentration of economic activities in a few metropolitan centers or metro-regions. This trend has given rise to irrational population distribution, generating spatial imbalances. The centre of gravity of spatial planning (still) resides in the municipal land-use plan, because it is, to this day, the only spatial plan with binding power over both authorities and citizens (Needham, 2004). Although the spatial planning system has been characterised as hierarchical, noncentral authorities are not immediately obliged to adjust their plans to the more abstract strategic plans of a higher governmental layer (Hajer and Zonneveld, 2000). The formulation of strategic spatial perspective should have coordination at the three levels that is spatial, functional and sectoral (Willem et al. 2003). This coordination task requires special institutional structures if it is to be fulfilled. Using macro – economic theory Alonso (1971) suggested "urban



benefits increases with city size in a less than proportional way and urban cost increase with city size in a more than proportional way". As the rescaling of urban governance shapes and is shaped by spatial planning, we must not overlook the shifting political economy of space and spatial relations (Pemberton and Goodwin, 2011). We must address the politically-conditioned processes of rescaling and reshuffling urban governance as a continuously planning society (Dewey, 1988), even if the continuity is uneven or appears ad hoc.

4. EVOLUTION OF cITY PLANNING (SPATIAL PLANNING) IN INDIA

The city planning has always been of chief concern since times immemorial. The evidence of city planning has been unearthed in the ruins of cities in China, India, Egypt, Asia Minor, the Mediterranean World, and South and Central America (Iyer, 2011). The concept of town planning is not new to India; from prehistoric Mohenjo Daro, to the imperial city of New Delhi, to Lee Corbusier’s Chandigarh, India, The ancient towns such as Pataliputra, Nalanda and Varanasi were built according to well-conceived plans (Meshram, 2007). Modern town planning is, however, of recent origin based on western theories and models. Thus, we have the ‘Garden City’ model of Ebenezer Howard (1898), the ‘organic’ concept of a town propounded by Patrick Geddes (1915), the ‘Concentric-Zone’ theory of Ernest Burgess (1925), the ‘Sector Theory’ of Homer Hoyt (1939) and the ‘Multiple-Nuclei’ model propounded by Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman (1945). The first Town Planning Act was enacted in the United Kingdom in 1909 with the aim of providing “the home healthy, the house beautiful, the town pleasant, the city dignified and the suburb salubrious”. This ideal could never be achieved due to World wars (Ravindra, 1996).

The concept of Master Plan is derived from the U.K Town and Country Planning Act of 1947. In India, a Model Town and Regional Planning and Development Law drafted by the Central Town and Country Planning Organization in 1950s served as the basis for enactment of Town and Country Planning Acts by the state governments. During the Third Five Year Plan period (1961-66), the Central Government provided financial assistance to the state governments to set up Town Planning Departments for preparation of Comprehensive Master Plans for fast growing cities. According to the Town and Country Planning Organization, Government of India, Master Plans were prepared for more than 2,000 towns and cities in India but most of these plans have not been implemented fully and effectively (Ansari, 2004). Functionally, Spatial Plans (master plans) paid inadequate attention to the provision of trunk infrastructure, environmental conservation and financing issues, the last one rendering them to be unrealistic proposals without budgets (Meshram, 2006). In most cities in India, master plans have not been translated into socio-economic development plans and investment programs and, often, the physical planning exercises were restricted to core urban areas without much integration with the peripheral areas and rural hinterlands (Tiwari, 2002).



5. A cASE STUDY OF BANGALORE

Bangalore, located in the state of Karnataka in Southern India, is the fifth most populous city in India, after Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai. It has an area of 226 sq km (2001 census) at present 800 sq km and lies between the 12°50’ 26’’ to 13°08’ 58’’ North Latitude and 77°27’54’’ to 77°46’44’’ East Longitude, almost equidistant from both eastern and western coast of the South Indian peninsula, and is situated at an altitude of 920 m above mean sea level. The state renamed Banglore as ‘Bengaluru’.

The Bengaluru Municipality came into existence in 1862 and had jurisdictional control over the city area, but not the cantonment area. The first two decades of the 20th century witnessed the rapid and haphazard growth of the city, due to lack of arrangements for enforcement of a statutory land use plan. However, the formation of the City Improvement Trust Board in 1945 attempted to bring in greater social and managerial order in the city. In 1956, pursuant to the reorganization of the State, Bengaluru became the capital of the larger state of Mysore, which was later renamed as Karnataka. Large-scale migration took place at this time, increasing the size of city. In 1976, the Bengaluru Development Authority was formed under the Bengaluru Development Authority Act, 1976 and was declared as a Planning Authority under the Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act, 1961. The Authority started on a large scale; it began integrated planning (Master Plan) for the city to respond to the exceptional rate of growth. From a small urban area of 28 sq km in 1901 (CRRI, 1999), the city had expanded, in all directions and along its major roads, to an area of 565 sq km by 2003 and 1306 sq km by 2007 (RMP, 2015). Heitzman (2004) has analyzed the nature of growth that the city experienced with the emergence of the information society, while bringing out the ingredients that led to the transformation of planning methodologies and spatial planning tools for the city. Janaki, Nair, (2005) has exemplified Bengaluru as "the promise of the metropolis" while illustrating the urban fabric of Bengaluru over the last century. In fact, British troops camped around Ulsoor Lake in what is now central Bangalore, training for their decisive attack on the sultan’s forces in nearby Srirangapattana (Jasanoff, 2005). After the battle, new permanent military barracks were built just outside Bangalore, solidifying Britain’s long-term commitment to the growth and stability of the city (Srinivas, 1994).

5.1 Population Growth

Bengaluru Urban Agglomeration (BUA) extends covering an area of around 500 sq km and population of 5.68 million as per 2001 census. The BUA experienced rapid growth rate of 92.68 percent in the decade of 1941-51; the first reason is to establishment of large public sector undertakings such as Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Bharat Heavy Electronics Limited (BHEL), Indian Space Research Organization, National Defense Research



Laboratories and establishment of the Indian Institute of Science in 1970s and another reason is concept of ‘Urban Agglomeration’ was introduced in 1971 census enumeration, they have included urban outgrowth settlements within the urban agglomeration. The growth has come down to 41.44 percent in the 1991. It has further decreased to 37.77 percent in the 2001 (Fig. 1 and Table 1). The recent data released by the Census of India 2011, the decennial growth rate of

Census Year

Population (In Crores)

Decadal Variations

Decennial growth rate

Average Annual Exponential Growth Rate

1901 0.16 - - -

1911 0.19 0.03 18.75 1.74

1921 0.24 0.05 26.32 2.31

1931 0.31 0.07 29.17 2.55

1941 0.41 0.10 32.26 2.78

1951 0.79 0.38 92.68 6.58

1961 1.21 0.42 53.16 4.25

1971 1.66 0.45 37.19 3.15

1981 2.92 1.26 75.90 5.65

1991 4.13 1.21 41.44 3.44

2001 5.68 1.56 37.77 3.22

2011 8.50 2.82 49.65 4.06Source: Census of India, 2001 and 2011

Fig. 1: Decennial and AAEG Rate of Bangalore Urban Agglomeration Population since 1901-2011

Source: Census of India

Table 1: Bangalore Urban Agglomeration (BUA) Population since 1901-2011



Bengaluru is highest (49.65 percent) and followed by Chennai (35.51 percent). Now Bengaluru becomes the world’s fastest growing metropolitan city.

5.2 1972-2007: Four Master Plans

The spatial planning process in Bengaluru is governed primarily by the Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act of 1961 (KTCP Act) but two other statutes, viz, Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act 1964, and Bengaluru Development Authority Act, 1976 also have important provisions relating to planning. The Planning Authority constituted under the KTCP Act, adopted the ODP prepared by the Committee. This ODP, which was approved by the government in 1972, represented the first step towards a Development Plan for Bangalore.

Accordingly, an ODP was prepared by the Bengaluru City Planning Authority set up in 1967 and published in 1972. This interim Plan was in force for as long as 12 years when the CDP was published in 1984. In the meantime, the Bengaluru Development Authority (BDA) was created in 1976 and was designated the Planning Authority for the Bengaluru Metropolitan Area. The ODP was prepared for an area of 500 sq km of which 265 sq km was the conurbation or the area earmarked for development and the remaining 235 sq km constituted the rural tract. Under the CDP, the planning area was enlarged to 1279 sq km of which the conurbation area was 440 sq km while 839 sq km constituted the ‘green belt’ (Table 2 and Fig. 2).

The CDP was revised after a gap of 12 years and the revised CDP while retaining the total planning area of 1279 sq km, increased the conurbation to 500 sq km and reduced the size of the green belt proportionately. Taking into account the rapid socio-economic changes, the government decided to review the CDP and bring out a new plan to suit the requirements of the 21st

century. During the

period of 25 years-between the first ODP of 1972 and the Master Plan of 2015, the metropolitan area of Bengaluru increased from 500 sq km to 1,306 sq km and the population rose from 1.7 million to 6 million, at present city has 8.50 million.

Development Plan Area under the plan (square kilometers) Total Local Planning Area (sq.km.)

Conurbation Area

Green Belt Other Planning Authority

ODP -1968 220 280 0.00 500

CDP-1984 439.30 839.70 0.00 1279.00

CDP-1995 564.60 714.40 0.00 1279.00

Master Plan -2015 786.40 455.00 65.00* 1306.40

Table 2: Scope of Development Plans for the Bangalore Metropolitan Area

Source: 1961-GOM (1968); 1972-Ravindra (1996); 1983-BDA (1984); 1990-BDA (1995); and 2003-BDA (2005)

(* Area under Bangalore Mysore Infrastructure Corridor Planning Authority)



5.3 Concept of Multi-actors Opinion Survey

An opinion survey involves asking stakeholders/people’s opinions on a particular subject. Megacity Challenges, A stakeholder perspective, a research project conducted by GlobeScan and MRC McLean Hazel, Sponsored by Siemens (2007) at Edinburgh. The opinion survey covering of 522 stakeholders spread across 25 cities, with approximately 20 interviews per city. UNDP (2009) has conducted key stakeholders opinion survey from various countries on governance issues. Global Public Opinion Poll on values and ethics were conducted using opinion poll in structured interview questionnaire (Milagros Rojas and Saadia Zahidi, 2010). Pricewaterhouse Coopers (2006) conducted citizens’ perception survey on democratic capital - cities of the future, covering a total of 430 responses of citizens and 10 councillors. The study of William (2002) during the three week period in November and December 2001, Gallup Korea, a leading survey research organization based in Seoul, interviewed 51 Korean citizens. The National Statistics Opinion Survey (2011) has conducted a multi-purpose survey developed by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) for use by government departments, other public bodies, charities and academics. It provides a fast, cost effective and reliable way of obtaining information on topics too brief to warrant their own survey.

Source: BDA

Fig. 2: Proposed Land Use - RMP 2015



Methodology for Opinion Survey: The purpose of the opinion survey is to know the stakeholders opinion and their involvement in implementation of Master Plans and how these plans directly influence for governing the city. The exploratory studies (opinion survey) were conducted during the months of January, February of 2012 and online survey was conducted in the month of August, September during 2011. A structured interview questionnaire was designed maximum with closed–ended type’s questions, few questions related with ranked or ordinal, matrix rating types and a likert scale questions. The interview opinion questionnaire consist coded questions meant to elicit information’s with regard to Metropolitan Governance and spatial planning. The samples were drawn identifying the stakeholders involved in the city for providing the services and governing the city. Out of 40 respondents, 3 respondents online and rest of it were interviewed through the mode of snowball sampling, categorized into eight groups viz, head of the public stakeholders, secretariats, subject experts - national and international, non-government organizations (NGOs) members, representative of premier institutions, consulting groups and individual consultants who are primarily engaged in shaping the metropolitan governance and spatial planning. The percentage and number of cross section of respondents across the eight categories is enumerated in the Table 3.

5.4 Results and Discussions

Spatial Planning Related to Zoning and Land Use Policies: Of the total 40 respondents from different sectors, about 25 percent (10) of the respondents strongly agreed on spatial planning (Master Plan) in urban areas is related to zoning and land use policies and giving direction to urban growth, about 55 percent (22) of the respondents agreed and rest of the respondents disagreed (Fig. 3 and Table 4).

Key Interviewer (N=40) Number Percent Public stakeholders (N=9) 9 22.50

Secretariats (N=3) 3 7.50

Subject Expert-National (N=3) 3 7.50

Subject expert –International (N=3) 3 7.50

NGOs members (N=5) 5 12.50

Institutions (N=4) 4 10.00

Consulting groups (N=6) 6 15.00

Freelance Consultant (N=7) 7 17.50

Total 40 100.00

Table 3: cross Section of Respondents

Source: Author construct



Fig. 3: Percentage of Respondents on Spatial Planning Related to Zoning and Land Use Policies

Table 4: Spatial Planning Related to Zoning and Land Use Policies

Respondents from different sectors

Strongly Agree

Agree Disagree Total

Nos. % Nos. % Nos. % Nos. %Public stakeholders 2 22.20 6 66.70 1 11.10 9 100.00

Secretariats 0 0.00 3 100.00 0 0.00 3 100.00

Subject Experts-National 1 33.3 2 66.70 0 0.00 3 100.00

Subject Experts –International

1 33.30 2 66.70 0 0.00 3 100.00

NGOs Members 0 0.00 1 20.00 4 80.00 5 100.00

Institutions 3 75.00 1 25.00 0 0.00 4 100.00

Consulting groups 0 0.00 3 50.00 3 50.00 6 100.00

Individual Consultants 3 42.90 4 57.10 0 0.00 7 100.00

Total 10 25.00 22 55.00 8 20.00 40 100.00

Degree of satisfaction: About 20 percent (8) respondents are satisfied with Bengaluru Development Authority (BDA) engaged in riveting in the Master Plan to provide effective service delivery and implementation, about 22.50 percent (9) of the respondents are not unsatisfied and about 57.50 percent (23) of the respondents are strongly unsatisfied respectively (Fig. 4 and Table 5).



Fig. 4: Degree of Satisfaction of BDA – Master Plan Implementation and Efficient Service Delivery


Satisfied Unsatisfied Strongly Unsatisfied

Total

Nos. % Nos. % Nos. % Nos. %Public stakeholders 3 33.30 0 0.00 6 66.70 9 100.00

Secretariats 0 0.00 1 33.30 2 66.70 3 100.00

Subject Experts-National 0 0.00 0 0.00 3 100.00 3 100.00

Subject experts –International

2 66.70 0 0.00 1 33.30 3 100.00

NGOs Members 0 0.00 3 60.00 2 40.00 5 100.00

Institutions 1 25.00 2 50.00 1 25.00 4 100.00



Total 8 20.00 9 22.50 23 57.50 40 100.00

Table 5: Degree of Satisfaction of BDA – Master Plan Implementation and Efficient Service Delivery

Implementation of Spatial Plan – Top Three Issues: About 32.50 percent (13) of the respondents have given first priority to amendment of relevant laws, about 37.50 percent (15) for enforcement, 12.50 percent ( percent) for policies and incentives, 10 percent (4) for procedure for stakeholders inclusions, 2.50 percent (1) for resource mobilization, 2.50 percent (1) for transportation infrastructure planning needs to be integrated and 2.50 percent (1) for land earmarking for EWS / LIG housing respectively (Fig. 4 and Table 6).



Fig. 5: Implementation of Spatial Plan – Top Three Issues

Table 6: Implementation of Spatial Plan – Top Three Issues

Metropolitan Issues I Priority II Priority III PriorityNos. % Nos. % Nos. %

Amendment of relevant laws 13 32.50 8 20.00 3 7.50

Enforcement 15 37.50 8 20.00 16 40.00

Policies and incentives 5 12.50 10 25.00 3 7.50

Procedures for stakeholders inclusions

4 10.00 11 27.50 7 17.50

Resources mobilisation 1 2.50 1 2.50 9 22.50

Transport infrastructure planning needs to be integrated

1 2.50 1 2.50 1 2.50

Land Earmarking for EWS/LIG housing

1 2.50 1 2.50 1 2.50

Total 40 100.00 40 100.00 40 100.00

constituting MPc and DPcs: Out of 40 respondents, 40 percent (16) of the respondent agreed to the statement of constitution of Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC) and District Planning Committees (DPCs) it improves the effective service delivery and allow effective spatial planning, 55 percent (22) as strongly agreed and 5 percent (2) as disagreed. The majority of the respondents i.e., more than half as strongly agreed to constitute MPC and DPCs it improves the effective service delivery and spatial planning (Fig. 6



and Table 7). The opinion survey reveals that the BDA, BMRDA and other local planning authorities existing institutional arrangement for implementation of master plan, structure plan and interim master plan is very poor. The author suggests that BMRDA Act to be renamed as “Bengaluru Metropolitan Area Planning Act” (BMAP) and BMRDA as renamed as Bengaluru Metropolitan Planning Board (BMPB) will be the Secretariat of the Bengaluru Metropolitan Area Planning Council (BMC). In this case BMPB is a Unified Metropolitan Planning Authority within the BMR and comes under the umbrella of MPC (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6: Opinion on constitution of MPc and DPcs


Agree Strongly agree Disagree Total Nos. % Nos. % Nos. % Nos. %

Public stakeholders 2 22.20 7 77.80 0 0.00 9 100.00

Secretariats 0 0.00 3 100.00 0 0.00 3 100.00

Subject Expert-National

1 33.30 2 66.70 0 0.00 3 100.00

Subject Expert -International

1 33.30 2 66.70 0 0.00 3 100.00

NGOs Members 2 40.00 1 20.00 2 40.00 5 100.00

Institutions 1 25.00 3 75.00 0 0.00 4 100.00



Total 16 40.00 22 55.00 2 5.00 40 100.00

Table 7: Opinion on constitution of MPc and DPcs



Fig. 7: Unified Metropolitan Planning Authority –Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR)

6. cONcLUSIONS

Spatial planning indicator analysis shows that urban form directly impact on governance, the managing or governing metropolitan city of Bangalore, it requires strategic spatial plan focusing on effective and efficient delivery of service to the citizens. The new urban governance required not only tools like tax incentives and enforceable contracts for privatizing government functions, but also new processes to carry the tools into effect, including deliberation and dialogue for making policy and dispute resolution like negotiation, mediation, and voluntary monitoring for implementing and enforcing it (Bingham, 2006). The Spatial Plans (Master plans) have nearly no relationship with the governance structures. Hence, the City Master Plans have very poor implementability. In essence, preparation of City Master Plans become a statutory exercise that freezes lands and makes them unavailable for development and by that declaring large parts of city activities and large parts of city population ‘illegal’ or ‘informal’. This notwithstanding with the several institutional overlaps that exist with respect to land use in Indian cities. Integration of land use with transport planning should be made mandatory for all ULBs as well as planning bodies such as the DPCs and MPCs (Local Governance – Summary of Recommendations) (Moily, 2006).

In case of Bangalore, spatial planning should include convergence of all the sectoral approaches reflecting spatially their governance and also include phasing, monitoring and evaluation, infrastructure and investment plans. Farmer, Prime



Minister of India had also pointed out "It is now well recognised that governance is the weakest link among the key drivers of urban transformation. Unless our institutions are reformed and governed well, they will neither attract the huge investments required to build and maintain city infrastructure nor deliver efficient services in a sustainable manner" (Singh, 2011).

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Rajamohanreddy Tippaluri, Janmejoy Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay 32

1. INTRODUcTION

Urban agriculture is the production of fruits, vegetables, fish, poultry, fodder, grains and cash-crops within urban areas or in the fringes. Urban Agriculture has the potential for providing food and nutrition for urban dwellers; waste recycling opportunities; employment generation and reduction of crime-rates; air and sound-pollution reduction; availability of locally grown fresh food; lowering of transportation costs for bringing food from far-flung areas; ground water recharge and more greenery. The above-mentioned factors help to create a more sustainable city.

Urban agriculture can be practiced on low-lying urban fringes, flood plains, marshy land, river and canal banks, on the side of highways, municipal parks, vacant unused land within public institutions, vested land, and land kept for future development, derelict land, rooftops, etc. Revitalization of canals, rivers and waters will also encourage aqua-culture.

Hyderabad is the capital city of the state of Telangana in India. It has a population of 7 million, making it India’s fifth largest metropolitan area. The total estimated city area is now 650 sq km, with the recent addition of 12 municipalities

AbstractPresently India is witnessing rapid urbanization and unprecedented population growth. As per census 2011, present population growth rate is 1.26 percent and rate of urbanization is 33 percent. This is leading to massive migration of people from rural areas to urban areas. Most of these people are landless agricultural laborers in search of better living conditions. The expanding cities are continuously absorbing urban fringe areas, which are mostly agricultural land. This migration is causing increased stress on urban food security, water supply, land and urban infrastructure. Poor migrants are struggling in the grip of urban poverty. These phenomena is damaging sustainability of our cities and resulting in unemployment, increasing crime rate, pollution, slums, squatters, environmental degradation, urban food scarcity and malnourishment.

Planning for Urban Agriculture – Case Study of Newly Added Peri-Urban Areas of HyderabadRajamohanreddy Tippaluri, Janmejoy Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay

Rajamohanreddy Tippaluri, Completed Master of Urban Planning from BIT Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand. Email: [email protected]

Janmejoy Gupta, Assistant Professor in Department of Architecture at BIT Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand. Architect – Urban Planner. Email: [email protected]

Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay, Retired Architect - Urban Planner from Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA). Email: [email protected]



(2007). Together they form the Greater Hyderabad municipal corporation (GHMC). A total 24 percent of the people are migrants from other places to the GHMC. The increase of urbanization has resulted such that amongst every 1,000 people, 340 people are unemployed.

In Hyderabad 4,000 MT’s of waste is generated daily, among this 10 percent of the waste is reused remaining 90 percent of the waste is directly going to the dumping yard, and with increasing amount of dumped waste, the quality of the soil and water are becoming polluted. Almost 65 percent of the agricultural products are imported from other places, like neighboring states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Because of the imports, the prices of the vegetables and other farm produces

are high. Because of all these issues, urban agriculture can play a significant role in peri-urban areas. There are many ways for developing urban agriculture in Hyderabad-for example, along the water bodies, vacant lands and recreational areas for development of horticulture and aquaculture. Reuse of the storm water and kitchen gardens in villages can also be done.

The following objectives have been adopted for this study:

• To study urban agriculture best practices from national and international level;

• To study the importance of urban agriculture within a city and peri-urban areas;

• To study how the employment growth, waste recycling, food production trends and land use pattern have changed because of urban agriculture in a city;

• To identify gaps, analytical tools and methods, from the best practices. Some parts of the studied cities are practicing urban agriculture in a good way, but still they have problems within that practice of urban agriculture like land use policies, taxes and excess use of chemicals for increasing the production. These gaps need to be identified;

• To delineate the peri-urban area in Hyderabad by using certain parameters from best practices. It implies the delineation of the study area by using

Fig. 1: HMDA Extended Area

Source: 2031 Master Plan, Hyderabad



the selected parameters, average weightage method and also GIS based analytical tools;

• To study and analyze the delineated area of the Hyderabad peri-urban area. To analyze the study area regarding the land use growth, decadal agricultural growth, employment pattern, and income levels of the agricultural producers and non - producers; and

• To plan urban agriculture in a delineated zone of the Hyderabad peri-urban area. It includes how to identify the suitable areas for the development of urban agriculture.

2. BEST PRAcTIcES AT GLOBAL AND NATIONAL LEVEL

Japan has been successful in their urban agriculture endeavor due to the presence of agricultural land within cities, with one-third of the country’s agricultural produce coming from urban farming. It is a relatively widespread practice as well, with 25 percent of the country’s farming households being urban gardens. Even in major cities like Tokyo, local agriculture produces enough vegetables, potentially to feed almost 7, 00,000 people in the city.

Parameters selection for future study from Japan is population, agriculture production, green space, policy, planning, income, forestry, fisheries. Average age of the farmer’s is on the higher side, and also land taxes are very high.

In Beijing urban agriculture, experienced a corkscrew development with its role changing in decades. It is evolved from production mode to multi-functional urban agriculture and also full filling social and ecological demands. Multi-stakeholder process for action planning and policy Design (MPAP) played an important role in reshaping of Beijing. Socially urban migrants built their social network and changed the local community also. They also physically changed the landscape and land use, land cover pattern considerably.

Parameters selection for future study from Beijing includes employment, infrastructure, migration, land bank, stakeholders, land ownership. Family migration is very high these are issues with local land policies.

Inside the Kolkata municipal corporation (KMC), recycling of domestic sewage, sewage water, and solid organic waste is being treated in the eastern fringe area along with cultivation of vegetables and pisciculture. The wastes have been processed naturally in the lagoons of the eastern fringe. In KMC, one-third of the total food requirement of fish and vegetables is produced from wastewater recycling. Parameters selection for future study from Kolkata are area, sewage and drainage, composting, industries, training and skills, sewage-water. Constant threat from promoters to encroach the water bodies and marshy land, law and order and problems faced by fishermen’s, lack of land availability and Infrastructure.



Curitiba explains the stable urban land use and agricultural policies in urban areas with the help of urban agriculture, which is possible because of political willingness and legal backing. It also suggests some sectorial policies, urban agriculture and waste recycling methods to increase total food production. The city of Curitiba itself has 280 hectares under urban agriculture producing 3,000 tons of food products benefitting about 7,000 people in 2005. Parameters selection for future study from Curitiba are energy renewable, soil strength, political-will, social inclusion of poor, school, and quality of life.

List of tools and techniques that have been chosen from the desktop studies:

• Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis Method: It states how to analyze the agriculture production quality and quantity in a particular area.

• Gender Analysis: It analyzes population and employment, male and female percentages. Future projection of employment and population is being done.

• Conventional Method: It estimates future projected population and also the future agriculture demand and gaps

• Market Analysis: It analyzes how the agriculture market situated in a study area performs at district and state level. It also describes the future market scenario.

• Travel Cost Analysis: It estimates how agriculture prices are changing from one state to another.

• Cost-Benefit Analysis: It estimates the agriculture income and expenditure details. And also depends on the type of agriculture, cultivable land and products.

• Modelling Methods and Mathematical Models (socio-economic): It estimates the social and economic condition of the agricultural producers and non – producers.

Parameters• Land use/Agriculture • Vacant Land • Administration

• Existing Population • Income/Expenditure • Funding Pattern

• Production • Waste Water • Backyards

• Migration • Growth • Road side lands

• Employment • Sex Ratio • Density details

• Soil Condition • Flood prone areas • Railway track details

• Water Bodies/levels • Land ownership • Burial grounds

• Land Rates & Taxes • Food Supply system • Hospitals

• Waste Generation • Government Schemes • Schools

• Poverty Details • Rainfall Data • Jails



• Geographic Information Systems (GIS): It is one of the most suitable software for analyzing the growth of the mandals, land suitability analysis and topographical analysis.

• Survey and Interview Methods: It is used for conducting surveys and interviews regarding the subject at local and district level for identifying condition of the present and future situations. Different people like agricultural producers and non-producers, NGO’s, political leaders and government officials are being interviewed.

• Weighted and Ranking Method: This method is used for the delineating of the study area based on the selected parameters from the desktop studies. For this, one needs to conduct a survey of different people regarding the important parameters. Based on that one needs to collect data from various sources, then analyze the same and create a ranking pattern based on the final scores.

3. STUDY AREA DELINEATION

As per Hyderabad Master Plan of 2031, 4 districts and 34 mandals are added to the existing HMDA area, based on the future growth pattern of the city. In these mandals, some of the villages are also included as per the Master Plan. So the study area selection is based on the recently added villages and mandals as per recent master plan. Weighted average method for selection of parameters is used. Weighted parameters are used to calculate the weighted average for each parameter choice. It can determine which parameter choice was preferred the most. The parameter choice with the largest ranking average is the most preferred choice.

Fig. 2: Extended Areas of the 2031 HMDA Master Plan



It is one of the most suit-able methods for selection of parameters. For this, we need to conduct a survey from different persons for weight ages of each pa-rameter. All respondents are urban planners, gov-ernment employees, and stakeholders who are re-lated to urban agriculture. Weighted average method formula implies sum of each parameter divided by the total number of re-spondents. Ranking classi-fication based on the high-est and lowest value of the total values. These values are classified as 4 classes. Finally 1st rank (81-97) val-ues of the parameters were selected for the study area delineation

On the selected parameters from the desktop studies based on the weighted aver-age method, the study area, is delineated. All these val-ues are based on the sec-ondary data from the dif-ferent government reports. Based on the selected pa-rameters, the study area is delineated by using the

Ranking Method with GIS analytical tool. Quthbul-lapur mandal got the lowest value compared to the other mandals. In 2001, the population was 50,000 which came down to 1431 in 2011 because of the rising unemployment and water scarcity. Rajen-dranagar got 2nd lowest value after Quthbullapur,

Table 1: Survey and Ranking Method of the Parameters

Table 2: Classification of Ranks and Values

Parameters 1st Person

2nd Person

3rd Person

4th Person

Total Total / 4

Rank Final Rank

Land use/Agriculture

98 99 98 91 386 97 1

Existing Production 95 90 96 85 366 92 1

Production 90 95 86 95 366 92 1 1

Migration 88 80 89 75 332 83 1

Employment 85 95 72 80 332 83 1

Soil Condition 72 85 72 90 319 80 2

Water Bodies/levels 80 98 65 75 318 80 2

Land RAtes & Taxes 85 90 65 75 315 79 2

Waste Generation 75 80 75 78 308 77 2

Poverty Details 65 95 73 70 303 76 2

Vacant Land 70 87 75 60 292 73 2

Income/Expenditure

70 90 65 65 290 73 2 2

Waste Water 78 80 7 50 286 72 2

Growth 80 90 68 45 283 71 2

Sex Ratio 73 80 60 67 280 70 2

Flood Prone Areas 53 90 63 55 261 65 2

Land ownership 56 90 69 45 260 65 2

Food Supply System 58 95 52 55 260 65 2

Government Schemes

53 85 55 59 252 63 3 3

Rainfall Data 60 96 50 45 251 63 3

Administration 65 76 70 40 251 63 3

Funding pattern 63 70 45 67 245 61 3

Backyards 40 85 50 45 220 55 3

Road side lands and medians

30 95 20 69 215 54 3

Density details 30 90 30 25 175 44 4

Railway track details

30 90 20 35 175 44 4

Burial grounds 43 70 15 40 168 42 4

Hospitals 30 70 20 20 140 35 4 4

Schools 25 63 13 25 126 32 4

Jails 30 60 18 10 118 29.5 4

Rank Values1st 81-972nd 64-803rd 47-634th 29-46



Table 3: Data compilation as per Parameters

S. No.

Mandal Name Dist. Name Agriculture land % with total area

Agriculture produc-tion % with District

Migration %

Mandal population % with district population

Working population

Final Score

1 Kandukur Rangareddy 24.53 9 7.00 1.031 50.59 92.252 Yacharam Rangareddy 10.63 4 4.06 0.933 49.27 68.893 Manchal Rangareddy 15.06 6 10.22 0.878 49.32 81.484 Farooqnagar Mahaboob Nagar 12.44 5 6.97 1.264 51.96 77.635 Kothur Mahaboob Nagar 4.49 2 -2.50 1.033 48.57 53.596 Maheswaram Rangareddy 15.28 6 11.33 1.230 45.49 79.337 Sham Shabad Rangareddy 20.24 7 0.60 0.996 45.39 74.338 Shabad Rangareddy 8.92 3 8.10 0.969 32.45 73.449 Chevella Rangareddy 7.23 3 4.27 1.098 52.19 67.7910 Shankarpalli Rangareddy 13.11 8 17.92 1.235 48.84 86.1111 Sangareddy Medak 14.16 5 1.29 1.113 45.56 68.4212 Patancheru Medak 21.27 8 -35.69 0.843 46.15 40.5713 Hathnoor Medak 28.65 11 14.12 1.056 48.10 102.9314 Narsapur Medak 27.65 10 12.22 1.015 47.87 98.7615 Shivampet Medak 23.87 9 6.37 0.852 51.79 91.8816 Tupran Medak 32.47 12 13.59 1.144 49.14 108.3417 Wargal Medak 28.78 11 10.61 0.841 51.16 102.3918 Choutuppal Nalganda 18.87 7 4.67 1.024 47.28 78.8419 Bhongir Nalganda 19.95 7 1.81 0.948 50.91 80.6220 Bommalaramaram Nalganda 23.1 8 9.19 0.703 53.86 94.8521 Mulug Medak 17.42 6 10.67 0.832 52.04 86.9622 Ramachandrapuram Medak 18.91 7 -23.46 0.187 43.89 46.5323 Jinnaram Medak 21.89 8 -12.48 0.928 48.04 66.3824 Quthbullapur Rangareddy 25.3 9 -97.15 0.027 56.18 -6.6425 Moinabad Rangareddy 22.02 8 8.10 1.061 46.62 86.6026 Rajendra Nagar Rangareddy 9.47 3 -28.01 0.464 89.43 24.3527 Keesara Rangareddy 13.38 5 -28.02 0.518 43.52 34.4028 Shamirpet Rangareddy 50.61 19 -13.69 1.371 45.02 102.3129 Ibrahimpatnam Rangareddy 20.32 7 -21.49 0.996 50.28 57.1130 Pochampalle Nalganda 33.6 12 -14.17 0.719 48.90 81.0531 Bibinagar Nalganda 41.79 15 -12.64 0.759 47.63 92.5432 Hayathnagar Rangareddy 25.29 9 -24.34 0.974 41.85 52.7733 Ghatkesar Rangareddy 26.52 10 -28.50 0.954 39.26 48.2334 Medchal Rangareddy 32.48 12 -15.29 1.092 43.09 73.37

Even in Rajendranagar mandal, the population growth decreased by 28 percent in between 2001 and 2011. When compared to Rajendranagar and Quthbullapur mandals, Rajendranagar mandal is more suitable for agriculture, regarding the land and water availability for agricultural practice as compared to the other mandals in Hyderabad.

4. STUDY AREA (RAjENDRANAGAR MANDAL)

Rajendranagar is a mandal in Rangareddy district in the Indian state of Telan-gana. It is located in the 17°19’25”N longitude and 78° 24’ 17”N latitude, about 37 km towards east from district headquarters Hyderabad. This place is in the border of the Rangareddy district and Hyderabad district. Hyderabad is towards north from this place. Rajendranagar mandal is famous for lakes, engineering and science colleges. One of the top most agricultural university



Fig. 3: Study Area Delineation Fig. 4: Study Area Location Map

Fig. 5: Decadal Wise Population Growth in Study Area

and state/ central government institutions are located in Rajendranagar. It is very close to the Hyderabad International Airport. In the study area, 51 per-cent of the soil is red, 40 percent is black soil and 9 percent of the remaining soil. It also situated 542.3m above M.S.L. The mandal has a normal rainfall of 764 mm.



Fig. 6: Village Wise Area in Ha (Study Area)

Fig. 7: Density comparison (2011)

In 2001 to 2011, population size increased in Puppalguda and Bandlaguda. Vil-lages having lowest population are Gungurthy and Bairagiguda. The area of the Gandipet village is very high, and it covered a more number of water bodies. So Gandipet village has more chance to develop urban agriculture. Rajendranagar mandal density is low compared to the district level, at the same time while compared to the state and national level, mandal density is found to be very



Fig. 8: Population Breakup in Study Area

Fig. 9: Agricultural Land Values in Study Area

Table 4: Land Use Breakup of the Study Area

Decadal wise land use patternType 2005-06 2010-11 2015-16

Area/Ha Area/Ha Area/HaBio conservation 1405 1030 1008Water bodies 3890 3890 3890Agricultural land 1199 883 533Built up 1421 2128 2521Roads 546 549 551Recreational 684 665 642Defense 125 125 125Total 9272 9272 9272

high. 40 percent of the people are in 22 – 50 years age group, it means employ-ment rate is very high.

Non-agriculture land prices are very high compared to the agricultural land because profit percentage is very less in agriculture sector. So most of the cultivators are moving to the other sectors. In 2011, the percentage of the marginal and small farmers is very high. Gradually the number of farmers and holding size is reduced. This will affect the future food shortage. As per 2011 reports, all farmers are belonging to the same village. It seems to be that farmers are not interested in practicing agriculture because of the high expenditure and low



Fig. 11: Decadal wise Land Use comparison (Study Area)

Fig. 10: Non-agriculture Land Values in Study Area

income. Out of the total area 533 ha, 362.8 ha is under field crops, accounting for 68 percent of the total area. Sericulture has very tiny share.

In the study area, the highest crop production comes from pulses i.e. 32 percent of the total area. Jowar and paddy are other major crops. Agriculture trends



Fig. 12: Decadal Wise Land Holding Size in Study Area

Fig. 13: Decadal Wise land Dispersal in Study Area

in area, production and productivity, show that except paddy, remaining all crops are grown under the rain fed situation. In Rajendranagar mandal, the production percentage is low compared to the requirement of households, so 35 percent - 40 percent of the vegetables are imported from other states. In the year of 2010 and 2015, the

Fig. 14: Area Coverage Under Different Sectors in Study Area



Fig. 15: Area Coverage Under Different crops in Study Area

Fig. 16: Agricultural Trends in Area, Production and Productivity

crop 2010-11 2015-16Area in

haproduction

in MtsYield in kgs/ha

Area in ha

production in Mts

Yield in kgs/ha

Rice 147.96 1022.2 2250.9 89.3 617.1 1037.7

Maize 109.78 721.6 1670.1 66.3 435.6 770.4Jowar 171.83 1202.6 2614.0 103.7 726 1205.0Pulses 286.38 1924.2 4356.7 172.9 1161.6 2009.1Castor 28.64 180.4 435.7 17.3 108.9 201.0Cotton 76.37 541.2 1161.8 46.1 326.7 535.7Groudnut 19.08 120.3 290.3 11.5 716 1334Other Agri. Crops

42.96 300.7 6534 255 181.5 301.0

Total 883.00 6013.00 13433.08 533.00 3630.00 6193.46

Fig. 17: Agricultural Production Analysis

Fig. 18: comparison of Agricultural Production with Rainfall Data (2010 and 2015)

Telangana HyderabadRajendra Nagar (Study Area)

2015 2010Population 352 lakh 100 lakh 67942 36976Per day requirement 300 g/day/

person300 g/day/

person300 g/day/

person300 g/day/

personAnnual requirement 38 lakh MTs 11 Lakh tones 5186 MTs 4108Present annual production

31.26 Lakh MTs

7.8 Lakh MTs 3986 MTs 6013

Monthly Requirement 2.6 Lakh MTs 65 MTs 303 Tones 342Gap 6.74 Lakh MTs 3.2 Lakh MTs -1200 MTs + 1905Share % to the Study Area

0.7% 2% ---- ----



Fig. 19: Percentage of Producers and Non-producers

Fig. 20: Percentage of Migrants and Non-migrants

Fig. 21: Occupation Pattern of Producers and Non-producers

agriculture production was gradually reduced, and population growth rate is increased. In 2015 1200 MTs of agriculture production is deficient.

4.1 Primary Survey in Study Area:

Out of 12,525 households, 2 percent (250 HH) of the households were selected for the survey in a study area. The household survey is conducted in every village based on Simple Random Sampling method. Out of the 250 households 84 HH



(33.6 percent) are agriculture producers and 166 HH (66.4 percent) are Non-agricultural producers in the study area. It seems that most of the people are working in other sectors, like software and others, etc.

Most of the people are non-migrants. All these people are staying from last 50-60 years in these villages, and 22 percent of the people have migrated from other places.

Casual labor is the most important source of income. Gender-wise, no obvious positive impacts of urban and peri-urban agriculture on women and female-headed households could be observed. As per primary survey, 69 percent of the households have own houses, and 31 percent of the households have rented

Fig. 22: Ownership Type Fig. 23: Housing Typology

Fig. 24: Waste Generation Data / Day Fig. 25: Income Classification/Month



houses. 55 percent of the houses are Pucca, 31 percent are semi pucca, and 14 percent of the houses are kutcha.

Here 74 percent of the households are generating waste at the rate of 0 – 1 kg per day. This waste will help in the growing of the vegetables at small and medium level. Here 20 percent of the people are getting higher income because they are working in a real estate, or as State and Central Government employees. In agriculture producers, major income is from crops, i.e. 60.5 percent of the total income. Amongst non-producers, primary income source is casual labor and regular salaried employments. 10 percent of the HH are getting income from agriculture, so agriculture is very important.

Distribution of household expenditures for producers and non-producers, both producers as well as non-producers seem to have similar expenses within the top expense category. Although it appears that producers spend more on food and shelter compared to non-producers, here 82 percent of the people depend on the market vegetables and 18 percent of the people are dependent on both building and market vegetables.

In the study area, 66 percent of the people are yielding any type of crops. Only 18 percent of the people are yielding at the home level, and 16 percent of the people are involved at a village level. In the building level, 60 percent of the people don’t have space for practicing of agriculture. 40 percent of the people have space for practicing agriculture, but these people are not practicing because unavailability of time and for other reasons. 40 percent of the households have space for practicing urban agriculture, in these 41 percent have 5 -10 sq m, 32 percent have 10

Table 5: Sources of Income for Producers and Non-producers

Table 6: Distribution of Household Expenditure

Fig. 26: Proportion of Income from Urban Agriculture

Producers Non Producers

Agriculture (Crops) 60.5 —

Regular Salaried employment

17 34.5

Professional services 0.8 3

Medium sized enterprise 1.6 10.9

Informal Business 7.8 21.5

Casual Later 12.4 28.3

Relatives/Friends Outside Household

0.2 0.9

Other 2.6 9.1

Producers Non Producers

Food 24 22

Utilities 20 19

Education 12 13

health 12 12

Clothes 8 8

Shelter 5 9

Loan/Debt 6 6

Transport 5 6

Other 5 2

Family Events 3 3



-15 sq m and 4 percent of the households have more than 25 sq m at building level. Arithmetical and incremental increase method got the same values in population. For future proposals arithmetical increase method was selected. If it continues in the future, Hyderabad city and peri-urban area of the Hyderabad will face a severe problem because every year agriculture production is getting gradually reduced.

5. RESULTS AND DIScUSSION

5.1 Urban Agriculture in Vacant Lands along Water Bodies

Currently in Rajendranagar mandal, local government is not practicing any type of farming in vacant land along water bodies. But these lands are best suitable for aquaculture and horticulture products.

Fig. 29: Yielding Types at Building Level Fig. 30: Reasons for No Yield

Fig. 27: Sources of Vegetables Fig. 28: Percentage of Yielding at Building and Village Level



Fig. 31: Available Space for Urban Agriculture at Building Level

Table 7: Future Request of Agriculture Production

Method type 2020 (Future requirement

in (MT)

2025 (Future requirement

in (MT)

2030 (Future

requirement in (MT)

Arthemetical increase method

78264 (5,974)

88586 (6,762)

98908 (7,550)

Geometrical increase method

89,887 1,12,359 1,40,016

Incremental increase method

78,264 88,586 98,908

The area of the water bodies covered in the area is 3,890 ha along the water bodies, 642 ha of land are allotted as a recreational area. This 642 ha of land can be used only for recreational purposes. Out of these 600 hectare of land is suitable for the agricultural practices. If the local government allows practicing urban agriculture in lands along the water bodies, then 400 MT of vegetables, fish and fodder can be produced.

Suitable vegetables to be produced here are tomato, onion, brinjal, ladies finger, and other vegetables like cocaine, green chili, etc. It helps in the reduction of water pollution, better micro climatic conditions and increases production capacity of vegetables and fish. It also provides employment to local people and increases income levels. For these urban agricultural practices one should not use chemicals for increased productions, because it will affect the water quality and ground water.

5.2 Urban Agriculture at Building LevelAt building level, we have three opportunities for practicing of the urban agriculture. These are rooftops, gardens, and balconies. 40 percent of the buildings are appropriate for agriculture, but 19 percent of the buildings are already practicing urban agriculture, so 21 percent have a prospect to develop urban agriculture at building level. For these, local government needs to convenience 19 percent of the people with workshops and training, etc. Using rooftops, balconies, open spaces at the building level will practice vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs, and flowers. If all the vacant space at building level is used in 2016, the estimated production of agricultural produce would be the tune of 6 MT.

5.3 Converting Road Medians into Urban FarmingFor increasing of urban agriculture, road medians play an important role in the city and peri-urban areas. Practicing of the urban agriculture at road



medians, needs support from local government and better design guidelines. In India, urban agriculture is not practiced at road medians because of low profitability and most of the agricultural land is converted in to other uses. But in other countries, NGO’s and local governments are supporting the practice of urban agriculture at road medians. If it is practiced in national highways and district roads, it will help to reduce the pollution and increase agricultural production.

Rajendranagar Mandal has the potential to develop agriculture at road medians. 50,000 meters of median are available for agriculture and plantation. If agriculture is practiced in road medians, 4.5 Mts of vegetables will be produced.

5.4 Reuse of the Waste for Establishing composting Plants at Mandal Level

Waste collection and segregation at source level is vital because it ensures better hygiene during subsequent waste handling and saving of time. In Rajendranagar mandal, biodegradable waste is not segregated at source level. Hence, most of the waste directly goes to the dumping sites. Local government also has not taken any measures so far. They need to take some steps for collection and segregation of waste at source level. For growing of crops, more chemicals are used, this will reduce the fertility of soil and reduce the quality of ground water. They need to establish the composting plants at every mandal. In other cities like Mumbai and Bangalore most of the NGO’s participate in waste collection and segregation at source level. But in Hyderabad, NGO’s are not involved in development of urban agriculture and reuse of waste, because of the lack of encouragement from the government.

Fig. 32: Quantity of Waste Goes to the Dumping Site

S.No commodity MSP for 2014-15

MSP for 2015-16

Farmer cultivation cost (2015)/1 -

quintal

Farmer cultivation cost (2015)/1 acre

Per acre quintal (2015)

1 Rice 1360 1410 1392 19500 142 Wheat 1450 1525 1430 15500 113 Jowar 1530 1570 1500 10500 74 Maize 1310 1325 1300 17500 13.5

Red gram 3200 4712 4700 22100 56 Bengal gram 2725 3130 3080 22200 87 Onions 450 600 590 56000 1008 Ladies finger 650 700 690 6000 7.59 Cabbage 200 400 392 5500 1410 Brinjal 150 300 292 12000 4111 Green chilli 350 400 391 18000 4612 Tomato 150 220 215 21000 10013 Caster seed 2400 3600 3450 44000 13



The dumping site lo-cated at Jawaharnagar is 40 km away from the Rajendranagar mandal and 60 km away from the city. At city level, establishing compost plants is not suitable because of the envi-ronmental issues but in peri urban areas like Rajendranagar mandal it’s feasible to estab-lish composting plant. At village level it is not suitable to estab-lish composting plant. But in mandal level, it

is feasible because quantity of waste is an important criterion for establish-ing.

The present existing system is open loop system in the study area and Hyderabad city. Because of this system most of the waste goes directly to the dumping sites. Every year the waste generation is increasing because of usage additional materials at household level. These dumping sites, creates reduced groundwater levels and soil strength. So there is a need to convert open loop system in to closed loop system.

5.5 Fair and Lucrative Price for Farmers’ Production

As per 2000 and 2011 data, in Rajendranagar Mandal, the number of cultivating farmers has reduced from 2175 to 589 because of fewer profits from urban agriculture. There is an immediate need to increase prices as per the farmer’s requirement. If the prices are increased, farmers also get better income through agriculture. Sometimes because of water scarcity and low soil fertility, the yield rate is very less. So government needs to provide guaranteed income for farmers. Recently the central government has launched Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana on 18 February 2016. It contributes only 2 percent to be paid to farmers for Kharif crops, and 1.5 percent for Rabi crops. The premium for annual commercial and horticultural crops will be 5 percent. This system is not useful to the farmers in Rajendranagar Mandal, and sometimes they are not even getting 50 percent of the expenditure on agriculture. If the central or state government sets the guaranteed income for the farmers, it will be useful to all farmers, including the drought affected ones.

Table 8: Compared to the Minimum Support Price and Actual Cultivation cost



6. cONcLUSIONSUrbanization in main cities creates a huge demand for agricultural products. Brazil, China, Japan and other countries are encouraging urban agriculture through policies and techniques. These differ from one country to another. The policies were set by countries based on their local conditions. It has been found that there are so many problems faced by farmers like scarcity of land, water, etc. In spite of these problems farmers are still practicing urban agriculture. In some of the areas in Hyderabad like Serilingampally, the Government took the initiative for horticulture development at building level. This concept needs to extend in Rajendranagar Mandal and other parts of Hyderabad. The total deficit of agricultural production in Rajendranagar Mandal is 1200 mts. If people practice urban agriculture in open lands, building levels, recreational areas and road medians, it will cover 65 percent of the total agricultural production. In spite of that, in future, Mandals may still depend on then neighboring mandals. So there is a need to maintain existing areas used for urban agriculture. There is a need for encouraging urban agriculture through government policies, providing infrastructure, adopting new technologies like recycling organic waste and better zoning laws.

REFERENcESwww.appropedia.orghttp://www.neighbourhoodinfo.co.in/crime/Andhra-Pradesh/HyderabadCultivating Sustainability and well-being--Case study – Japan. UNN Agriculture article 2011-09-20 Raquel Moreno Penaranda Open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 how urban agriculture is reshaping Peri-Urban Beijing. Zhang Feifei, Cai Jianming, & Liu Gang.Urban agriculture and sustainable technology: the need of the hour. Ar. Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay. Sustainability and built environment, Abacus, spring 2012, volume 7, No 1, page no-5.Urban Food Security through Urban Agriculture and Waste Recycling. Vikalpa, volume 38, no 3, July - September 2013, Rahul Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay.Overview of the urban agriculture Case study – Uganda/2003. Augustus Nuwagaba MSc. London School of economics - Maker ere Institute of social Research.Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay, September 2011. Good Practice Urban Agriculture and Better Built Environment. ITPI 21-26. IndiaRahul Gupta and Sumita Gupta Gangopadhyay, 2010. Untapped potential for creating sustainable cities. Volume 28 No 2. India.Urban and peri urban agriculture by RUFA foundation and IWMI (International water management institute).Urban Farming Guidebook, Planning for the Business of Growing Food in BC’s Towns & Cities. 2013http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/publication/building-sustainability-urbanizing-worldGlobal Perspective Studies Unit Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, June 2006.Urban agriculture in the city of Havana: a popular response to a crisis Mario Gonzalez Novo and Catherine Murphy.

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1. INTRODUcTION

National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCTD) is a highly urbanized area with four-fifth of its population and one-third of its area concentrated in one urban core – the City of Delhi. The rapid expansion of this urban core over the last few decades has tremendously increased the pressure on the surrounding rural periphery. In order to ease its rapidly expanding population, the urban core of Delhi has gradually expanded horizontally over the years by including in it, the parts of the surrounding rural periphery. The trend during the last decade 1981 - 91 indicates that the population of Delhi’s rural periphery increased from 977970 to 1818250 thereby recording a decennial growth rate of 86 percent, which compares to only 45 percent for the urban core of Delhi, whose population increased from 52,42,436 to 76,02,394.

Despite the fact that the rural periphery of Delhi recorded an absolute increase in population, there was a net reduction in rural area from 1,037 sq km in 1981 to 966 sq km in 1991 (—7 percent). Simultaneously the urban area increased from 446 sq km to 517 sq km (16 percent). Hence, for the first time in Delhi’s demographic history, the rural periphery was facing a peculiar situation, rural population growing at an exorbitantly high rate of 86 percent while the rural area decreasing at the rate of —7 percent. Such unbalanced growth, comprising expansion of population and contraction of area has several negative implications for the rural settlement and its ecology, economy and infrastructure.

The chains of problems are the outcome of a gradual process of expanding urban core of Delhi into its rural periphery. The unforeseen consequences not only wreck potential havoc for rural areas, but also destroy the very identity of the village as unit of settlement.

AbstractWith the case study of Mitraon village, Najafgarh Block of Delhi, transformations of the village in periphery of a large metropolis is examined, by the author, who observed that land-use plan aims at eco-friendly and economic utilization of 113 ha of wastelands, and 24 ha of vacant plots within the settlement by the year 2021. The wasteland will be diverted for silvi-pastures (35 ha), green belt (60 ha), and reservoir (18 ha) while the vacant plots will be used for recreational (19 ha), institutional (3.5 ha), commercial (0.5 ha), and movement channels (1 ha).

Village Development Plan for Rural Settlements in a Metropolitan Region: A Case

Study of Mitraon Village, Najafgarh Block, DelhiAnjan Sen, Ph.D.

Anjan Sen, Ph.D.; Assistant Professor in Geography at Delhi School of Economics in the Uni-versity of Delhi, E-mail: [email protected]

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The rural areas of Delhi can grow in any of the following four alternative ways:

Organic Development: The rural area is allowed to grow as it is growing presently. This is the worst alternative, as unrestricted growth will result in unplanned, haphazard and unauthorized development of non-conforming land-uses. This will be a disaster as the village ecology, economy and infrastructures will be completely destroyed.

Zoning Regulation: All plans for development of the rural areas are compulsorily made to the sanctioned and approved by a designated authority. This is an ideal proposition, but very difficult to monitor and implement, because legal complications are involved. Besides, private capital investment will not come in the developmental sector in this era of liberalization.

Planned Development: All the village lands, excluding the settlement area is acquired by DDA, and then appropriately planned for establishing large residential complexes. This is favorable alternative but faces three major problems:

• Heavy pressure on scarce financial resources required for paying compensation for acquiring land;

• Increase in Delhi’s population owing to establishment of residential units; and

• Heavy pressure on the existing infrastructural facilities and amenities.

Village Developmental Planning: The three alternatives mentioned above have two inherent weaknesses: the identity of the village is wiped out; and there is no involvement of local people in their own planning. Seventy Third Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 enjoins upon the village local-self-government (locally called panchayat) to two functions of planning:

• Preparation of plans for economic development and social justice; and

• Implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice as may be entrusted to them including those in relation to matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule of the constitution.

Village development planning seems to be the best alternative in dealing with urbanization related problem because of two reasons. Firstly, the identity of the village as a spatial unit of settlement is retained in terms of its ecology, economy and infrastructures. Secondly, planning is participatory as the democratically elected panchayat takes decision in accordance with the needs and priorities of local people.

The traditional spatial approaches to village planning and development emphasizes establishment of growth center in the rural areas, having well-developed linkages to the surrounding villages. E.A.J. Johnson in his "growth

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center approach" proposes "agrarian commercialization", whereby farmers are closely integrated into the market economy, while J. Friedmann and M. Douglass in their "agropolitan approach" propose establishment of "agropolis" i.e. a town based on agricultural activities (city-in-the-fields). D.A. Rondinelli and K. Ruddle in their "regional approach" propose establishment of a three-tier hierarchy of urban settlements in a predominantly rural region with a strong spatial linkages.

Various spatial plans of Delhi related to village planning and development stresses upon the provision of both basic and higher infrastructural facilities to all the villages of Delhi. In addition, the NCR Regional Plan emphasizes up-gradation of skills of non-agricultural workers, while the Master Plan of Delhi emphasizes establishment of compatible industries in the village for providing employment to these non-agricultural workers. Further, the Master Plan of Delhi has also emphasized on preserving the ecology and environment of the villages.

Views expressed by DDA and MCD on village planning and development for Delhi is fairly similar. One expert suggests preparation of long term plan for the villages, abolition of the lal dora, and establishment of residential farmhouses. An Assistant Town Planner (MCD) proposes regulation of village land uses, provision of linkages between the villages and Delhi City, and proper maintenance of the assets created under the plan. Both the experts suggest coordination among various agencies, through a unified authority, and proper management of scarce financial resources required for implementing the plan. However, the views of a former Professor of Regional Planning from SPA are revolutionary. He suggests identification of non-growth areas rather than growth centers in the rural areas around Delhi City, conservation of natural heritage, preservation of cultural landscape, and better deals to the resident population, as they are the owners of the lands.

The basic principles of village planning and development indicate that planning and developmental aspects of villages in India are different from the towns and cities, both in terms of their physical structure (land-uses) and cultural base (social relationships. The village develops over three stages involving primary, secondary-tertiary, and social sector; while for planning the village five steps will have to be followed:

• Formulation of objectives,

• Construction of database, preparation of inventory and

• Thematic maps, studying the development status, and

• Evolving the village development plan.

Planning of villages situated in a metropolitan fringe requires special attention because the problems faced by them are peculiar and unique, unlike villages of other site and setting. In a fringe, the very identity of the village and its

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people are at stake. B. Srivastava and R. Ramachandran have theorized the process of transformation of villages and its absorption into the metropolis over six stages: rural, rural-urban linkage, transformation of occupation, change of land-use, urban, and urban village redevelopment. M. C. K. Swamy and R. L. P. Sinha felt that the principal issue faced by a fringe village is protection of its prime agricultural land from being converted into urban land uses, which are usually unauthorized, haphazard and spotty. While formation of the fringe around metropolitan cities might seem inevitable and a necessary evil, L. R. Vagale has suggested establishment of unified authority, zoning regulations, legal restrictions, and alternative site strategy to protect the villages situated in the metropolitan fringe.

2. NAjAFGARH BLOcK

Najafgarh Block of National Capital Territory of Delhi was selected as the case study area (Fig. 1). The selection was made because of the following two reasons:

• Najafgarh Block is the largest of the five community development blocks comprising rural areas of Delhi, in terms of population, area and number of rural settlements. As per the 1991 census, Najafgarh Block had a population of 493,920 spread over an area 302.43 sq km and distributed in 75 rural

Fig. 1: case Study Area: NcT Delhi – Najafgarh Block and Mitraon Village

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settlements. Thus Najafgarh Block contains 27 percent, 31 percent and 32 percent of rural Delhi’s population, area and rural settlements respectively.

• Najafgarh Block is the ‘least urbanized’ of the five community development blocks. When in 1861, the rural areas of Delhi were constituted into 370 villages, 85 of them fell under the jurisdiction of what is presently the Najafgarh Block (created in 1952). In the past one century (1891-1991), while 132 of Delhi’s 370 villages were urbanized (36 percent); only ten of Najafgarh Block’s 85 villages were urbanized during the same period (12 percent). Consequent to the urbanization of 132 villages, the relative proportion of rural settlements in Najafgarh Block actually increased from 23 percent in 1891 (85 of 370) to 32 percent in 1991 (75 of 238). Thus, in 1991 Najafgarh Block contained a third of Delhi’s rural settlements.

Data and information for Najafgarh Block were collected on the following three aspects for each of the 75 constituent rural settlements:

• Population:

- Total population in the census years 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991;

- Male and Female Population in the census year 1991;

- Literate and Illiterate Population (among 7+ years age population) in the census year 1991;

- Working (main and marginal workers) and Non-Working Population in the census year 1991; and

- Occupational Structure of the Main-Workers by Sectors (primary, secondary and tertiary) in the census year 1991.

• Area:

- Total Area in the census year 1991; and

- Land use by categories (cultivated, wasteland and not cultivated) in the census year 1991.

• Infrastructure:

- Water supply sources in the census year 1991: tank, well, and tap;

- Electricity supply for Purposes in the census year 1991: domestic, agricultural, and industrial;

- Transport facilities in the census year 1991: road stop, and rail station;

- Communication facilities in the census year 1991: post office, and telephone.

- Health facilities in the census year 1991: dispensary, primary health sub-centre, primary health centre, and hospital.

- Educational facilities in the census year 1991: primary school, middle school, secondary school, and senior secondary school.

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- Financial facilities in the census year 1991: credit cooperative, and bank; and

- Commercial facilities in the census year 1991: weekly market, and daily market.

All the above data and information were obtained from secondary sources. The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India publish the ‘District Census Handbook’ for Delhi, which comprises two parts: village and town directory; and primary census abstract. The District Census Handbooks of the census years 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991 were referred, to obtain the requisite data and information.

On the basis of the analysis of the above data, following patterns have emerged.

2.1 Growth of Population in Rural Settlements, 1961-1991

The aggregated population characteristics of Najafgarh Block in the previous four censuses – 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991 are presented in Table 1. The emerging trends of population growth in Najafgarh Block are as follows:

• There is a gradual increase in the concentration of population in less number of settlements as indicated by the following facts:

- Palam, which was the largest rural settlement of Najafgarh Block in all the four censuses, represented 6 percent of Najafgarh Block’s population in 1961, 15 percent in 1971, 17 percent in 1981, and 20 percent in 1991. Thus, in 1991, one settlement – Palam, accommodated a fifth of Najafgarh Block’s population;

- If the population of ten largest rural settlements of Najafgarh Block in each census is aggregated, they represented 39 percent of Najafgarh Block’s population in 1961, 43 percent in 1971, 53 percent in 1981 and 69 percent in 1991. Hence, in 1991, the ten largest settlements contained over a third of Najafgarh Block’s population; and

- The number of rural settlements having at least half of Najafgarh Block’s population has considerably decreased over the years. In 1961, 16 settlements comprised 50 percent of the block’s population, which decreased to 14 settlements in 1971, nine settlements in 1981, and only four settlements in 1991.

Population characteristics 1961 1971 1981 1991Population Size (number) 71,955 113,147 203,742 493,920

Population Growth Rate (Annual) - 4.63% 6.06% 9.26%

Population Density (persons/sq km) 238 374 674 1,633

Proportion of Delhi’s Total Population 2.71% 2.78% 3.28% 5.24%

Proportion of Delhi’s Rural population 24.05% 27.03% 20.83% 27.15%

Table 1: Najafgarh Block – Population characteristics, 1961 – 1991

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• There is a progressive enlargement in the population size of the settlements, as indicated by the following facts:

- The average population of the rural settlements of Najafgarh Block in 1961 was 959, which increased to 1,509 in 1971, 2,717 in 1981 and 6,583 in 1991. Palam, which has been the largest rural settlement in all the censuses, had a population of 4,609 in 1961, 16,730 in 1971, 34,378 in 1981 and 98,975 in 1991. In 1991, the population was nearing 100,000.

- The distribution of settlements by size classes is given in Table 2. The number of ‘large’ settlements increased from nil in 1961 to ten in 1991, while the ‘small’ settlements decreased from 44 in 1961 to 13 in 1991.

• There is a gradual tendency of the larger rural settlements to be located closer to Delhi City. In 1961 and 1971 the ten largest rural settlements were evenly distributed throughout Najafgarh Block. Palam was the only settlement among the ten to be situated adjacent to Delhi City. Four settlements were located towards the northern margin of the block: Jharoda Kalan, Dichaon Kalan, Kair and Mitraon. Two settlements each were located in the western and southern margins of the block: Dhansa and Isapur; and Bijwasan and Shahabad Mohammadpur respectively. One settlement – Chhawla was located in the centre.

There was a gradual shift in the position of large rural settlements in 1981, whereby only Dhansa remained in the list of top ten largest rural settlements. By 1991, the picture had completely changed with eight of the ten largest settlements located adjacent to Delhi City: Palam, Nasirpur, Bindapur, Hastsal, Nawada, Matiala, Mirzapur and Dabri. The two other settlements: Roshanpura and Jharoda Kalan were bordering Najafgarh Town. Thus, the vast expanse of Najafgarh Block did not have any ‘large’ rural settlement.

2.2 Zones of Urban Influence in Rural Settlements, 1991For determining the zones of urban influence (of Delhi City) in the rural areas (of Najafgarh Block) a composite index was calculated for all the rural settlements of Najafgarh Block. The procedure is explained below:

Step 1: Selection of Indicators: Seven indicators were selected for determining the composite index. These are as follows:

Table 2: Najafgarh Block – Rural Settlements by Population Size class, 1961 – 1991

Population Size classNumber of Rural Settlements

1961 1971 1981 1991Large Above 10,000 - 1 2 10Medium 1,000 – 9,999 25 34 47 46Small 1 – 999 44 34 20 13Uninhabited 0 6 6 6 6Total 75 75 75 75

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- Population Growth Rate, 1981-91;

- Population Density, 1991;

- Sex Ratio, 1991 (Males per 1000 Females);

- Literacy Rate, 1991;

- Work Force Participation Rate (WFPR), 1991;

- Proportion of Main-Workers in Non-Primary Activities (PMNA), 1991; and

- Proportion of Land-Area under Non-Cultivable Uses (PLNU), 1991.

Step 2: calculation of Location Quotient (LQ): The LQ is determined by dividing the figure of each indicator of each rural settlement by the figure of the same indicator of Najafgarh Block. There are three intrinsic benefits of calculating the LQ:

- The LQ standardizes all figures irrespective of their size by making them scale free.

- The LQ facilitates performance of various mathematical operations, especially addition.

- The LQ indicates the ratio-proportion of the individual settlement’s index in relation to the block’s index.

Step 3: Determination of composite Index: Using the above methodology, seven sets of LQ were determined for each rural settlement. All the seven LQ figures for each rural settlement were aggregated; and averaged by dividing the aggregate LQ figure by 7 (as the number of indices is seven). The average LQ figure of each settlement is designated as its composite index. The rural settlements of Najafgarh Block were grouped into three broad categories, according to their composite index:

- High : Composite Index above 1.4

- Medium : Composite Index between 0.7 and 1.39

- Low : Composite Index below 0.69

Of the 69 inhabited rural settlements in Najafgarh Block, 11 settlements have high composite index, 21 have medium, and 37 settlements have low composite index. The emerging spatial pattern actually reflects the combined impact of the seven indices from which the composite index is derived. The rural settlements with highest composite index occur in a broad belt flanking Delhi city and Najafgarh town. While the rural settlements with lowest composite index are situated in the margins of Najafgarh Block, farthest from Delhi city; the settlements with medium composite index occur in between the high and low composite indices.

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The categorization of rural settlements into three broad groups of composite index aids in delineating the zones of urban influence (of Delhi City) in the rural areas (of Najafgarh Block) (Fig. 2). The rural settlements with high composite index have maximum urban influence, which is designated as the inner zone (10 settlements); while the rural settlements with low composite index have minimum urban influence, which is designated as the outer zone (40 settlements). The rural settlements with medium composite index are designated as the intermediate zone (25 settlements).

Table 3 gives the distribution of population, area, rural settlements and some population indicators of Najafgarh Block by types of zones.

Fig. 2: Najafgarh Block – Zones of Urban Influence, 1991

Table 3: Najafgarh Block – Population Indicators by Zones, 1991

Indicators Z-1 Z-2 Z-3 TOTALPopulation Size 320,730 100,562 72,628 493,920Area (sq km) 35 114 154 303Rural Settlements 10 25 40 75Pop. Growth Rate 15% 5% 2% 9%

Pop. Density (persons/sq km) 9,200 885 470 1,630Non-Primary Activities 99% 77% 57% 89%Non-Agricultural Land-uses 75% 36% 16% 30%

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Table 4: Najafgarh Block – Numerical Rating Scale

Points 0.5 1 1.5 2Water Supply Tank Well - TapElectricity Supply Domestic Agriculture - IndustryTransport - Road Stop - Rail StationCommunication - Post Office - PhoneHealth Dispensary PHS PHC HospitalEducation Primary Middle Secondary Sr. SecondaryFinancial - Credit Coop. - BankCommercial - Weekly Market - Daily Market

The inner zone (Z-1) comprising ten settlements have been completely urbanized, and are likely to be absorbed into the urban limit of Delhi City by 2001. The 40 rural settlements of the outer zone (Z-3) are likely to remain rural and retain their original rural character at least till 2021. The rest of the 25 rural settlements of the intermediate zone (Z-2) are in varying stages of rural to urban transformation and each settlement may be urbanized any time during the 20 year period, i.e. 2001-2021. These projections of future land-use are based purely on the trends indicated by the 1991 data. Planning interventions by DDA can alter these trends.

2.3 Levels of Functional Hierarchy of Rural Settlements, 1991

For determining the levels of functional hierarchy of rural settlements, a composite point of each rural settlement of Najafgarh Block was determined. The procedure is explained below:

Step 1: Selection of Functions: Eight infrastructural functions were selected for determining the composite points. These are as follows:

- Electricity Supply Uses, 1991;

- Transport Link, 1991;

- Communication Link, 1991;

- Health Services, 1991;

- Educational Services, 1991;

- Financial Services, 1991; and

- Commercial Services, 1991

Step 2: calculation of Points: The availability of each infrastructural function occurs at various levels in the rural settlements. Each settlement is assigned point(s) for each infrastructural function as per the Numerical Rating Scale given in Table 4.

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Step 3: Determination of composite Points: Using Table 4, each settlement obtains eight sets of points. The points obtained by each rural settlement of Najafgarh Block is aggregated; and averaged by dividing the aggregate points by 8 (as the number of functions is eight). This gives the composite point of each rural settlement.

The rural settlements of Najafgarh Block are grouped into three broad categories, according to their composite points:

• High : Composite Points above 1.3

• Medium : Composite Points between 0.9 and 1.29

• Low : Composite Points below 0.89

Of the 69 inhabited rural settlement in Najafgarh Block, 15 settlements lie in the highest level of functional hierarchy, 23 settlements in the middle level and 31 settlements lie in the lowest level of functional hierarchy (Fig. 3).

The functional hierarchy indicates the relative rank and growth potential of each rural settlement, vis-à-vis each other. The settlements at high level have abundant infrastructural facilities for its population making their life comfortable and easy; while settlements at low level have deficient infrastructural facilities for its population making their life difficult and stressed.

Fig. 3: Najafgarh Block – Levels of Functional Hierarchy, 1991

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In Najafgarh Block the settlements of high functional hierarchy are located either near Delhi city, or along the Major District Road connecting Delhi city to Dhansa village. The rural settlements of medium and low functional hierarchy are evenly distributed away from Delhi city, and away from major arteries. Though, a low functional hierarchy may mean that the population is stressed, but this may not always be true. If a settlement with low functions is surrounded with those of medium and high functions, than people of former have a wide choice in accessing neighboring settlements to obtain higher functions.

2.4 Stages of Transformation of Rural Settlements, 1991-2021

Delhi Development Authority (DDA) is the sole authority in charge of planned development of NCT of Delhi. Since over 80 percent of Delhi’s population and 40 percent of Delhi’s area is urban, the planned development in Delhi has an urban bias. To achieve its objective, the DDA from time to time acquires rural lands for establishing residential colonies, commercial centers, industrial estates, institutional areas and a variety of infrastructural facilities and amenities. The ‘developed’ area is then handed over to Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) for future governance and administration, which then notifies it as ‘urban’. Ever since the process of urbanization by DDA/MCD was accelerated in the 1980s, the rural area of Delhi has been rapidly shrinking.

Among the three major urban extensions proposed by DDA in the rural areas of NCT of Delhi, the largest is Dwarka (Papankala) sub-city located exclusively in Najafgarh Block. Spread over an area of 56 sq km, the sub-city is being developed to house a population of over one million by 2011. The sub-city includes an area bounded by Najafgarh Nala towards west Delhi – Jaipur railway line towards east; Najafgarh Block’s boundary with Delhi city (as in 1991) and Pankha road towards north, and northern boundary of Bijwasan village towards south.

The DDA has developed an elaborate criterion for classifying rural settlements according to their stage of transformation from rural to urban. This not only helps in projecting the availability of rural area at a certain point of time but also helps in applying adequate planning intervention to the villages to prevent speculation, and unplanned and unauthorized development.

The three stages of transformation are:

• Urban Stage – The villages in this stage are likely to remain rural only till 2001, and may be urbanized during the period 2001-2006. Many of the villages of this stage have either already been urbanized, with the village abadi (Settlement area) now designated as an ‘urban village’; or is proposed for

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improvement under various renewal and redevelopment schemes. Presently in Najafgarh Block the 10 rural settlements of inner zone belong to urban stage.

• Transitional Stage – This stage comprises following three sub-stages:-

- Post-Transitional Stage – The villages in this stage are likely to remain rural at least till 2006, and may be urbanized during the period 2006-2011. Presently in Najafgarh Block, five of the 25 rural settlements of intermediate zone lying adjacent to the inner zone belong to the post-transitional stage.

- Transitional Stage – The villages in this stage are likely to remain rural at least till 2011, and may be urbanized during the period 2011-2016. Presently in Najafgarh Block, ten of the 25 rural settlements of intermediate zone (lying between pre-transitional and post-transitional settlements) belong to the transitional stage.

- Pre-Transitional Stage – The villages in this stage are likely to remain rural at least till 2016, and may be urbanized during the period 2016-2021. Presently in Najafgarh Block, 10 of the 25 rural settlements of intermediate zone lying adjacent to the outer zone belong to the pre-transitional stage.

• Rural Stage – The villages in this stage are likely to remain rural at least till 2021. These villages are designated as ecologically fragile – green areas of Delhi, which are to be conserved and preserved, and not allowed to be urbanized ever. Presently in Najafgarh Block, the 40 rural settlements of outer zone belong to the rural stage.

The settlement system of Najafgarh Block has been analyzed with respect of four aspects. The growth of population in the rural settlements (1961 to 1991) indicates gradual increase in the concentration of population in fewer numbers of rural settlements, progressive enlargement in the size of rural settlement, and gradual tendency of large rural settlements to be located closer to Delhi city. The 75 settlements of Najafgarh Block are classified by size as: large (10), medium (46) and small (19). The zones of urban influence of Delhi City in the rural settlements of Najafgarh Block (in 1991), was determined with the aid of the composite index, which is based on seven indicators. This index helps in categorizing the rural settlements of Najafgarh Block into three zones of urban influence: inner, intermediate and outer zones. The rural settlements of inner zone have been completely urbanized, while the rural settlements of outer zone have still retained their rural character despite being located in the metropolitan region of Delhi city. The 75 settlements of Najafgarh Block are classified by zone as: inner (10), intermediate (25) and outer (40).

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The levels of functional hierarchy of rural settlements of Najafgarh Block (in 1991), was determined with the aid of composite points, which is determined on the basis of availability/non-availability of eight infrastructural functions. The composite points accumulated by each rural settlement helps in categorizing them into three levels of functional hierarchy: high, medium and low levels. The rural settlements with high functional hierarchy indicate satisfactory availability of infrastructural facilities, compared to rural settlements with low functional hierarchy. The 75 settlements of Najafgarh Block are classified by levels as: high (15), medium (23) and low (37). The DDA has developed a criterion for classifying the rural settlements of NCT of Delhi according to their stage of transformation from urban to rural: urban, transitional and rural. The DDA has proposed an urban extension in Najafgarh Block: Dwarka (Papankala) Sub-City to house a population of one million in 2011. This will reduce Najafgarh Block’s area and number of rural settlements by one-third.

3. MITRAON VILLAGE

The three largest villages in the outer zone of Najafgarh Block are:

• On the basis of population (1991 census) – Dhansa (5,360), Mitraon (4,455), and Isapur (4,113).

• On the basis of Area – Isapur (9.87 sq km), Mitraon (8.74 sq km), and Dhansa (8.56 sq km)

Dhansa is the largest in terms of population but third in area, while Isapur is the largest in terms of area but third in population. Mitraon Village is second both in terms of population and area. Thus, Mitraon was selected as the case study village. Further, Mitraon has two situational advantages, compared to Dhansa and Isapur. Mitraon Village is situated in the centre of Najafgarh Block, while Dhansa and Isapur Villages are situated in the western margin bordering Haryana. Mitraon Village is situated adjacent to Najafgarh Town (about 2 km), which gives it a functional advantage compared to any other village of outer zone.

3.1 Land Use Plan, 1991

Mitraon is a large hexagonal shaped village, situated southwest of Najafgarh Town. With a land area of 8.74 sq. km (874 hectares), it is the sixth largest village of Najafgarh Block, and the second largest of the outer zone. The village has a maximum east-west extent of 3.5 km and north-south extent of 2.75 km. The land-uses by four principal categories in the past three censuses are given below:

The proportion of revenue area under farmlands (combining both irrigated and rainfed) has decreased significantly from 82.5 percent in 1971 to 67.5

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percent in 1991. The proportion of wastelands, pastures, groves and water bodies has increased three-fold from 4 percent in 1971 to 13 percent in 1991, while the settlement area has increased gradually from 13.5 percent in 1971 to 19.5 percent in 1991. The settlement area of Mitraon village is 1.71 sq.km (171 ha) as per the 1991 census. The land-use by categories in 1990-91 is given below. Comparable data for years 1970-71 and 1980-81 is not available.

Over 70 percent of the settlement area is devoted to residential uses, while less than a tenth is under movement channels. The infrastructural and commercial uses cover about 6 percent of the settlement area. Vacant open spaces, either bare or covered with wild natural vegetation, form nearly a seventh of the settlement area. These spaces are hierarchical and have multiple uses: smaller ones are used as playground and larger ones are used for organizing fairs, marriages and other public functions.

3.2 Proposed Land Use Plan, 2021

The present land use pattern (as in 1996) of Mitraon Village will be transformed significantly by 2021, if the various developmental proposals are implemented:

During the intervening period of quarter of a century, between 1996 and 2021, the land area under two principal categories – field area and settlement area, is proposed to be kept constant – 614 ha and 260 ha respectively. This will prevent the expansion of the settlement area into the field area, especially the farmlands. Within the field area, the area under farmlands is to be kept constant at 501 ha, though all the farmlands are to be brought under irrigation by 2021, to increase the productivity. Further, the wastelands covering 113 ha of land in 1996, is proposed to be used for silvi-pastures (35 ha), green belt / social forest (60 ha), and natural water reservoir (18 ha) in 2021.

Within the settlement area, the area under three major uses – residential (121 ha), dairy (48 ha), and industrial (41 ha), will remain same between 1996 and

Table 5: Mitraon Village – Revenue Area Land-use, 1971 – 1991

Land Use 1971 1981 1991Ha % Ha % Ha %

1. Farmland – irrigated 476 54.5 411 47.0 376 43.0

2. Farmland – rainfed 245 28.0 227 26.0 214 24.5

3. Wasteland, Pastures, Groves and Water Bodies 35 4.0 83 9.5 113 13.0

4. Settlement Area 118 13.5 153 17.5 171 19.5

TOTAL 874 100.0 874 100.0 874 100.0Source: Delhi, District Census Handbook, 1971, 1981 and 1991

Anjan Sen, Ph.D.


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2021. The vacant plots covering 24 ha of land in 1996 will cease to exist. The greater part of it will be diverted towards recreational uses – parks (12 ha) and playgrounds (7 ha). This will not only provide formal recreational facilities to the people of Mitraon Village, but also contribute to greening of the village settlement area. The rest of the vacant plots are proposed to be used for – institutional (3.5 ha), commercial (0.5 ha) and movement channels (1 ha).

The institutional area will increase from 7.5 ha to 11 ha due to the establishment of following eight proposed facilities:

• Water Tanks (0.5 ha) for supplying water.

• Garbage Store (0.5 ha);

• Biogas Plants (0.5 ha) for supplying energy;

• Refrigerated Storage (0.5 ha) for storing perishable horticultural products like milk, vegetables and fruits;

• School (0.5 ha) – An additional higher-secondary school will be required in 2021 to accommodate the increased number of students;

• Community Center (0.5 ha) – The community center will also have a bank and post and telegraph office;

• Dispensary (0.25 ha) – This will be required as there are no health facilities in Mitraon Village; and

• Veterinary Hospital (0.25 ha) will be needed to cater to the 3,000 heads of cattle in the dairy by 2021.

The commercial area will increase from 2 ha to 2.5 ha as a new and formal shopping center (0.5 ha) will be needed to provide shopping facilities to the people. The area under movement channels will increase from 16.5 ha to 17.5 ha as a new bus stand-cum-depot (1 ha) is proposed.

Land Use Area (ha) Area (%)

A. Built-up/Covered 1. Residential 2. Movement Channels 3. Infrastructure 4. Commercial

121.0 16.5 7.5 2.0

70.7 9.7 4.4 1.3

B. Vacant 5. Natural Vegetation 6. Bare Ground

15.0 9.0

8.7 5.2

TOTAL 171.0 100.0Source: Mitraon Village Revenue Records, 1990-91.

Table 6: Mitraon Village – Settlement Area Land-Use, 1990-91

Land UsesArea (in ha)1996 2021

A. Field Area 614.0 614.0 A1. Farmlands 501.0 501.0

A1 (a) Irrigated 376.0 501.0

A1 (b) Rain-fed / Un-irrigated 125.0 -

A2. Wastelands 113.0 -

A3. Silvi-pastures - 35.0

A4. Green Belt / Social Forests - 60.0

A5. Natural-water Reservoir - 18.0

B. Settlement Area 260.0 260.0B1. Plots 243.5 242.5

B1 (a) Residential 121.0 121.0

B1 (b) Institutional 7.5 11.0

B1 (c) Commercial 2.0 2.5

B1 (d) Industrial 41.0 41.0

B1 (e) Dairy 48.0 48.0

B1 (f) Recreational - 19.0

B1 (g) Vacant 24.0 -

B2. Movement Channels 16.5 17.5

Total 874.0 874.0

Table 7: Mitraon Village – Land Use Pattern, 1996 and 2021

Anjan Sen, Ph.D.


69

Fig. 4: Mitraon Village – Revenue Area Land-use, 1991 (existing)

Fig. 5: Mitraon Village – Revenue Area Land-use, 2001 (proposed)

Anjan Sen, Ph.D.


70

4. cONcLUSIONS

Land-use plan aims at eco-friendly and economic utilization of 113 ha of wastelands, and 24 ha of vacant plots (within the settlement) in the year 2021. The wasteland will be diverted for silvi-pastures (35 ha), green belt (60 ha), and reservoir (18 ha); while the vacant plots will be used for recreational (19 ha), institutional (3.5 ha), commercial (0.5 ha), and movement channels (1 ha).

REFERENcESDelhi Administration (1985) Mini Master Plan for Integrated Development of Urban and Rural Villages in Delhi, DA, New Delhi.Delhi Development Authority (1981) – Master Plan of Delhi 2001, DDA, New Delhi.Dube S.C. (1958) – India’s Changing Villages: Human Factors in Community Development, Routledge and Kegen Paul Limited, London.Friedmann J. and Douglass M. (1978) – “Agropolitan Development: Towards a New Strategy for Regional Planning in Asia” in Fu-chen Lo and K. Salih (eds.), Growth Pole Strategy and Regional development Policy, Pergamon Press, Oxford. p. 180.Gupta R. G. (1996) – Integrated Development of Rural Areas of Delhi, ITPI Workshop, New Delhi.Gurmukhi K. T. (1996) – Mini Master Plan for Rural Delhi, ITPI Workshop, New Delhi.Johnson E. A. J. (1970) – The Organization of Space in Developing Countries, Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts. pp. 161-162.National Capital Region Planning Board (1985) – National Capital Region Plan, 2001, NCRPB, New Delhi. pp. 28-33.Rondinelli D. A. and Ruddle K. (1978) - Urbanization and Rural Development: A Spatial Policy for Equitable Growth, Praeger New York. p. 181.Sen A. (1994) - Rural Development Policy for Delhi Metropolitan Area: 2011, SPA Thesis New Delhi. Singh H. B. (1996) – Planning for Village Development in the Context of Constitutional Amendments: A Conceptual Approach, 44th NTCP Congress, New Delhi. pp. 5-8.Singh H. B. (1996) – Planning Imperatives for Development in Rural Areas of NCT of Delhi, ITPI Workshop, New Delhi.Singh S. (1996) – Critical Areas in Implementing Mini Master Plan for Rural Delhi, ITPI Workshop, New Delhi.Sinha R. L. P. (1997) – “Urban Fringe – Approaches and Policy Options” in ITPI Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1-4 [167-170] June 1997, New Delhi.Srivastava B. and Ramachandran R. (1974) – “The Rural – Urban Fringe” in The Indian Geographical Journal, Vol. XLIX, No. 1, June 1974). pp. 2-5.Swamy M. C. K. (1992) – Environment Management Issues of Fringe Area Development, 40th NTCP Congress, Pune. Vagale L. R. (1992) – Fringe Areas of Metropolitan Cities: Planning Issues and Development Potentials, 40th NTCP Congress, Pune.


Ashwani Luthra, Ph.D. 71

1. INTRODUcTION

Urbanization has been a common phenomenon all over the world in the late twentieth century and by 2015 nearly 54 percent of global population has been living in urban areas, which is expected to increase to 70 percent by 2050 (UN, 2014). India and its cities are also having similar trends as well. About 31 percent Indians have been inhabiting in urban areas as per 2011 census and are expected to grow to 45 percent in 2051 (MGI, 2010). Rapidity of urbanization is considered to be a big challenge at the policy and planning levels in the wake of limited resources and larger consumption of urban assets. Dobbs (2012) rightly observed that natural resources, including land are at target to fulfil the requirements of rising urban population. Apart from land, water bodies, forests, minerals and the geological strata are the other important natural resources at risk.

Hilly terrains have these natural resources in abundance. But germs of urbanization have crept in these terrains as well, which depending upon its rapidity is responsible diminishing these resources fairly fast. Once known for their scenic beauty, fresh waters, forest reserves and salubrious climate, the hill areas are facing serious threats from rising level of urbanization in their regions. Depleting forest area, agricultural lands, unwarranted developments along river beds and brutal development on hills has become a common scenario in hilly regions to inhabit increased population. Urban areas being recognized as engines of growth are welcome by the polity of the hills. Consequently, their

AbstractDehradun developed in the Doon Valley on the foothills of Himalayas has gained importance since its declaration as a temporary capital city of Uttarakhand in 2000, but the growth of city has been at the cost of unpalatable utilisation of natural resources. Rapidly increasing population has constructed their habitats on either the agricultural or forest or water bodies or green lands. Many of the slums have come up along river Bindal and Rispana, presenting poor quality of live in habitat on the one hand and un-wise use of river bed on the other hand. Sewer and sullage of the city is illegally dis-charged in these rivers causing pollution and adversely impacting aquatic life. Loss of agricultural land is a direct loss to economy and development on forest land is a threat to national wealth. Present paper attempts to highlight the sustainability concerns to natural resource management due to urbanization of Dehradun city.

Urbanization Impacting Natural Resources in and around Dehradun City: An Account

Ashwani Luthra, Ph.D.

Ashwani Luthra, Ph.D.; Professor, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar



water reservoirs are depleting; water channels are becoming sewer drains; green hills are becoming concrete jungles; scenic beauty is overtaken by insanitary dumps / landfills; fresh air is swallowed by vehicular pollution; and tranquillity of natural spaces is awfully disturbed by traffic noise. The primary reasons for these conditions are lust for economic gains by the local residents to serve the tourists and least concern of government and planning authorities to bring about planned / controlled development. Consequently, sustainability of natural resources and liveability in hilly terrains is at risk. If the trends of urbanization continue and nothing is done then hill towns and cities will become unsustainable on the one hand and unrecoverable loss to natural resources shall occur on the other hand.

2. DEHRADUN – A PROFILE

Dehradun is a derived word from a combination of two words i.e. “Dehra” mean-ing “Camp” and “Dun” meaning “Valley” (City Development Plan, 2007). Annexed by British in 1815, the town became a major centre of academic and research institutes during Raj days. The town experienced faster growth with the estab-lishment of two military cantonments in 1872 and 1908 and operation of railway in 1900. Dehradun city, the capital of Uttarakhand since 2000, is situated at the Himalayan foothills in the fertile Doon Valley on the western edge of the western paragana of the district (Fig. 1) at 30°19‘ north latitude and 78°20‘ east longi-tude. It is surrounded by river Song on the east, river Tons on the west, Himalaya ranges on the north and Sal forests in the south (City Development Plan, 2007). Presence of dense forests all around and bisection by number of streams and riv-ers from north to south makes the city hub of natural resources. The salubrious

Fig. 1: Location of Dehradun city



climate and natural beauty make it one of the favorite residential destinations and beautiful resort centres in India. Despite being known for its scenic beauty, forests, waterfalls and surroundings, it is an important hub of educational, re-search and training institutes. India’s some of the best boarding schools, Indian Military Academy, Forest Research Institute, Indian Institute of Petroliam, Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Survey of India, Zoo-logical Survey of India, National Institute of Visually Handicapped and many key offices of Central and State Government are located in the city. Dehradun is well linked with rail, road and air routes to all the parts of the state and the country.

Development of tea and IT industry and extension of municipal limits has registered varying growth in population in different decades since 1931 (Table 1). The town has always been a fast growing settlement as is clear from its sprawl population. A second order town has become a large city in a span of eight decades i.e. 1931-2011. The city witnessed two major accelerations in its population, one in 1951 when its population grew by about 95 percent, a post-independence effect, and then in 2001 when it registered population growth to the tune of 58 percent due to extension of municipal limit. In 2001-2011 Dehradun city population has grown by 34.21 percent, which is above state 30.2 percent as well as national average 31.2 percent. City’s sprawl has always remained a feature in its growth and development. Its out-growth population has varied between 17 percent and 26.60 percent during 1931-2011 (Table 1), but on an average it has been having 22.36 percent as its out-growth population each decade. Thus, Dehradun is a fast growing capital city of Uttarakhand. Consequently, settlement of population in its different parts has been a threat since long.

3. SPATIAL GROWTH OF DEHRADUNThe direct impact of increasing population has been on the spatial spread of the city, which is witnessed in Dehradun as well. Statistics for key land uses

Year Population M.c.

Decadal Growth (%)

Urban Agglomeration

Out Growth

Out Growth(% of UA)

1931 43206 ------- 52927 9721 18.37

1941 59535 37.79 80580 21045 26.12

1951 116404 95.52 144216 27812 19.28

1961 129764 11.48 156341 26577 17.00

1971 169827 30.87 220571 50744 23.01

1981 220530 29.86 293010 72480 24.74

1991 270159 22.50 368053 97894 26.60

2001 426674 58.00 560120 133446 23.82

2011 569578 34.21 714223 144645 20.25

Table 1: Growth of Population of Dehradun city

Source: Census of India Reports and Municipal Corporation, Dehradun



stating the built up area of Deh-radun reveal that residential, commercial, industrial, public and semi-public and circula-tion areas have increased tre-mendously in the past three and half decades. Whereas the built-up area of the city reg-istered about 2.6 times incre-ment during 1982-2004, it grew by 2.04 times during 2004-2015 (Fig. 2 and Table 2). Thus, the city has been growing rapidly in all the sectors of built-up devel-opment. Table 2 reflects that in the past three and half decades the built-up area of Dehradun has grown at about 441 percent rate. After becoming the capital city it has grown by about 106 percent in the past one decade i.e. 2004-2015, which in comparison was about 163 percent during 1982-2004. The city being an important regional commercial centre as well has witnessed about six and half times increment in land used for commercial activities during 1982-2015. Similar trends are seen in land devoted to residential use where it has increased by six times during the same period. About 559.2 percent, 501.7 percent and 403.1 percent rate of growth in land used for commercial, residential and circulation respectively clearly indicate the rapidity with which Dehradun has been increasing in the past three and half decades. The trends have not been

Fig. 2: Land Use Distribution – 2015

Land Use Area (Hectare) Growth Rate (%)1982 2004 2015* 1982-2004 2004-2015 1982-2015

Residential 1580.8 4071.8 9510.9 157.6 133.6 501.7

Commercial 81.0 341.4 534.0 321.5 56.4 559.2

Industrial 113.4 183.4 244.7 61.8 33.4 115.8

Govt. and Semi Government 267.2 479.6 835.8 79.5 74.3 212.8

Circulation 203.0 822.0 1021.3 304.9 24.3 403.1

Total 2245.4 5898.2 12146.6 162.7 105.9 441.0

Table 2: Land Use of Dehradun city

Source: 1. City Development Plan, Dehradun, 2007. 2. Computed from Google Image, 2015.



similar for commercial and circulation but residential use has shown an increment of 103.6 percent growth. Thus, with a purpose to meet the demands of fast rising population, land has been under tremendous pressure.

Direct relationship exists between built-up area and population rise (Fig. 3). Consequently, demand for land per 1000 persons has increased from 8.53 hectare to 11.54 hectare in 1986 and 2011 respectively. It is clear from Fig. 4, that demands for land was more or less same in 1986 and 1998. But it has increased in 2011 after city’s status is elevated to state capital, which clearly indicates sprawling tendencies of the city since 1998 (Jain, 2013).

Thus, increased demand for land indicates breaking of polarization tendencies around the core of the city. This is also an indicator of new developmental activities and spread effects in the city. More urban growth is seen in south, south - east and south - west direction. The growth radius has increased to 15 kilometres from the heart of the city, whereas it was mere 8 kilometres till 1987 (Gupta, 2013). Topographical and physical constraints in the north have tempted the city to grow rapidly in south-east and south-west directions of the city. Thus, Dehradun is on the path of high urban sprawl where demand for land shall be yet higher. The direct effect of city spread has been on surrounding natural resources, be they water bodies, forests or agricultural lands.

4. NATURAL RESOURcES IN DEHRADUN – AN AccOUNT

An account of natural resources in Dehradun urban agglomeration shall give a fair idea about its richness and beauty. Periodic analysis of statistics on water bodies, forests, agricultural lands and open spaces shall help in appraising the impacts of city’s urbanization on its natural resources.

4.1 Water Bodies

As mentioned earlier as well that the city is surrounded by rivers Song and Tons on the east and west respectively (City Development Plan, 2007). These

Source: Jain, 2013.

Fig. 3: Dehradun Population Vs Built-up Area Fig. 4: Ratio of Built-up Area to Population



rivers deposit fertile soil on the one hand and are also used for irrigation purposes. Rivers Bindal, Rispana and some canals flow through the city in north-south direction, which have affected the growth, development and city’s form in numerous ways (Fig. 5). During heavy rains canals absorb huge amount of water.

Consequently, the city has not experienced any flood till now. Main rivers are the major sources of potable water to the city. Dehradun has many fresh water lakes, which have developed as tourist spots, popular one being Sahastradhara popularly known as Guchhu Pani that has sulphur springs and is useful in skin diseases.

Statistics reveal that the area under water bodies has been decreasing sharply since 1986 due to threat by city’s urban growth and spread pattern (Table 3). Rivers have changed their course due to which their beds have gone dry and liable to be used for urban uses. It is clear from Table 3 that area under rivers and water channels has reduced by nearly three times in 2015. Whereas area under rivers and water channels was 1558.62 hectare (7.05 percent) in 1986, it has drastically reduced in one decade i.e. 1986-1998 to 925.13 hectare (4.18 percent) in 1998. Area under water channels further reduced to 602.68 hectare (2.72 percent) in 2011 and to 538.34 hectare (2.43 percent) in 2015. One of the strongest reasons for loss of area under water channels has been development of informal urban settlements on the dried beds of the rivers.

4.2 Forests

Dehradun is developed in the foothills of Himalayas and is surrounded by dense forests all around. High hills in the north-east and north and Shivaliks in the south, present an interesting topographical setting to the city (Fig. 6). These hills are

Fig. 5: Rivers of Dehradun City

Year Area (Hectare) Percentage of Planning Area

1986 1558.62 7.05

1998 925.13 4.18

2011 602.68 2.72

2015 538.34 2.43

Table 3: Area under Rivers in Dehradun

Source: 1. Jain., 2013 2. Computed from Google Image



richly planted forest areas where Sal, Shisham and Kher trees are in abundance and Leechi and Mango orchards are part of natural and economic lifeline of Dehradun city. Almost one-third of area around Dehradun is covered by reserved forests. Some important herbs and shrubs such as Baliospermum Montanum and Rauvolfia Serpentine are found in these forests as they grow only in shady and moist places under Sal crop.

Table 4 clearly depicts that in 1986 about 16.18 percent area of Dehradun Planning Area was under forests, which rose to 19.55 percent in 1998 and thus registered a growth of 20.81 percent during 1986-1998. By 2011 area under them increased to 20.96 percent and registered a growth of 7.22 percent during 1998-2011. Earlier the forest area used to be outside the city limits but due to expansion of municipal area, after its declaration as State Capital in

2000, a part of forest area amounting to 231 hectare has come within the city limits in the north-eastern direction. As the city is growing fast and its spread includes northern part as well, hence these forests are under serious threat from urban uses. Reserved forests towards north and south have been maintaining the status of greenery around Dehradun city.

4.3 Agricultural Land

Peripheries of the cities are generally agricultural lands and as the city grows these are converted into urban uses. So has happed in Dehradun as well. Over a period of time, a mono-centric city has got developed as a poly-centric city leading to its spread towards the peripheries on agricultural lands and other open spaces. There has been a fall in agricultural area in the Planning Area of the city to the tune of 5.16 percent during 1986-2011 (Table 5).

Fig. 6: Forests - 2015

Year Area (Hectare) Percentage of Planning Area1986 3578.93 16.18

1998 4323.88 19.55

2011 4635.89 20.96

Table 4: Area under Forests in Dehradun

Source: 1. Jain, 2013; 2. Computed from Google Image



Interestingly, agricultural land increased till 1998 when about 467 hectare additional land was put to agricultural use within Dehradun Planning Area. But improved status of Dehradun as State Capital, probably, gave impetus to urban growth which led to conversion of agricultural land to urban uses.

4.4 Open Spaces

Open spaces, whether formal or informal, act as lungs to urban life. But generally they are vulnerable to growth and development in organically grown urban settlements. Dehradun has seen different scenario of development under different regimes, be it Ram Rai period or British era. But commonalty in all these periods has been the unplanned, haphazard and unorganized growth and development of the city. An examination of statistics on open spaces in Dehradun reveals that open spaces have born the major burden of urbanization of the city. Reduction of about 4367 hectare of open spaces during 1986-2011 is a clear indication of loss to urban life (Table 6). It is clear from the table that open spaces have been decreasing regularly since 1986 registering a loss of 2078.46 hectare in 1986-98 and 2288.86 hectare in 1998-2011. A study conducted on open spaces in 2015 reflects that the city is left with only 280.78 hectare land used as open spaces, which is barely 1.27 percent of its Planning Area. Dehradun city exclusively has only 88 hectare land devoted to open spaces. Once a scenic town has now got converted into a concrete mass and urban heat island in the process of ruination and urbanization over time.

5. SUSTAINABILITY cONcERNS

From the above discussions it is clear that natural resources are under threat from urbanization trends and urban development forces in Dehradun. As per a study conducted by G. Sarantuya in IIRS, Dehradun and cited in City Development Plan of Dehradun, 2007, the built-up area has been consuming the natural resources in different quantum since 1965, highest affected being agricultural land followed by open spaces and forests. It is clear from Table 7 that about 2950.7 hectare lands under natural resources have got converted into built up areas. About 1708.2 hectare land, accounting for 57.9 percent of the total conversion, has got converted from agricultural to built-up for different uses in Dehradun city during 1965-1998. It accounts to the largest amongst the

Year Area [Hectare] Percentage of Planning Area

1986 8024.95 36.28

1998 8491.98 38.39

2011 6883.97 31.12

Table 5: Agricultural Area in Dehradun

Source: Jain, 2013

Year Area [Hectare] Percentage of Planning Area

1986 6120.20 27.67

1998 4041.74 18.27

2011 1752.88 7.92

2015 280.78 1.27

Table 6: Open Spaces in Dehradun

Source: 1. Jain, 2013 2. Computed from Google Image



converted natural resources. It is also clear from the table that agricultural to built-up conversion has increased substantially during 1996-1998. It might be because of speculative tendencies as a result of expected declaration for being the State Capital. Urban land uses have spread over the forest lands to the extent of 284.7 hectare during 1965-1998, amounting to 9.6 percent of the total land use conversion in the city. As only reserves/ protected forests exist in Dehradun, therefore, it is clear that such conversion is illegal in character. Low income and economically weaker sections of the society have dwelled on free lands i.e. the dried up river beds. About 214.9 hectare of river land is encroached by these dwellers in the city. All such developments are slummy. Even gardens and open spaces are not spared by the urbanites. As much as 468.6 hectare land is built for urban uses, accounting to 15.9 percent of the total conversion. Though, the trend to build these lands reduced over time but the reason has been that hardly any such lands were available for conversion. Empirical study of the city in 2015 reveals that except for Parade Ground the city hardly has a sizeable gardens or open spaces.

However, City Development Plan 2007 reveals that about 1157 hectare land (52%) has been converted for residential development exclusively. Converted residential development included 741 hectare agricultural land, 94 hectare land under green belt and nallas, approximately 43 hectare forest land and about 42 hectare under gardens and orchards. Such high conversion of natural resources to urban built up is a loss to nature and economy of the region.

Table 7: Land Use Conversion in Dehradun City

Land Use Area (Hectare)1965-1989 1989-1996 1996-1998 Total

Agricultural to Built-up

690.4 (55.1) 715.5 (55.9) 302.3 (72.3) 1708.2 (57.9)

Forest to Built-up

64.2 (5.1) 170.7 (13.3) 49.8 (11.9) 284.7 (9.6)

River to Built-up

176.4 (14.1) 16.0 (1.2) 22.5 (5.4) 214.9 (7.3)

Garden to Built-up

51.7 (4.1) 58.7 (4.6) 15.2 (3.6) 125.6 (4.3)

Open Spaces to Built-up

203.4 (16.2) 114.6 (8.9) 25.0 (6.0) 343.0 (11.6)

Others to Built-up

65.9 (5.3) 205.1 (16.0) 3.3 (0.8) 274.3 (9.3)

Total 1252.0 (100.0) 1280.6 (100.0) 418.1 (100.0) 2950.7 (100.0)Source: City Development Plan, 2007Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.



It is clear from Table 8 that built-up area has been increasing rapidly since 1986 to 2011 in Dehradun Planning Area. The study reveals that green spaces i.e. agricultural lands are severely affected as about 1,140.98 hectare agricultural land loss occurred in this period. It is noteworthy that loss to agricultural land has been increasing rapidly during 1998-2011.

Alarming changes are noted in the beds of rivers flowing through the city during this period as area under rivers and water channels has reduced by 955.94 hectare (4.32 percent) for the reason that it is encroached by the unauthorized dwellers. However, the rate of encroachments in river bed was higher during 1986-1998 in comparison to 1998-2011. It causes a decrease in the area under riverbeds with a rate of 2.86% during 1986-1998 and 1.46 percent during 1998-2011. It results in the problems of destruction of natural landscape, inadequate open spaces, environmental degradation and lack of appropriate amenities.

Loss to open spaces has been to the tune of 4,367.32 hectare, amounting to 19.74 percent of the total study area. Table 8 clearly indicates that on average 2183.66 hectare open spaces are lost each decade to accommodate urban land uses of Dehradun. Overall, 24.44 percent built up of the city has been at the cost of losing green spaces, river beds and open spaces.

5.1 Condition of Developments on Natural Resources

Loss to natural resources is one dimension of the problem, the other dimension has been the type and condition of development that has come up on these lands.

Agricultural Land and Open Spaces: Agricultural land and open spaces have been the worst affected spaces in the process of urban development in Dehradun. Many planned and unplanned residential colonies have come up on these lands. Even the Development Authority has been giving clearance to many residential, educational and commercial projects on these lands without taking stock / note of the loss to natural resources. Photographs in Fig. 7 depict ample evidences of

1986-1998 1998-2011 1986-2011Built-up 1499.98 (6.78) 3907.32 (17.66) 5407.29 (24.44)

Forest 744.94 (3.37) 312.01 (1.41) 1056.96 (4.78)

Green Space 467.03 (2.11) -1608.01 (-7.27) -1140.98 (-5.16)

Water/ River -633.49 (-2.86) -322.45 (-1.46) -955.94 (-4.32)

Open Space -2078.46 (-9.4) -2288.86 (-10.35) -4367.32 (-19.74)

Table 8: Drift in Natural Resources

Source: Jain, 2013Note: Figures in brackets are percentage changes.



urban development on agricultural lands and open spaces that are coming up on these lands in recent times in different parts of Dehradun. Even the Information Technology Park, a project of State Infrastructure and Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand Ltd.; has come up on the agricultural and forest land at Sahastradhara. Such sporadic development in no way presents planned growth of the city, as it tends to leave the inhabitants of these habitats devoid of basic infrastructure of life. Private or public schools developed on these lands have swallowed substantial amount of land, which though better maintained cannot be replaced by loss to natural resources. The unplanned developments on these lands have converted beauty into filth as they are largely slummy growths presenting crowded environs, omnipresent dumps of garbage everywhere, congested roads and deficiencies of water supply and sewerage facilities.

Seasonal Rivers and Rivulets: Water bodies are lifelines for any settlement. Sustainability of life of its inhabitants significantly relies on fresh water sources that can be used for drinking purposes. Dehradun, though having many seasonal rivers and rivulets flowing through the city, is suffering from unwarranted urban development on their beds and along their alignments that add filth and unhygienic conditions to its habitat.

Rivers Bindal and Rispana are the most vulnerable to encroachments as many unauthorized colonies and slums have come up on their beds in the wake of free of cost availability of land. As per an estimate nearly 35 percent of the Dehradun population is living illegally on the banks and riverbeds of these rivers

Fig. 7: Glimpses of Urban Development on Agricultural Land and Open Spaces



since past four decades. Also, there are 10000 and 6000 encroachments alongside river Ripsana and Binadal respectively. In the views of Pandey (2008),‘while one can understand the encroachments by poor helpless people living in slums, it is very sad to see rich and powerful people encroaching the river bed at its source in Rajpur’ (Thapliyal, 2008). As per another report by Azad in 2015, rivers Bindal and Rispanain in habits about 40000 slum dwellers. Thus, once fresh water rivers have turned into filthy drains as most parts of these rivers have dried up and mushrooming of unpalatable developments has been the result. Out of 129 identified slums in the city, about 70 percent of them are along these rivers (Fig. 8).

These encroachments are responsible for deteriorating the environs along both the rivers. Whereas lush green trees on either banks or beds of rivers used to present aesthetics and scenic beauty, the mushroom growth of unauthorized colonies and slums present an unpleasant scenario. As these shanty encroachments have developed along seasonal rivers, any flash flood may cause large scale damage to properties and lives. Though no such flood has been reported in the city till date, but rapid expansion of the city and rampant development on river lands may result in natural disasters like Badrinath (Uttarakhand) in 2013, and Srinagar (J and K) in 2014. Spate of river Bindal due to heavy rains in 2011 monsoon as shown in Fig. 9 (TNS, 2011) should be taken as an alarm by the residents and the authorities for the possible loss in case of disaster. Climate change might be cited as a reason for such disasters. If such conditions arise

Fig. 8: Encroachments along Rivers in Dehradun City



Fig. 9: Disasterous Conditions along River Bindal

then 16000 families inhabiting along these rivers shall expected to be directly affected by flash floods.

Apart from unpleasant physical environs along these rivers, the garbage, domestic waste, effluent plastic, dead animals and human excreta thrown by public and Municipal Corporation in and along them pose serious environment hazard to flora and fauna on the one hand and quality of life of the slum dwellers on the other hand (Fig. 10). Unhygienic conditions created by these dumps not only affect the slum dwellers but the whole city.

Untreated sewage when mixed with garbage dumps produces harmful gases, which increases health hazards to the inhabitants of Dehradun city. Skin, asthmatic attacks, cardiac arrest, stomach infection are some of the prevalent diseases in Dehradun, which are largely because of spread of solid waste near the habitat. Though, State Government has an ambitious plan to shift the slum dwellers to new sites and take up river beautification plan, but resistance from the inhabitants has been a big hurdle in the implementation of the project.

Forest Lands: Dehradun is a valley city surrounded by rivers and reserved forests. As rivers have been encroached by ruination forces of urbanization, similar is the



Fig. 11: Development on Forest Land in Dehradun

Fig. 10: Encroachments along Rivers in Dehradun City



fate of forests in Dehradun. As stated earlier different parcels of lands accounting for substantial land area has been converted into built-up properties for different purposes, prominent being residential use. Figure 11, depicts a picturesque of variety of built-up development in the forest areas surrounding Dehradun. The trends of past continue currently even. Richness of green is converted in hard mass, especially near Sahastradhara, on Missouri road and around Kempty Fall. The immediate impact of falling tree cover is increase in temperature and loss of rain fall.

About 250 acre IT Park in Sahastradhara is an example of built-up green coming in the forest area. Also, with a view to meet the requirements of tourists at the tourist spots, most of which are in forest lands, commercial as well as residential developments have come up around them. As most of these developments are sporadic in nature, therefore, they are devoid of basic amenities. The inhabitants of these areas have to generate their own resources or travel longer distances to meet such needs. However, the tourists are bound to enjoy these facilities at commercial rates, which are significantly high.

6. cONcLUSIONS

Natural resources of Dehradun therefore, are under severe threat because of its rapid urbanization. Constraints due to forests, cantonments, topographical and physical features have restricted the development in the northern direction. Consequently, south-east and south-west directions of the city are under pressure of urban dynamics and development. Large amount of agricultural, forest, open spaces and river beds have already been exploited by the urbanites in an injudicious manner. Consequently, once a beautiful city has got converted into a city of concrete mass, dirt, dust and filth. Garbage dumps on seasonal river beds and untreated disposal of sewage have converted them into landfill sites and sewer drains. Flora and fauna associated with rivers are lost and quality of life of the inhabitants by their sides is badly affected. Once environmental symbols have now turned into environmental concerns. Forest land and wild life are adversely impacted consequent to easing of forest use norms by polity. There is severe urgency to take appropriate measures to preserve the left over natural resources by developing a strategy to conserve them by wise and sustainable use. State Government’s ambitious plan to beautify the rivers should be pragmatically dealt with by an assured resettlement strategy through participatory planning and development approach. As far as possible the left over patches in Dehradun Planning Area should be optimally used for sustainable development of the sub-mountainous city i.e. Dehradun.



REFERNcESUN. [2014]. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision (Highlights). Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations, New York. Retrieved on 05.10.2015. http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf.

MGI. [2010]. India’s urban awakening: building inclusive cities, sustaining economic growth.McKinsey Global Institute. April.

Dobbs, Richard et. al. [2012].Urban world: cities and the rise of the consuming class, McKinsey Global Institute, June.

Ibid.

City Development Plan [Revised]. [2007]. Urban Development Department, Government of Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand.

Sadhana Jain et. al. 2013. Tracing the changes in the pattern of urban landscape of Dehradun over last two decades using RS and GIS. International Journal of Advanced Remote Sensing and GIS. 2.1. 351-362.

Gupta, Kshama. [2013]. Unprecedented growth of Dehradun urban area: A spatio-temporal analysis.International Journal of Advancement in Remote Sensing, GIS and Geography. 1[2]. 47-56.

City Development Plan [Revised]. [2007]. Urban Development Department, Government of Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand.

Pandey, Nitin. [2008]. BindalBachaoo. Retrieved on 08-10-2015. http://www.citizensforgreendoon.com/bindalbachaoo.cfm.

Thapliyal, Jotirmay. [2008]. Riverbeds turning into shanties. The Tribune, Dehradun Plus [online edition]. November 29. Retrieved on 08-10-2015. http://www.tribuneindia.com/2008/20081129/dplus1.htm#1.

Azad, Shvani. [2015]. Riverfront development project will displace nearly 40k people. The Times of India, July 7. Retrieved on 08-10-2015. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/Riverfront-development-project-will-displace-nearly-40k-people/articleshow/ 47977862.cms.

TNS. [2011]. Doon under water. The Tribune. Dehradun Plus. July 16. Retrieved on 08-10-2015. http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110716/dplus.htm#1.


Ritu Raj Kaur 87

1. INTRODUcTION

A major issue faced by developing nations is the environmentally sound disposal of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and hazardous wastes. With India’s urban population going to increase from the current 380 million to about 600 million by 2030 (TERI, 2014), the challenge of managing Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner is bound to assume enormous proportions. The 2011 Census also shows an increase in the urban population from 27.8 per cent in 2001 to 31.2 per cent in 2011, and it is expected to exceed 40.0 per cent by 2030.

India has over 7,935 cities and towns (Census, 2011), which generate about 70 million tons of MSW per year (Annepu, Ranjith Kharvel, 2012). Going by estimates of The Energy Research Institute (TERI), this could well touch 260 million tons per year by 2047 (IIR, 2006) thus, leading to enormous landfill emissions. Even though enormous efforts are put forth for environmentally safe disposal of waste, MSW handling is still havoc in Indian cities in terms of huge heaps of waste thereby poorer environmental quality.

The objective of this paper is to study Plasma Gasification as alternative technology for treatment and disposal of waste and assessing its benefits over conventional methods. There are various methods and technologies in market which deals with efficient handling of MSW. All the available alternatives have their own pros and cons. These generally are polluting, treat only specific waste, require huge urban scarce land, capital intensive, etc.

AbstractMunicipal solid waste management has always been a major concern in India from its collection to transportation, treatment till final disposal. The challenges of managing Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) are enormous ranging from safe disposal with least environmental impacts to cost intensive methods and huge land requirements for final disposal. There are various methods and technologies worldwide to deal with the safe disposal of MSW. This paper outlines the benefits of Plasma Gasification over the existing practices such as conventional landfills, in-cineration, etc. Various benefits of plasma gasification are accounted for, including lesser land requirement, negligible pollution, suitable technology for treating all type of wastes, use of waste as alternative resource for production of renewable energy, etc.

Plasma Gasification: An Alternative Solution

for Municipal Solid Waste DisposalRitu Raj Kaur

Ritu Raj Kaur, Assistant Professor, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar


Ritu Raj Kaur 88

Besides capital intensive technology, Plasma Gasification and Vitrification has enormous benefits which are covered in this paper. For assessing benefits, various considerations are taken which includes, GS Platech (Korea) technology for assessing benefits, in the context of Indian MSW consisting of mixed waste without segregation of paper and plastics and assuming average calorific value of such waste equivalent to 2,500 kcal (kilo calorie).

2. PLASMA GASIFIcATION AND VITRIFIcATION (PGV) SYSTEM

Plasma Gasification of any waste is the thermal disintegration of its carbonaceous material into fragments of compounds in an oxygen-starved environment. Plasma Gasification system is capable of treating all kind of wastes in an environmentally sound manner. Plasma consists of collection of free moving electron ions, which are generated by gasification system using ultra high temperature over 6,000° C to 15000° C of the plasma torch. Under this temperature all toxic organics are converted to basic gases as H2 and CO and all in-organics melt to chemically stable glass in slag form. The resultant heat and gases from the process are used for production of renewable power. Treatment of wastes in such high temperatures eliminates the production of dioxin and incineration ash, making it beneficial over incineration methods. The slag produced from in-organic waste can be utilized for civil and construction works.

In this method, treatment of waste is done in Plasma Gasifier by Plasma torch, which generates such ultra-high temperature. When the waste comes in contact with ultra-high temperature, it is disintegrated into basic ion form. These gases are then cooled and waste heat is recovered, which is used in stream turbines for production of electricity. Gases are further cooled and are used either in gas turbines for electricity production or for hydrogen recovery. The overall treatment process is summarized in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Process of Plasma Gasification for Waste Treatment


Ritu Raj Kaur 89

3. PLASMA TEcHNOLOGY

Plasma technology is better than the conventional methods in number of ways. PGV is capable of treating virtually all kind of wastes in a very environment friendly way thus removing the liability of having large urban scare land for landfill sites. It eliminates various problems associated with landfill as air pollution, leachate, etc. Various advantages of the Plasma waste treatment process include the following.

3.1 Green Technology

Plasma Gasification is an environmental friendly and clean technology solution, as it eliminates air pollution in simple, safe and stable process. The process produces negligible toxic emissions per ton of waste compared to European Union (EU) standards thus making it a green technology (Table 1).

3.2 Suitable for All Types of Waste

Items MSW Treatment by PGV Plant

EU Standard

Dioxin 30 pg/m3 100 pg/m3

NOX 18 ppm 159 ppm

SOX 6 ppm 19 ppm

CO 5 ppm 10 mg/m3 (Organic)

HCI 0.38 ppm 7 ppm

DUST 0.43 mg/m3 10 mg/m3

Table 1: comparison of Emissions from PGV Plant and EU Standards

Fig. 2: tcO2/MWh from PGV and cFPP

PGV gasifies more than garbage. In addition to Municipal Solid Waste, the plants can process Industrial Waste, Biomass, Coal, Coke and other Carbonaceous materials. The plants can produce electricity as well as hydrogen and other petrochemical products as ethanol, methanol, and other syngas-based fuel products.

3.3 Waste Destruction Technology

The current waste disposal arrangements shift the problem from the source of waste generation to waste disposal sites, but PGV destroys the waste completely and converts it into useful end products. Best feature of the PGV system is that it does not require any kind of waste segregation and it obliterates waste completely.

3.4 Energy Production from Renewable Sources

PGV can produce renewable energy, using waste as resource and it produces lesser emissions in comparison to CFPP. Tones of carbon dioxide (tCO2) emissions per mega watt hour (MWh) are far lower in PGV as compared to Coal Fired Power Plants (CFPP), i.e., in PGV 0.34 tCO2/MWh and in CFPP 1.06 tCO2/ MWh, proves PGV as clean energy production source (Figure 2). Assuming, if total waste, which is currently disposed off in


Ritu Raj Kaur 90

landfills, is treated through plasma process can account for reduction of landfill emissions up to 236 Million tones /annum. Potential power that can be produced considering total waste treated through plasma process is 24,000 MW (total installed capacity). If both landfills emissions and emissions reduction by use of waste as resource rather than CFPP are accounted for then this will reduce the total emissions by 16 % from current levels.

3.5 No Landfill Required

Present arrangements for MSW handling includes landfill sites, developing future sites, and centralized large waste-to-compost facilities. These have major limitations, as these arrangements are land intensive. TERI estimates that for disposing MSW, the land requirement will rise from 200 sq km in 2011 to 1,400 sq km in 2047. The urban areas, which have the largest concentration of MSW, are also the most land-scarce and therefore, the opportunity cost of using such land for MSW disposal is also very high. But PGV can save urban scare land, as land usage for PGV is only 5 % (approx.) in comparison to Landfill sites; hence, saves land valued at approx. Rs 50,000 crores for current land requirements.

3.6 Produces Energy from Waste

Plasma Gasification converts MSW into Renewable Energy (power / syn-gas /hydrogen). One ton of MSW as feed generates 2.2 kg / hr of Hydrogen or 36 ton of MSW as feed generates net 1 MW power, which can be transferred to Power Grid. All inorganic waste is converted into slag, which can be used for manufacturing of tiles and other construction materials.

3.7 can Earn carbon credit

Besides long term profitability it is also eligible for earning carbon credits as it eliminates methane (CH4) and other green house gases from the atmosphere. The Plasma process produces a very low carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) during the transformation of waste-to-energy. Per tonne of MSW, through PGV technology has total emissions of 0.29 tCO2e / tonne MSW compared to 2.76 tCO2e / tonne MSW for an incinerator and 1.15 tCO2e / tonne MSW for landfill thereby, adding value which can be earned using CER’s (Figure 3).

Fig. 3: Comparison of Equivalent Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Different Sources


Ritu Raj Kaur 91

3.8 Power Transmission Efficiency

Power can be produced at decentralized locations and used locally, rather than transmission of electricity from one point to other far off location. This will reduce the energy loss during power transmission.

3.9 Efficiency in Power production from Waste

Power Generation in case of PGV plant is more in comparison to existing waste to energy technologies. Per ton of feedstock in PGV plant produces 1083 kilo watt hour (kWh) power

Fig. 4: comparison of Electricity Generated per tonne of Feedstock

whereas incinerator produces only 288 kWh power from the same quantity of waste (Fig. 4).

3.10 Working Technology in various Countries

Plasma was first started in Japan and is successfully operating since 2002 for waste to energy projects. Three existing PGV plants are running successfully in Korea. Plasma Gas Disposal is widely adopted in the world, though notable efforts have been made in Canada and Japan and is designed in varying plant sizes form 10 TPD to 3,000 TPD of MSW.

4. cONcLUSIONS

Current practices of waste management are even though cheaper but adds enormous load to the environment. Plasma Gasification has lower footprint in terms of environmental emissions, lesser land requirements, produces renewable energy, can earn carbon credits and most important can treat waste which is a major concern. All that is needed is to explore this potential using un-segregated waste. This has emerged as best technology so far, for treating waste, overrules current waste disposal practices, energy production and over environmental cleanup.

REFERENcESAdvanced Plasma Power. Retrieved December 12, 2011 from http://www.advancedplasmapower.com.Annepu, R.K. (2012) Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India, Columbia University, New York.


Ritu Raj Kaur 92

Asher, M.G. and Gandhi, H. (2008), “Municipal solid waste management is better Decentralised than not”, columns, http://www.dnaindia.com referred on January 5, 2013

Asnani, P.U. (2006) Solid Waste Management. India Infrastructure Report (IIR).

Best Practices for Incineration. Retrieved January 5, 2013 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/medicalwaste/en/smincinerators3.pdf.

Census of India, 2011, Primary Census Data Highlights – India-Chapter 1, Retrieved March 10, 2015 from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/PCA_ Highlights/pca_highlights_file/India/Chapter-1.pdf

Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 December 2000 on the Incineration of Waste, Retrieved February 25, 2015 from http://www.central2013.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/Downloads/Document_Centre/OP_Resources/Incineration_Directive_2000_76.pdf

EU Standards for the Incinerator Exhaust. Retrieved January 5, 2013 from http://www.ingvar.is/sorp/FlueGasCleaning.pdf, referred on January 5, 2013

GSplatech Waste to Energy. Retrieved on December 12, 2011 from http://www.gsplatech.co.kr.

Ministry of Finance. The Solid Waste Management Sector in India Retrieved March 16, 2015 from http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/ppp_ position_paper_solid_waste_mgmt.pdf.

Mittal, M.L. (2012) Estimates of Emissions from Coal Fired Thermal Power Plants in India. Retrieved November 27, 2012 from http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/conference/ei20/session5/mmittal.pdf.

Plasco Energy. Retrieved December 12, 2011 from http://www.plascoenergygroup.com, referred on December 12, 2011.

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) (2014) Environmental Survey 2014. Retrieved February 25, 2015 from http://www.teriin.org/pdf/environmental_survey-report-2014.pdf

United Nations Environment Programme (2010) Waste and Climate Change. Retrieved November 27, 2012 from http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc /Publications/spc/Waste&Climate Change / Waste& ClimateChange.pdf.

Westinghouse Plasma Gasification Technology. Retrieved December 12, 2011 from http://www.westinghouse-plasma.com.


Nidhi Nayyar and Ankita Singh 93

1. INTRODUcTION

Street vendors, small scale businesses and other informal economies often characterize the public space through originality, efficiency and temporality. Though the goods and services provided are consumed by all sections of the society, people working in informal sector require formal recognition and protection. Lack of legally provided space forces them to intrude upon the public space. Though, the informal sector is increasing, planners care little about it.

Indian cities are captivating on account of their liveliness and density. The Indian realm is transformed constantly all throughout the day, during the day, the sidewalks become shops or restaurants, but at night they turn into home for the homeless. Informal economies and activities often characterize the public space through creativity, efficiency and temporality. There are numerous examples, indicating how India’s urban landscape becomes the workplace for India’s population. People encroach on medians and sell commodities at traffic intersections; they start a hairdresser’s business on any footpath or change part of a road at night into a mobile outdoor restaurant. These manifestations of small-scale and mobile businesses are not a random phenomenon: in Ahmedabad, informal economies account for 77 percent of the city’s total employment.

The economy characterized by a wide array of small scale businesses and diverse professions in different states of consolidation, provides employment

AbstractPublic Spaces are the most vulnerable areas for the informal sector to encroach upon as they are the hot-spots for the industry. Street vendors, small scale businesses and other informal economies often characterize the public space through originality, efficiency and temporality. Though, the goods and services provided are consumed by all sections of the society, people working in informal sector require formal recognition and protection. Lack of legally provided space forces them to intrude upon the public space. This paper explores how informal processes may enlighten the urban planner of Indian cities and seeks to develop a system for inclusive planning strategies.

Planning and Design Solution for Informal Sector

Nidhi Nayyar and Ankita Singh

Nidhi Nayyar, Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Email: [email protected]

Ankita Singh, Apeejay Institute of Technology, School of Architecture and Planning, Email: [email protected]



and secures the living of millions of people of India. Although, this reflection of temporal transitions is significant in our cities, planners are not much sensitive to it. Where streets modify temporarily into natural food markets and serve the informal and formal system, no vending space is officially assigned, neither is access to clean water provided nor the provision to public toilets. Street vending has a long tradition in our cities. The majority of Indians, regardless of the income class, buy from street vendors. The goods and services provided differ in quality and price and therefore, allow the vendors to cater to all classes of society. Not only the poor, but practically all consumers extremely value vendors because they provide quality goods and services at reasonable prices in a decentralized and hence the most convenient manner. Due to this flexibility and low prices, street vendor’s service is often credited as a means of poverty alleviation.

The issue of defining the idea of "informal economy" has remained debatable over the years. It has been broadly discussed since the beginning of the 1970s - Keith Hart (1971) referred to informal income opportunities for the urban poor in Ghana and the ILO report on Kenya (1972) and defined the informal sector by the character of the economic units. So, we can say that the introduction to the term “informal sector” has been coined by a British anthropologist, Keith Hart, in his 1971 study of low-income activities among unskilled migrants from Northern Ghana to the capital city, Accra, who could not find wage employment. From near the beginning of the concept, discussions on adopting the definition by the character of the job or by the character of the establishment has created diverse views on this matter. The Fifteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians held in January 1993 at Geneva adopted a Resolution on informal sector statistics which was subsequently endorsed by the UN Statistical Commission in February 1993.

The importance of the sector is apparent from the fact that more than 50% of the GDP comes from this sector. For instance according to CSO; the share of unorganized sector has been varying between 57-60% since 1993-94. Whereas, according to the Kolli and Hazra study, it is the share of unorganized sector in NDP is 58.5%, of which 47.7% is informal in the year 2001-02. Though a very large labor force is engaged in this sector, they earn moderately low salary and do not have any social security. In this regard, NCEUS has submitted a proposal for a universal social security cover called National Minimum Social Security to all suitable workers over a period of five years.

The prime role of this sector can hardly be overlooked as the NSS survey report on “Informal Sector and Conditions of Employment in India, 2004-05” shows that out of the total workers, nearly 82 per cent in the rural areas and 72 per



cent in the urban areas were occupied in the informal sector. The government realizing the need of the development of this sector established the National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector (NCEUS) in 2004 as an advisory body. The aim of the Committee is to bring about development in the productivity and generation of large scale employment opportunities on a sustainable basis, particularly in the rural areas. NCEUS has estimated that in 2005 there were 423 million informal workers in India of which 395 million belonged to the informal sector. The remaining 28 million were informal workers in the formal sector.

Following factors are responsible for the formation of urban-settlements:

• Poverty;

• Lack of basic services and infrastructure. ;

• Lack of formal tenure;

• Poor housing;

• Exposure to environmental hazards by building on marginal lands and flood prone areas; and

• High density.

So basically, High rate of population growth owing to rural-urban migration leading to low-incomes and unemployment (National Plan of action 1995-2000), financial constraints that prevent the government from constructing conventional houses to meet the demand (Chilowa, 1996); and government extension of municipality boundaries to hitherto traditional villages with no compensation and removing the native occupants but subjecting them to planning by laws.

2. SPATIAL PLANNING IN cITIES

Land use in the urban areas is regulated through site planning. Planning determines what should take place and where (Van Lier, 1994). Spatial planning, also known as physical planning mainly aims at economic use of land, organized settlements and stable safeguarding and preservation of physical environment. Spatial planning covers all activities of man in its spatial aspect (Schmid, 1994) This is what professionals in planning wish to fulfill through zoning plans, master plans and land use plans.

Formal city has a development sequence as per planning and building regulations. The sequence as Baross (1990) puts it is; planning, service provision, building and occupation (PSBO). However, implementation of plans has not been simple as seen throughout the phenomenon of informal settlement. The aspect of economy to land means that land goes to its most profitable use while zoning



limits some activities to certain areas. Cost restricts the poor from accessing land for housing. High rents in the public and private sectors makes developed houses unreasonable. Access to land for housing by the poor is through invasion of public and private land and construction of unauthorized houses. The process of development in the informal settlements is by occupation, building, servicing and planning last (OBSP) (Baross, 1990).

2.1 Major Issues in Hawking

In most cities hawking is considered as an illegal activity. There are municipal and police laws that impose restrictions on the trade. In most cases these laws do not directly prohibit hawking as a profession but they enforce limitations on the use of urban space for street vending. Hence, there is a need to study the municipal laws in different cities / states. All urban plans allot space for public use; which includes space for parks, gardens, markets, educational institutions, hospitals, etc. An evaluation of these plans should be made in order to find out if some of this space could be allocated for street vending.

When urban plans allot space for institutions, parks, markets, bus and rail terminuses, hospitals, etc.; they could also take into account that these places usually extend and develops as markets for hawkers. If we take an example of flower and fruit sellers, who usually gathers around temples as the devotees find it suitable to buy these offerings while going for worship. Similarly, it is natural to find food vendors, sellers of green coconuts and fruits outside public hospitals. The patients, the visitors, the people need these services. We can find hawkers outside the railway stations, in Mumbai and Kolkata at major bus stands in the cities, selling a wide array of goods and eatables. Regrettably, the street vendors operating from all these places and many more become victims of the most brutal attacks by the municipal authorities. Their elimination will not only deprive them of their source of employment but will also cause hassle to the public at large as they will have to spend more time and travel longer distances to get the same services. Hence, if urban development plans are to be effective and people oriented and inclusive, they must make provisions for the growth of such natural markets.

2.2 Design considerations for Hawkers

Zoning: While selecting a specific site for the business, thought must be given to local zoning requirements. Some communities forbid, through zoning ordinances, street vending businesses or the establishment of home-based businesses. It is necessary to make sure these local restrictions prior to setting up a business or contracting to rent, lease or buy a property for the business.



Spatial Norms: From the primary survey, the vendors were categorized into different categories. This categorization was done according to the category of produce they sell and how much space they need. These spatial norms can be summarized into the following:

• Stationery vendor: 10’ X 4’;

• Semi-Stationery Vendor: 4’ X 6’; and

• Mobile Vendor: Foot Space.

The major facilities needed by the vendors are: water supply, waste disposal and water closet. These amenities play a key role in maintaining hygienic conditions of the surroundings areas. The primary survey has shown that, the major issues the consumers raised were about the unhygienic conditions existing.

Advertising: Spot radio advertisements, newspaper advertisements, telephone directory yellow pages listings, and direct contact (telephone or mailings) are some methods of advertising. Although the great majority of street vendors are too small to use most of these methods, pushcarts and other company vehicles often carry company logos and a brief listing of items offered for sale.

Health and Safety considerations: Health and safety issues to be considered in-clude proper ventilation and fire extinguishing systems, proper food preparation and storage operations, as well as the proper disposal of waste generated during the course of business.

Fig. 1: Designated Hawker Zone • Hawkers must be located within RoW of roads so that they don’t occupy walking zone which should be minimum 1.8 m clear;

• Conflict between shop-keepers and vendors must be avoided by placing hawkers sell-ing similar products as shopkeepers as far as possible;

• Vendors and hawkers should be placed in proximity to offices, homes and retail areas;



Fig. 2: Pedestrian Walkway Encroached by Hawkers, as a Result People are Forced to Walk on the Road

• Dustbins for solid waste disposal must be provided;

• National Policy for Urban street vendors must be fulfilled; and

• Flexible Hawking zones should be designed for various types of hawkers and vendors.

2.2 Design Parameters

Showing various display spaces for different vending activities. Hawker inclusive design often means making the best use of existing space through better space management. The sketches (Fig. 3 and 4) show different ways in which a 4m pavement width can accommodate vending, with or without fixed structures, Type – 01; Type – 02; and Type – 03.



Fig. 3: Minimum Widths for Hawker and Planting Zones - Plan

Fig. 4: Minimum Widths for Hawker and Planting Zones - Section

3. cASE STUDIES

3.1 BRTS, Ahmedabad

Ahmedabad Janmarg or Bus Rapid Transport System, as it is popularly known is a bus transport system with dedicated road lane of its own, where other vehicles share the common road lanes. Thus, it is a faster means of public transport. It is a highly ambitious rapid transport system developed by Gujarat Infrastructure Development Board (GIDB) for the city of Ahmedabad, recognizing that no single mode would cater to the mobility needs of the city and that ‘Bus’ forms the most critical segment of the public transport system in the Ahmedabad city. The project report ‘Bus Rapid Transit System, Ahmedabad’ published by Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) suggests that it aims to increase the ratio of people commuting in public transport of 7% in 2004-05 to 40% by 2015. For such a change, it is necessary that the transport system should be people friendly and affordable as well as it considers livelihood options and lifestyle of commuters and citizen in general.

As an effect of the implementation of this project, lots of road widening work has been undertaken by authorities in AMC and AUDA areas along with the construction of new fly overs. This also resulted in relocation of vendors working on the streets along the BRTS corridor. Initially it was assumed to be a temporary change for the vendors, a common occurrence when there is road widening work carried out by AMC, but may have long term consequences, therefore, the issue of street vending need to be addressed and well integrated in the planning and implementation of the Ahmedabad Janmarg System.



Fig. 5: Thela with Shade Umbrella and Seating Area, for Vegetables, clothes or Household Goods

Fig. 6: Lockable Storage, Display Shelves and sun / Rain Shade, for Phone Accessories

Fig. 7: Moveable Seat, Display Boxes and Umbrella, for Vegetable Seller



Transit nodes form a very significant junction and area for informal sector to find their business. In this regard, the street vendors play a significant role where the public space is used in diverse ways over the course of a day. They cater for the different needs of different uses at different times and add to security in the streets through the people they attract. Moreover, the convenient service they offer to the citizens, reduces travel demand and pollution. Vendors will at all times prefer their location based on the fact where they can meet the highest demand and therefore, can make the highest earnings. However, current planning tools do not include the provision of space and amenities, needed to envision a symbiosis of this informal / formal relationship. The planners haven’t considered this in designing of the BRTS transport system. This has resulted in the loss of livelihood of many vendors who were

situated around this stretch and has also invited many more vendors as this was a demand location for their business to flourish.

The study showed that there were sizeable number of vendors along the stretch. The street vending activity was taking place at many places for more than 20 years. At all the places where the BRTS work was going on, the vendors were asked to shift as the work was in progress. They were not informed about the purpose of this construction work. They had assumed that it was for road widening and once the work is over, they will come back to the same spot and resume their work.

To collect further information about the nature of vending, number of vendors and impact on them and their family, a detailed survey has been carried out. during the evenings when the street vending activity is usually at its peak. The survey covered all the roads where the BRTS phase 1 is operational.

Fig. 8: BRTS Phase-I, DPR



It is seen that many vendors have been required to leave and shift to the nearby lanes as the BRTS became operational. Also, before the construction of BRTS special corridors and bus stops began, the same streets were widened many times during the last 8 to 10 years and hence each time it resulted in shifting of vendors and every time loss of income and livelihood for certain number of vendors took place.

3.2 Greater Noida

Presently in Greater Noida all service lane of Institution Areas such as in Knowledge Parks are affected by encroachment of hawkers and vendors during morning, afternoon and evening hours. These service lanes mushroom with hawkers selling eatables and clothes for the college day scholars and hostelers. Also these service lanes accommodate parking spaces for students and visitors during college hours. As a result pedestrian activity overlaps with vehicular traffic, making it congested and unsafe for pedestrians (Fig. 9).

Fig. 10 shows the proposal for separating the pedestrian and vehicular traffic by organizing the informal sector near the institutional

Fig. 9: Existing conditions of a junction at Greater Noida, Knowledge Park -1

Fig. 10: Alternative proposal, for separating Pedestrian and Vehicular Traffic by Covering the Nallah Creating a Wider and Organized Informal Sector Zone.



belt facing towards college entry. This will not only restrict the pedestrian traffic on the walkway but also give eyes on the streets, making the service lanes safer. Parking of 2 - wheelers is proposed in the planting zone, under the trees. This will stop the parking from interfering with movements.

Fig. 11 shows an alternative proposal, which is also separating pedestrian and vehicular traffic; but in this case we are covering the nallah creating a wider and organized informal sector zone.

This proposal is not as cost effective as the former proposal, but it enhances pedestrian movement far more, creating far diverse opportunities for various kinds of vendors and hawkers.

4. cONcLUSIONS

The project has affected the informal sector, in many ways; including loss of livelihood, employment and customers. The eviction and relocation of the vendors impacted their wages, education expenses and other daily expenses. Non-regularization and non-issuance of licenses to the vendors results in paying of bribes and loss of livelihood. This part of the study was an understanding of how the hawkers work and the impacts on their livelihood due to the commencement of the BRTS project. Practically in every interview and conversation with the hawkers, it was brought to focus that the major problem they face is not the lack of sales or access to credit, or even work conditions, but the constant fear of demolitions and every day harassment from authorities. With establishing a formal, legal framework for street vendors, responsibilities and taxes can be demanded in exchange for their rights. Vendors need legalization of vendors, access to basic services and space depending on the vendors. Opportunities and Potentials include:

• Employment: Vending is a most important employment opportunity for the urban poor. In Ahmedabad vending forms a significant activity, due to the closer of the mills and people taking up vending as their profession. Most of the vendors got into vending due to the same reason. Thus, the policy which facilitates the vendors should be implemented and legislated by the Authorities.

• Social security: Regularization of vendors is the most vital aspect for the vendors as it’s their means to livelihood. The National Policy mainly

Fig. 11: Second Alternate proposal is not as cost effective as the former proposal, but it enhances pedestrian movement far more, creating far diverse opportunities for various kinds of vendors and hawkers.



emphasizes on this aspect and directs the Local governing body to regularize the vendors. The major observations in the survey were found to be that the vendors were not aware of any such policy and were evicted in the wake of the urban infrastructure project.

• Formal and Informal: Formal planned spaces act as magnets for the informal sector. As the inclusivity of informal sector has failed using the planning tools, even the local level planning techniques have not implemented the same. The three major projects which are coming up in the city, have not taken into consideration the importance of the informal sector. This would eventually lead to the encroachment by the vendors at these formally planned spaces. Thus, the vicious cycle of encroachment and eviction would keep continuing and the problem persists.

• Open Space: Open spaces are the most vulnerable and encroachable spaces by the street vendors for the vending activity to take place. In our cities open space plays an important role as a space for congregation during festivals or any of the occasions. The study shows that the study area has lot of open spaces as government lands which can be used to accommodate the vending activities. Open spaces in the form of parks, open lands can be allocated for vending purpose.

REFERENcESNational Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized SectorCity Development Plan, Ahmedabad, 2006Keith Hart, “Informal Income opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana”, Journal of Modern African Studies, London, March, 1973, pp 61-89The Informal Economy: Definitions, Theories and Policies by Martha Alter ChenKulshreshtah, A.C and Gulab S .ng, “Gross Domestic Product and Employment in the Informal Sector of the Indian economy”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol, 42, N0.2, 1999.http://archive.financialexpress.com/news/around-half-the-gdp-comes-from-the-informal-sector/355611http://nceuis.nic.in/Final_Booklet_Working_Paper_2.pdfwww.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/.../wcms_125979.pdfNational Policy on Urban Street Vendors- Government of India, Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi.FOOTNOTEThe Informal Economy: Definitions, Theories and Policies by Martha Alter ChenKulshreshtah, A.C and Gulab S .ng, “Gross Domestic Product and Employment in the Informal Sector of the Indian economy”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol, 42, N0.2, 1999.http://archive.financialexpress.com/news/around-half-the-gdp-comes-from-the-informal-sector/355611http://nceuis.nic.in/Final_Booklet_Working_Paper_2.pdfwww.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/.../wcms_125979.pdfNational Policy on Urban Street Vendors- Government of India, Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi.

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