Rainbow Runner: A LatentOceanic Resource?

MITSUO YESAKI

Introduction

Rainbow runner, Elagatis bipin­nulata (Quoy and Gaimard), is one ofsix species in the family Carangidaewhich is circumtropical in distribution(Briggs, 1960), occurring throughoutthe warm temperate and tropicaloceans. It is a pelagic fish with fusiformbody, small mouth, and deeply forkedtail (Fig. 1). This species resembles,very superficially, Salmonidae of northtemperate waters and is referred to as"salmon" in Jamaica (Kawaguchi,1974) and the Philippines (Simpsonand Chikuni, 1976) and "Hawaiiansalmon" in Hawaii.

There are no large-scale fisheries forrainbow runner and this fish isgenerally only captured incidentally byartisanal or recreational fishermenwhile fishing for other species. Asmight be expected for a commercially

insignificant species, very little isknown about the rainbow runner.However, there is evidence to suggestthat this species may be a latentresource of some magnitude.

Okiyama (1970) speculated from astudy of fish larvae collected byresearch vessels enroute to and from, aswell as on, tuna fishing grounds thatthis fish may be a potential commercialspecies. There are numerousdocumented and undocumented visualsightings of large schools and highincidental captures of rainbow runnerfrom various localities around theworld. This information is published,for the most part, in obscure

Fishery biologist Mitsuo Yesaki is with theFAO Pole and Line Tuna Fishing in SouthernThailand, c/o P.O. Box 618, Bangkok,Thailand.

documents not generally available tothe fisheries researcher or has beenobtained through personalcommunications from numerouscolleagues. This paper summarizescurrent information about the rainbowrunner, speculates why it is rarelycaptured at present, and recommendsresearch needed to exploit it.

Life HistoryLarval development and early life

history of the rainbow runner havebeen described by Okiyama (1970) forthe Indo-Pacific region and Aprieto(1974) for the Gulf of Mexico andSouth Atlantic coast of the UnitedStates. Larvae and/ or juveniles werecaptured throughout the year with apeak in March in the Indo-Pacificregion, and in every month except Mayand December in the western Atlanticregion. Both authors assumed the

August 1979

rainbow runner to be a year-roundspawner. This species was the' mostabundant epipelagic larval carangid intropical and warm temperate Indo­Pacific regions and second mostcommonly captured carangid of thefive jack species (Decaplt-'rus punc­ta/us, Seriu/a zunala, Selene vomer,O/ifiop/i/es .Iaurus, and E/agali.\hipinnu/ala) studied from the westernAtlantic region.

Larvae, post larvae, and juveniles inthe Indo-Pacific region were capturedat surface water temperatures between26.5° and 29.9°C with the highest oc­currence in 28.0° C. Post larvae andjuveniles were found to feed almostexclusively on copepods (Okiyama,1970).

Young and adult rainbow runnerrange as widely as the larvae and Yo'Jngjuveniles, occurring on the outer con­tinental shelf, around offshoreislands/ banks, and in mid-ocean.However, the rainbow runner is aninconspicuous species so that nearly alldocumented reports of occurrences arefrom around flotsam, artificialstructures, or drifting craft.

Neritic Regime

Occurrence of rainbow runner overvarious reefs on the continental shelfoff Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexicohave been reported by Sonnier et al.(1976). Frequency of occurrence onthese reefs increased from inshore tooffshore, ranging from absent in 37 m,occasional in 59 m, and common in110-130 m depths. This species wasrarely observed around oil platformslocated throughout the study area,mostly in water depths of 18-55 m.

Hunter and Mitchell (1967) studiedthe association of fishes with flotsam inthe eastern tropical Pacific off CostaRica during spring and fall 1963.Flotsam found 1-31 miles off the near­est land were sampled with a miniaturepurseseine. Young rainbow runnerwere collected under 29 out of 70flotsam sampled and ranked fifth infrequency of occurrence.

Rainbow runners have beenobserved and/ or captured around arti­ficial structures moored in the westernSea of Japan (Kojima, 1967), easterntropical Pacific (H unter and Mitchell,

2

1967, 1968), and eastern Gulf ofMexico (Klima and Wickham, 1971).This species was thc most numerous ofthe jack category (Serio/a sp., Caran>:cn'sos) attracted to surface andmidwater structures moored in 11-13m depths off Panama City, Fla., in July1969. On one occasion, an estimated500 individuals were associated with asingle structure. Rainbow runner andother jack species were mostcommonly associated with single,surface structure~ than with complexmidwater structures. These jack speciesgenerally oriented at the level of orbelow the structures.

Oceanic Regime

Attraction of pelagic fishes to adrifting raft in the equatorial Pacificbetween long. 148° and 1600 W wasstudied by personnel of the Bureau ofCommercial Fisheries, Honolulu,Hawaii, during two drifts in February­March 1964 (Gooding and Magnuson,1967). Twenty-three different specieswere attracted to the raft during thetwo drifts. Rainbow runner wereobserved singly, accompanying the raftduring the 9-day drift south of theEquator.

The RV Discoverer drifted in thewestern Atlantic from lat. 13°N, long.39°W to lat. 10°, long. 49°Wduring a 2.S-week period in February1969 (Potthoff, 1969). Dolphin fish,Coryphaena hippurus; blanketoctopus, TremoclupuS vio/aceus;flyingfish; and lanternfish wereattracted to the vessel in large numbersduring this drift cruise. Shark, squid,rainbow runner, and other species wereattracted in lesser numbers.

Personnel of the Caribbean FisheryDevelopment Project conducted acruise in May 1970 to assess the poten­tial of attracting pelagic fish to adrifting vessel in sufficient quantitiesfor commercial fishing (Wolf, 1974).The drift was initiated approximately220 miles east of Trinidad and termin­ated 20 miles west of St. Lucia. Fishwere attracted to the R V Calamarfrom the first day of the cruise.Considerable numbers of rainbowrunner were seen under the vessel, butwere difficult to catch. This species wasthe third most frequently captured fish,

after yellowfin tuna, Thunnusa/hacares, and dolphin fish.

Another cruise was conducted by theRV Ca/amarduring May-June 1971 totest the effectiveness of drifting struc­tures in concentrating commercialquantities of pelagic fish. Three struc­tures were set adrift about 160 mileseast-southeast of Barbados during thefirst leg and six structures were releasedapproximately 30 miles east ofBarbados during the second leg of thecruise (Wolf, 1974). Difficulty was en­countered in keeping track of theindividual structures which tended todrift apart. Rainbow runner wasconcentrated under these structuresand was the fifth most frequently cap­tured fish after yellowfin tuna, dol­phin fish, skipjack tuna, Katsuwonuspelami.\', and wahoo, Acanthocybiumsolam/ai.

Thor Heyerdahl (1978) sailed thereed craft Tigris across the northArabian Sea from the mouth of theIndus River to Djibouti in early 1978.The bottom of the craft after 3 monthsin the sea supported an upside-downmeadow of luxuriant life withbarnacles, crabs, and a variety of smallfish. These in turn attracted schools ofdolphin fish, rainbow runner, trigger­fish, pilotfish and sharks.

Large Schools

Rainbow runners aggregate in largeschools in specific areas during certaintimes of the year. Visual sightings oflarge schools have been reported fromthe following areas: I) Navidad andSilver Banks, Caribbean (CaribbeanFishery Development Project cruisedata sheets); 2) continental shelf offNicaragua, Caribbean (K. Kawaquchi I,

pel's. commun.); 3) Atol das Rocas,Ilha de Fernando de Noronha,offshore banks of northeastern Brazil,western tropical Atlantic (P. C.

2Conolly, pel's. commun.); 4) Rocas deSao Pedro e Sao Paulo, westerntropical Atlantic (P. C. Conolly,

'K. Kawaquchi, Project Manager/TrainingOfficer, FAO Fisheries Development Project,Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3028,Nassau, Bahamas.'P. C. Conolly, Engenheiro de Pesca,SUDEPE/PDP, Avenida Duque de Caxias.No. 190, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil.

Marine Fisheries Review

LL I I / I f\r-. / I I , I I P ~I I I I I't, ~ I / ~t~, . h:h~';:<.-;;l!20

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Figu.re 2.-Locations of rainbow runn~rsightings. Closed stars i':ldic~te sightings of large schools alongco~tmentaledges off oceamc banks and Islands. Open stars mdlcate slghtmgs under drifting craft in the oceanicregime.

footnote 2); 5) continental shelf offPanama, 3 eastern tropical Pacific (T.Gastsson , pers. commun.); 5) Clipper­ton Island, eastern tropical Pacific (c.Limbaugh, 1963); 7) specific locationunknown, Gulf of Aden (1. F.LeGurun 4

, pers. commun.); 8)Daimaniyat Islands, off Batina coast ofOman, GulfofOman(M. A. Barwani

5,

pers. commun.).Locations where rainbow runners

have been seen under drifting craft inthe oceanic regime and in large schoolsalong the edge of the continental shelf,offshore banks, and islands are shownin Fig. 2. It seems highly unlikelythat rainbow runner occurs in largeschools only in the above mentionedlocations. It is more likely that high

JT. Gestsson, Masterfisherman FAO Off­shore Trawling Survey cj 0 U DP, P.O. Box30218, Nairobi, Kenya.'J. F. leGurun, Fishing Technologistj Master­fisherman, Development of ArtisanalFisheries, cj 0 U DP, P.O. Box 154, DakarSenegal. '5M. A. Barwani, Director of Research andPlanning, Directorate of Fisheries MinistryofA~riculture, Fisheries, Petr~leum andMinerals, P.O. Box 551, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman.

August 1979

concentrations of this species occur inother areas throughout the Caribbean,western tropical Atlantic, easterntropical Pacific, and north ArabianSea, as well as throughout otherregions of the warm temperate andtropical oceans.

Association WithOther Fish

Potthoff (1969 reports whitetipshark, Carcharhinus longimanus,being accompanied occasionally byrainbow runner during a 2.5-week driftcruise of the R V Discoverer. Rainbowrunners were concentrated under thedrift structures released by the RVCalamar during May-June 1971, inassociation with two species of sharks(C. longimanus and C. falciformis).Limbaugh (1963) observed rainbowrunner around Clipperton Islandfrequently escorting two species ofsharks (c. platyrhynchus and C.galapagensis) common there. Therainbow runner has an affinity tosharks, and in this habit is similar totwo other carangids, Naucrates ductorand Seriola zonata, which are fre­quently associated with sharks.

Feeding Habits

The rainbow runner has a small,terminal mouth without sharp teethwhich would limit the size of prey thatthis species can ingest to tinyorganisms. Kojima (1967) classifiedthis species as a predator of fish andsquid (Group I of his classification)whereas his table lists stomachs ofyoung to contain fish eggs / larvae, plusfish flesh, shrimp, megalops, isopods,amphipods, and seaweeds. Fieldexaminations showed crustaceans tobe always present in the stomachs ofadults captured by trolling gear off thenortheast coast of Brazil (P. C.Conolly, footnote 2). Morphology andlimited data from stomach analysesindicate the rainbow runner to beprincipally a first-stage carnivore.

Fisheries

Pot Fishery ofPapua New Guinea

There is a pot fishery for rainbowrunner centered around RabaulHarbour in Papua New Guinea

3

(Anonymous, 1968). The pot isdirigible-shaped, 1.8 m long and 1.5 min diameter. It is constructed of 2.5- to3.7-cm thick bamboo strips and has afunnel entrance at one end. This pot isfished about I m below the surface andheld in position with rope and anchoron the continental shelf and slope todepths of 360 m (R. E. K. D. Lee6

,

pers. commun.).The pot is baited withleaves to attract malambur, which arefed upon by the rainbow runner.

Landings in Oman

A cursory port sampling program tomonitor the landings of artisanalfishermen at six locations along thenortheast coast of Oman wasconducted during late 1972 and early1973 (Mardela International Ltd.,1975). Rainbow runner was theseventh most abundant species orspecies group and constituted 2.9percent by numbers of the total sample.This sample did not include anchovie&,sardines, halfbeaks, lizardfish, ormackerels, which are generally landedin baskets. Rainbow runner wassampled at Mutrah and Qurayat andnot at the other four ports. Mutrah andQurayat are rocky coastal ports,whereas the others are sandy coastalports. Rainbow runner landings weremarkedly seasonal and observed onlyduring the months of February (99fish), June (477), and July (260) atMutrah and during April (199) atQurayat. Artisanal fishermen capturethis species incidentally with trap nets,gillnets, troll lines, and handlines.

Incidental CapturesTrolling

Caribbean Fishery DevelopmentProject vessels generally fished two andoccasionally three troll lines from thestern during daylight hours whilesteaming to and from fishing groundsand from one fishing station toanother. Yesaki (1969 7

) examined the

OR. E. K. D. Lee. Team Leader/ Master­fisherman, FAO Pole and Line Tuna Fishing insouthern Thailand. c/o P.O. Box 618,Bangkok, Thailand.

7Yesaki, M. 1969. Troll fishing catches in theCaribbean Sea and adjacent Atlantic Ocean.UNDP/ FAO Caribbean Fishery DevelopmentProject. Mimeogr. rep., 25 p.

4

records of 65 cruises to determine thedistribution, relative abundance, andspecies composition of incidental troll­caught fish throughout the CaribbeanSea and adjacent Atlantic Ocean.Rainbow runner was the seventh mostfrequently captured species andaccounted for 3 percent of the totalnumbers. Highest captures were madearound Navidad and Silver Banksnortheast of Hispaniola and along theNicaragua shelf.

Yesaki (footnote 7) also examinedthe fishing logs for simulated produc­tion trolling cruises conducted by theJamaican Fisheries Division's RVBlue/in and the Caribbean FisheryDevelopment Project's RV Calamarand RV Fregata. The RV Blue/inconducted nine cruises around variousbanks east, southeast, and south ofJamaica from August to December1967. Rainbow runner was the thirdmost commonly captured fish andcomposed 17 percent of the totalnumbers. Highest catch rates of thisspecies were obtained on "SalmonBank" (9.0 kg/hour), Albatross-LittleAlbatross Banks (5.8 kg/hour), andMorant Bank-Decca Ridge (5.1kg/ hour). These banks are locatedsoutheast of Jamaica. The RVCalamar expended one cruise and theRV Fregata a day and parts of 2 daysin simulated production trolling onAnguilla Bank during April-May 1969.Rainbow runner was much lessabundant on this bank and composedonly I percent of the total.

The Federal fisheries service ofBrazil (Superintendencia do Densen­volvimento de Pesca/ Programa dePesquisa e DensenvolvimentoPesqueiro do Brasil) initiated ex­ploratory fishing activities off thenortheast region in May 1976 with theN/ Pq Riobaldo and subsequentlywith the N/ Pq Diodorin. The area ofinvestigations encompassed principallythe continental shelf off the State ofNatal, Atol das Rocas and Ilha deFernando de Noronha, as well asaround several offshore banks.

Fishing activities included multipleline trolling, handlining, gillnetting,squid jigging, and purse seining.Greatest effort was expended in trol­ling with 16 lines along the edge of the

continental shelf and offshore banks.During 1977, 13 combination fishing

cruises (trolling/ handlining, trolling/gillnetting etc.) were completed by the

/ Pq Diodorin (Anonymous~, 1977).Rainbow runners were captured ontroll lines during all but one of thesecruises and was the sixth mostfrequently captured species (3 percentof the total). Schools of rainbowrunner were sighted during 10 of the13 cruises, primarily over the 200-mdepths along the eastern edge ofoffshore islands and banks, i.e., theedge fronting the South EquatorialCurrent. The numbers of rainbowrunner captured by trolling werenowhere near commensurate with thenumbers observed and promptedpersonnel of SUDEPE/ PDP toinitiate fishing trials with gillnets andin late 1977 with purse seine.

Handlining

Caribbean Fishery DevelopmentProject's RV Alcyon conductedextensive exploratory and simulatedproduction handline fishing in thenorthwestern Caribbean Sea from1967 to 1970 (Kawaguchi, 1974).Rainbow runner was captured by thisfishing method along the edge of theCentral American shelf, especially overa high ridge that peaked at 29-33 mbelow the surface at lat. 14°33 'N, long.81 °45 oW . This species was attracted tothe lights of the vessel while at anchorfor the night and captured near thesurface with line and baited hook.Highest catches of rainbow runnerwere made from April to June whenthis species accounted for 7.7 - 16.5percent of the total landed weight.

The N/ Pq Diodorin made a cruiseto Rocas de Sao Pedro and Sao Pauloin the equatorial Atlantic in March1978. Four schools of rainbow runnerwere sighted around these islands, ofwhich one was attracted to the vessellights one morning. This school was

8 Anonymous. 1977. Relatorio do cruzerio nos. la13 de 1977. Programa de Pesquisa e Desen­

volvimento Pesqueiro do Brasil. Ministerio daAgricultura-Superintendencia do Desenvolvi­mento da Pesca.

Marine Fisheries Review

fished with unweighted lines and smallhooks baited with pieces of flyingfishand 300 kg of rainbow runners wascaptured during 1 hour of handlining(P. C. Conolly, footnote 2).

Purse Seining

Rainbow runner is not commonlycaptured incidentally by tuna purseseiners in the eastern Pacific Ocean (W.L. Klawe9~ pers. commun.), but is oftencaptured in the eastern Atlantic Oceanoff Tema, Ghana (F. H. Berry 10, pers.commun.). The largest known purseseine catch of this species was made bythe FAO pool vessel RV Lemuru whileon assignment in Indonesia for afisheries training project. This was a 6 tschool, comprised predominately ofrainbow runner, which was detected bysonar and encircled with the purseseine. The entire school was capturedas was a submerged tree under whichthe rainbow runners had been concen­trated (B. Bjarnason II, pers.commun.)

The South China Sea FisheriesDevelopment and Coordinating Pro­gram chartered two purse seiners toevaluate the tuna resources, princi­pally in the Moro Gulf and Sulu Seaoff the Philippine Islands. Normal day­time purse seining tactics provedineffective during the intitial stages ofthe charter period, so nighttime fishingtactics practiced by local purse seinerswere tried with encouraging results.

After various modifications, thefollowing fishing tactic was adoptedfor much of the duration of the charterperiod. The vessel searched for flotsamand upon locating a suitable log, raft,etc., would tie onto it and drift. Atdusk, the night lights were switched onto concentrate small fish which servedas an attractant for tuna. The flotsamand skiff with gas light would be setadrift just before dawn and the vessel's

9W. L. Klawe, Senior Biologist, Inter­American Tropical Tuna Commission, c/oScripps Institution of Oceanography, LaJolla.CA 92037.10F. H. Berry, Fishery Biologist, NationalMarine Fisheries Service, NOAA, MiamiLaboratory, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami,fL 33149."B. Bjarnason. Ve,sels Operations Officer.Regional Fishery Survey and DevelopmentProject, P.O. Box 3225, Doha. Qatar.

August 1979

night lights were gradually switchedoff. The small fish concentrated by thenight lights remained with the flotsam/lighted skiff, the purse seine was setaround the school (Simpson andChikuni, 1976).

The two charter vessels captured 975t during the November 1975 to April1976 period, of which 76 percent and14 percent were skipjack and yellow­fin/bigeye tunas, respectively. Theremainder of the catch was composedof frigate mackeral, Auxis spp.;eastern little tuna, Euthynnus affinis,barracuda, Sphyraena spp.; rainbowrunner; Spanish mackerel, Scom­beromorus spp.; and sharks.Rainbow runner was frequentlycaptured in very small numbers,ranging from 0 to 20 individuals perset. However, commercial purseseiners in the Philippines land largequantities, virtually tons, of rainbowrunner (R. E. K. D. Lee, see footnote6).

Discussion

Sufficient, if fragmentary, informa­tion has emerged to permit speculationon the probable life history of therainbow runner. This species spends itslarval, postlarval, juvenile, and muchof its young and adult life in theepipelagic zone of warm temperate andtropical oceans.

It is my hypothesis that the rainbowrunner occupies the ecological niche inthe epipelagic zone of a first-stagecarnivore and, therefore, is the low­latitude ocean equivalent of the Pacificsalmon, Oncorhynchus spp., in thecold temperate Pacific Ocean. Thishypothesis is based on generalsimilarities in body form, limitedinformation of feeding habits, andsightings from drifting craft in the openocean.

The rainbow runner is dispersed insmall aggregations on the high seas andat certain times of the year and / orparticular stage in development, movesto the outer continental shelf, offshoreislands, and banks, sometimes inconsiderable numbers. It is furtherhypothesized that the rainbow runneris a latent resource of appreciablemagnitude in the low-latitude ocean.

The argument that rainbow runneris an abundant species is negated by thepaucity of documented accounts ofoccurrences and insignificant commer­cial landings. A probable reason whythere are few documented accounts ofoccurrences is that this species appearsto aggregate only in specific localitiesduring certain periods of the year.These localities are generally distantfrom land and infrequently visited byresearchers.

Another reason for the few accountsof rainbow runner occurrences is theinconspicuous behavior of this speciesin contrast to other schooling largepelagic fishes such as surfaceswimming tunas. Tunas are voraciouspredators that often disturb the sea in a"feeding frenzy" when after small fish.Also, surface swimming tunas aregenerally followed by flocks of seabirds which can be easily detected fromafar. A rainbow runner school does notbreak the surface in a "feeding frenzy"and is generally not followed by birds(P. C. Conolly, footnote 2).

Incidental captures of rainbowrunner have been made with a varietyof gears, but very seldom inconsistently commercial quantities.Probable reasons this species is notlanded in larger quantities are use ofinappropriate gears and / or limitedfishing in areas of high concentra­tions.

Surface trolling is practiced in warmtemperate and tropical regions princi­pally to capture surface swimmingtunas, Spanish mackerels, dolphin fish,wahoo, etc. Troll lures used for thesespecies are too large for the smallmouth of the rainbow runner. Further­more, surface trolling is generallyconducted at speeds of 4-6 knots whichmay be too fast for this species.

Rainbow runners are frequentlycaptured with gillnets, princi­pally during the northern spring offMuscat, Oman. The continental shelfoff Muscat is extremely narrow withno freshwater outflow which results inthe intrusion of oceanic water almostto the coast. Gillnets are not usedextensively in the Caribbean nor offeither the coasts of Central Americaand northeastern Brazil. When they areused they are restricted to the inner

5

nentlc regime. Landings of rainbowrunner in these regions would likelyincrease with extension of gill netfishing to the outer neritic and oceanicregimes.

Purse seining for small schoolingfish in warm temperate and tropicaloceans is generally restricted to theinner neritic regime, inshore of thenormal distributional range of therainbow runner. American tuna purseseiners range the oceanic regime of thePacific and Atlantic Oceans in theirq uest for yellowfi nand ski pjacktunas. Rainbow runner is not capturedin large quantities by these seinerswhich suggests that this species doesnot aggregate in large concentrationsin the areas fished. On the other hand,large schools of this species may not bedetected, or if detected, may not be setupon because of differential behaviorpatterns.

Available information indicates thatthe most promising region for furtherinvestigations of rainbow runnerwould be the western tropical AtlanticOcean. Here, sightings of large schoolsand high incidental captures have beenmade from the offshore banks of theGreater Antilles in the north, along thecontinental shelf off Central Americain the west, around the offshore islandsand banks off the northeast corner ofBrazil in the south, and around the

6

Rocas de Sao Pedro and Sao Paulo inthe east.

Fishing trials to date in this region,principally with troll lines andhand lines and to a lesser extent withgillnets and purse seines, have notyielded consistently high captures ofrainbow runner. Gear research, whereand when the rainbow runner is knownto concentrate, to develop effectivefishing gears to capture this species is ofparamount importance. Furtherfishing trials with appropriate gillnetsand purse seines would probably bemost rewarding, though experimentalfishing with floating pots, traps, andmidwater troll lines may be interesting.Also, research is needed to developmeans of concentrating rainbowrunners in the outer neritic andespecially in the oceanic regime.

Literature CitedAnonymous. 1968. Fish traps in Papua-\lew

Guinea. Aust. Fish. Newsl. 27( 12):23-24.Aprieto, V. L. 1974. Early development offive

carrangid fishes of the Gulf of Mexico andthe south Atlantic coast of the United States.U.S Fish Wildl Serv., Fish. Bull 72:415­443

Briggs, J. C 1960. Fishes of worldwide (cir­cumtropical) distribution. Copeia 1960: 171­180.

Gooding, R. M., and J. J. Magnuson. 1967.Ecological significance of a drifting objectto pelagic fishes. Pac. Sci. 21:4ll6-497.

Heyerdahl. T. 197H. Tigril sails into the past.Na tl. Geogr. 154:H06-ll27.

Hunter, J. R., and C. T. Mitchell. 1967.Association of fishes with Ootsam in theoffshore waters of Central America. U.S.Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 66:13-29.

____ . and 1968. Fieldexperiments on the attraction of pelagic fishto Ooating objects. J. Cons. 31 :427-434.

Kawaguchi, K. 1974. Handline and longlinefishing explorations for snapper and relatedspecies in the Caribbean and adjacentwaters. Mar. Fish. Rev. 36(9):8-31.

Klima, E. F .. and D. A. Wickham. 1971.Attraction of coastal pelagic fishes withartificial structures. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.100:86-99.

Kojima, S. 1967. Studies on fishing conditionsof the dolphin, Conphaena hippurus, in thewestern regiom of the Sea of Japan XIIITsukegi as a source 01 j ood lor dolphins.Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 33:320-324.

Limbaugh, C 1963. Field notes on sharks. /nP W Gilhert (cditor). Sharks and survival.p. h3-94. D. C Heath and Co .. Boston.

Mardela International Ltd 1<)75. Manneresources development program. Sultanateof Oman. Final report. Book JI. Vol. I,chap. I. 38 p.

Okiyama. M. 1970. Studies on the early lifehistory of the rainbow runner, E/agatishi/Jillllll/II/II.1 (Quoy and Gaimard) in thL'Indo-Pacific Occam. Bull. Far Seas FishRes. I.ab. (Shimi;u) 3:lh7-IH6.

Potthoff. r 196<). Searching for tuna Com­mer Fish Rev 31 (7):35-37

Simpson, A. C, and S Chikuni. 1976. Pro­gress report on fishing for tuna in Philippinewaters by FAa chartered purse seiners.South China Sea Fisheries Developmentand Coordinating Programme. Food Agric.Organ UN .. Rome. SCS!76/WP/35. 35 p.

Sonnier. F, J Teerling. and H D. Hoese1976. Observations on the offshore reef andplatform fish fauna of Louisiana Copeia1976:105-111.

Wolf, R. S. 1974. Minor miscellaneousexplor­atory/experimental fishing activities in theCaribbean and adjacent waters. Mar FishRev. 36(9)78-87

Marilli' Fisheries Rn'iell'