Rainbow I Report_2014

8/12/2019 Rainbow I Report_2014

1/28

1

Natural Hazards and Risk in Structural Engineering

Project Rainbow I

Submitted by

Somsanakr Mondal

Matriculation No. 113969


2/28

2

Abstract

Natural Hazards and Risk data related to specific region of my own country India have been

presented in GIS Map form using Mapinfo GIS Tool in macro and also in micro scale level

creating basic layers for hazards and risk assessment and establishing links in between those to

solve simple tasks. In doing so, we can lay down earthquake risk mitigation plan and increasesocial preparedness towards effective rescue operation in case of aftermath situation due to an

event of natural disaster.


3/28

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful and would like to thank Survey of India, Central Public Works Department,

Geographical Survey of India, USGS, SRTM, National Disaster Management Department,

Government of India, Indian Metrological Department.

I am also very much thankful to Prof. Dr.-Ing. W. Schwarz , Dr. J. Schwarz, Ms Silke for their

constant support and expertise throughout this project.

I would also like to thank my friends, Muhammad Umar Nawaz for his support and help

throughout this project.


4/28

4

TableofContentsCHAPTER1.................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.0Introduction:...................................................................................................................................... 6CHAPTER2.................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1India:................................................................................................................................................... 72.2AssignedRegion(East):........................................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER3.................................................................................................................................................... 83.1Introduction:....................................................................................................................................... 83.2PoliticalMap:...................................................................................................................................... 8

3.2.1OverviewofIndia:........................................................................................................................ 93.2.2TargetRegionofIndia................................................................................................................ 10

3.2.3RoadandRailwaysNetworkofTargetRegionofIndia.................................................................. 113.2.4RiverandWaterBodyofTargetRegionofIndia....................................................................... 12

CHAPTER4.................................................................................................................................................. 134.1PopulationDensity............................................................................................................................ 13

CHAPTER5.................................................................................................................................................. 145.1Geology............................................................................................................................................. 14

CHAPTER6.................................................................................................................................................. 156.1 ShareWaveVelocity........................................................................................................................ 15

CHAPTER7.................................................................................................................................................. 167.1PeakGroundAcceleration................................................................................................................ 16

CHAPTER8.................................................................................................................................................. 178.1SeismicZone..................................................................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER9.................................................................................................................................................. 189.1 EarthquakeCatalog.......................................................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER10................................................................................................................................................ 1910.1Topography..................................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER11................................................................................................................................................ 2011.1.BuildingStockSurvey..................................................................................................................... 20

11.1.1TypeofBuilding....................................................................................................................... 2011.1.2No.ofStorey............................................................................................................................ 21

11.1.3Yearofconstruction..................................................................................................................... 22


5/28

5

12.1GeodeticinfrastructureinIndia...................................................................................................... 2312.2IndianGeodeticDatum................................................................................................................... 2412.3HorizontalControl........................................................................................................................... 2512.4GravityDatum................................................................................................................................. 2612.5IndianGeoid.................................................................................................................................... 2712.6ProjectionforMaps........................................................................................................................ 2712.7IndianGrid....................................................................................................................................... 2813References......................................................................................................................................... 28

List of Table

Table1:AvailabilityofMapsinIndia.......................................................................................................... 28

List of Figures

Figure1:POLITICALMAPOFINDIA................................................................. Error!Bookmarknotdefined.


6/28

6

CHAPTER 1

1.0 Introduction :Natural calamity like seismic event, landslide, flood, drought, cyclone, forest fire, volcanic

eruption and cascading affects of these on our socio economic life are called natural hazard

events. On occurrence of such a natural hazard, there could be loss of life, damage to propertyand socio-economic disruption. From the classical risk definition, we can quantify the risk as

cost of loss multiplied by probability of a hazard event. Risk has increased over the years due to

increased population and also human activity dislodging the nature stability. It is evident from

past that the paw of suffering and risk or losses from natural hazards are quite high on

developing countries.

Earthquakes are one of the worst among the natural disasters. About 1 lakh earthquakes of

magnitude more than three hit the earth every year. According to a conservative estimate more

than 15 million human lives have been lost and damage worth hundred billions of dollars has

been inflicted in the recorded history due to these.

Like other natural hazard event, probability of occurrence of seismic activity cant be improved

by any artificial means. This is quite evident now to minimize the risk or disastrous effects of

earthquake we have to prevent the cost of losses. To achieve this we need to study frequency,

nature, places of occurrence of hazards and the influence other than directly related to

earthquake like, type of houses, number of storey, soil type etc. Using GIS map of different

hazard element and Mapinfo tool we can draw risk mitigation plan, improving preparedness and

enabling real time warning system we can reduces the losses.


7/28

7

CHAPTER 2

2.1 India:Republic of India has an territorial area of 32,87,590 sq. km. It is the largest country

in South Asia region. This is consists of 29 state and 5 union territory. Land area

distributed within Latitude N 8o

4 to N 37o

6 and Longitude E 68o

7 to E 97o

25. Territory, (inGreat Nicobar Islands) is the Indira Point (6o45 ), while Kanyakumari, also known asCape Comorin, is the southernmost point of Indian mainland. Coastline is 7,516.6 km longencompassing the mainland, Lakshadweep Islands, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

India is also disaster prone among developing countries. Earthquake, flood andcyclone are quite common in India and these are often devastating in nature. Himalayanbelt is source zone of earthquake whereas, on an average two cyclone hit coastal regionof India. During monsoon season, East and Northern part of India got inundated byHimalayan Rivers water.

2.2 Assigned Region(East):In this Project Rainbow (I), I have been assigned for Eastern part of India consisting

three states namely, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.


8/28

8

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Introduction:Symbolically representation of an areashowing different elements specific to the objective of

the map related to the place like political boundary, geology, soil condition and source

zone(seismic) etc.

3.2 Political Map:As, it was described earlier that India is Federal Union of 29 States and 5 nos. of Union

Territory. States are further subdivided into districts. Here in this section political map of IndiaRegion No. 4 comprising only three state upto district level is presented.


9/28

9

CHAPTER 3

3.2.1 Overview of India:


10/28

3.2.2 T

arget Region of I dia.

10


11/28

3.2.3 oad and Railway Network of Targ

et Region of Indi .

11


12/28

3.2.4 iver and Water B dy of T rget Re

ion of India.

12


13/28

4.1 Po Thewith ove

containicountrythan 50It is expChina a

ulationdemograph1.21 billion

g 17.5% ofy 2025, suof its popcted that, id 48 for Ja

Density.ics of Indiapeople (20

the world'srpassing Chlation belo2020, thean; and, by

CH

are inclusiv11 census),

population,ina, its popthe age ofaverage ag2030, India

APTER

of the secmore than

India is prulation reac25 and moe of an Indi's depende

ond most psixth of th

jected to bhing 1.6 bille than 65%an will be 2cy ratio sh

pulous couworld's po

e the world'ion by 2050hovers bel9 years, could be just

ntry in thepulation. Al

s most pop. India hasw the age

mpared tover 0.4.

13

orld,eady

ulousmoref 35.7 for


14/28

5.1 Ge Geo

is Preca

ologylogy of Wes

brian type.

t Bengal an

CH

Bihar is m

APTER

ainly of Qua

ternary typ and of Jha khand porti

14

on it


15/28

6.1 S

Value

properti

enginee

atsoilsi

are Wav

sandverti

esofsoils.

ring.An

im

tes.

e Veloci t

algradien

Theyareu

portantap

CH

y

sofshear

sedinboth

licationo

APTER

wavevelo

basicand

Vsis

to

pr

ity(Vs)are

appliedge

dictampli

important

physicsan

ficationof

physical

dcivil

roundsha

15

king


16/28

7.1 Pe Peakan impo

earthquaa measuearth shpersonalinstrume

k Grounground accrtant input

ke groundre of the totakes in areports an

nts, such as

d Acceleleration (Pparameter

otion (DBEal energy (given geog observati

accelerogr

CH

rationA) is a meor earthqu

GM) .Unlikagnitude,aphic areans to meaphs, and it

APTER

asure of eake engine

the Richter size) of a(the intenure earthqgenerally c

thquake acring, also

and momeearthquakity). Theake intensirrelates we

celeration oknown as t

nt magnitude, but ratheercalli intety but PGAll with the M

the grounhe design

e scales, it iof how harsity scaleis measur

ercalli scale

16

andbasis

s notd theusesd by.


17/28

8.1 Sei The I

high fre

approxivulnerab

smic Zodian subc

uency and

ately 47 mle to earthq

entinent has

intensity of

/year. Geoakes.

CH

a history of

the earthq

graphical st

APTER

devastatin

akes is th

atistics of I

earthquak

t India is

dia show t

s. The maj

riving into

at almost 5

or reason f

sia at a r

% of the l

17

r the

te of

nd is


18/28

9.1 E

rthquak Catalog

CH

APTER

18


19/28

10.1 T Gangwithin C

pograpBasin zon

otanagpur

yis mainly p

lateau.

CH

lain land wit

PTER 1

h msl less t

an 10 m. The Jharkha d portion is

19


20/28

11.1.Buildi

the build

The are

11.1.1Kolkat

mainly omodern

uildingg stock sur

ing, materia

of investi

Type ofa is a Heritold masonuilding.

tock Suey is carrie

l of constru

ation: Jaw

uildingge city andy structure.

CH

veyd out to findtion, engine

harlal Neh

many old bIn this zone

PTER 1

the buildinered or non

u Road, Ko

ildings canvery old bu

1

type, num- engineere

lkata-70001

be still obsilding can a

er of storied.

6

rved. Theslso be obse

, importanc

buildingsved with ne

20

e of

rew


21/28

21

11.1.2 No. of Storey


22/28

22

11.1.3 Year of construction.


23/28

23

CHAPTER 12

12.1 Geodetic infrastructure in India

The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India was completed in 19th century under leadership

of the great surveyors- Lambton and Sir George Everest. It is inconsistent and inadequate.Accuracy of the network is only of the 1st order or less. First order was defined as better thanonly 1 in 50,000 only. Reference surface and Datum- The Everest Spheroid was given by SirGeorge Everest in 1830. Center of Everest Spheroid is about a km away from the center ofgravity of the Earth; hence it is non-geocentric. Thus it is inaccurate and unsuitable underpresent circumstances. Leveling network of India has inconsistencies. Gravity observationswere not carried out and not taken in to consideration. It was not appropriately adjusted. Indian

Absolute Gravity Datum does not exist. Absolute gravimeters have not yet been used to defineGravity Datum in India. Topographical maps are on Polyconic projection. Assumptions andapproximations accepted make it a non-projection. The earth is assumed to be fiat and thereare no distortions of any kind. The projection has created problems in digitization, compilationand integration of maps. Design of the Grid adopted in India is not satisfactory. Distortion at

central parallel is 1 in 824, which is quite high. There is archaic Restriction policy, which is nottransparent and hinders research and development India has to make a choice between chaosand development. These problems have been discussed in detail in this paper. How Indiashould go about to establish new geodetic infrastructure for systematic development andresearch, has been described in this paper.

Geodetic Infrastructure in India is inadequate. It needs a fresh look It needs a fresh look andcomplete revision. Indian Geodetic Datum, The Reference Surface, Horizontal Control, TheVertical Datum, Height Control, Indian Geoid and Mean sea level, The Gravity datum, ProjectionSystem for Maps, and Indian Grid, are all inadequate or inappropriate.Indian Geodetic Datum is based on Everest Spheroid as Reference Surface and Kalyanpur inCentral India as initial point. Center of this reference surface is estimated to be about 1 km awayfrom the center of gravity of the Earth. The datum is thus a local datum and in error. Scientificand Defence studies of vital National importance cannot be based on such a system. It istherefore extremely necessary that the Indian Geodetic Datum should be redefined at theearliest. The project on Redefinition of Indian Geodetic Datum should be taken up in rightearnest and completed within one year. Horizontal Control in India resulted from The GreatTrigonometrical Survey.

The different triangulation series are inconsistent between each other. It has not beenproperly adjusted. Stations are burdened with varying degrees of error and many points areeither destroyed or in need of repair. It is therefore urgently necessary that fresh observationsbe carried out to get a set of vectors by GPS and other means and least square adjustment becarried for the whole country at one go to get control points of zero, 1st, and 2nd order in 2 to 3years. Vertical Datum for Heights in India was chosen as the Mean Sea Level at a group of ninetidal observatories situated at Indian ports.

Level network in India is of moderate to high precision at different places. No gravityobservations were carried out at that time. Network has not been properly adjusted. It isrequired that a fresh datum for required that a fresh datum for heights based on Mean Sea levelat one tidal observatory say Mumbai. High Precision Levelling should be carried out afreshthroughout India to get a network along with gravity observations and adjusted so as to have 1storder vertical control. It is necessary to have a Gravity Datum in India. Presently there is noabsolute gravity station in India. Gravity values in India are based on relative gravity


24/28

24

observations based on gravity datum/ s in other countries. It is therefore necessary to establishsome absolute gravity stations, adopt a gravity datum and carry out relative gravity

observations in order to get a 1st order gravity network. No satisfactory Indian Geoid isavailable.

To get heights above Mean sea level by GPS observations we need a geoid that can givegeoidal undulation of accuracy of 25 cm or better. A project should be taken up immediately toobtain geoid by gravimetric as well as astro-geodetic methods. Projection for topographicalmaps in India is Polyconic. Each individual sheet is projected individually assuming no distortionalong parallels and neglecting distortion along meridians. Meridians and parallels are assumedas straight lines. These assumptions make it a perfect projection, which is not possible. We cansay that The Earth/Ellipsoid has been assumed to be ?at for individual sheets. This createsproblems in digitization, integration and compilation of maps. It is therefore necessary toabandon so called polyconic projection and adopt either Lambert Conformal Conic orTransverse Mercator Projection designing suitable zones. Indian Grid on Lambert ConformalConic Projection for superimposition on topographical maps was designed during British days. Ithas 9 zones with scale factors at central parallel as 649/650 and 823/824. The design is

unsatisfactory as scale error at central parallel should be 1 in 2000 or better.

The grid has been restricted which is irrational as the grid parameters are available toeveryone outside India including Pakistan. It is therefore necessary to design grids onTransverse Mercator or Lambert Conformal conic Projection with suitable zones similar to StatePlane Coordinate systems in USA. It is suggested that each Indian state should have a grid forthat state and all mapping is carried out on such grid for civil use. Structure of Monuments(geodetic stations, bench marks etc.) is not of permanent nature in many cases and many havebeen destroyed. Monuments that are not fixed to bedrock are not suitable for geodeticmonitoring of crustal movements. New and suitable permanent monuments need to beconstructed before any new project regarding geodetic infrastructure is taken up.

12.2 Indian Geodetic DatumIndian Geodetic Datum is based on Everest Spheroid as reference surface given by Sir

George Everest, then Surveyor General of India in 1830. Kalyanpur in central India was chosenas initial point or origin. Coordinates of initial point and azimuth of a line were obtained byastronomical observations and leveling. The reference surface was however defined peace-meal at various times. Astronomical observations were carried out at least twice. More preciseobservations carried out later were accepted. Hence meridional and prime vertical deflection ofvertical, were defined at Kalyanpur.

Value of Semi major axis and semi minor axis were given in feet as 20,922,931.80 feet and20,853,374.58 feet respectively. These values were converted into metres using differentconversion factors resulting in many values of a and b of Everest spheroid. The official

conversion factor for India is 0.3047996 and should be accepted.

It is estimated that the center of Everest spheroid is about 1 km away from the center of gravityof the earth; hence it is not a geocentric datum. We therefore conclude that it is inaccuratesystem and needs redefinition. The present datum is especially not suited for many geodetic,geodynamic, geophysical and defence applications. One has either to use WGS84 for Geodeticmonitoring of crustal movements, plate tectonic movements, development and deployment ofmissiles and many other scientific applications or redefine Indian Geodetic System/Datum. Aproject to redefine Indian Geodetic Datum was taken up in 1989 but nothing


25/28

25

much appears to have been done so far. Redefinition project should be taken up and givenhighest priority. It should be time bound and completed in 2 to 3 years.

12.3 Horizontal Control

Horizontal datum in India is Indian Geodetic Datum based on Everest Spheroid. Existinghorizontal control in India is the result of Great Trigonometrical Survey of India consisting of 5blocks with 2700 stations and 10 bases. Triangulation series were started from Kalyanpur. TheIndian subcontinent was divided into five parts region-wise, four quadrilaterals (NW, NE, SW,SE) and the Southern Trigon. The quadrilaterals could not be adjusted together due tocomputational limitations at that time. Several corrections viz. for defection of vertical, skewnormal and geodesic also could not be applied. In 1937-38 an attempt was made to readjust thetriangulation network but this also suffered from the same limitations. Though densification ofcontrol and filling of gaps has been done in addition to observation of more bases and Laplacestations, no fresh adjustment has been carried out. This has resulted in the various series beinginconsistent with each other. The horizontal control is therefore burdened with varying degreesof errors; say from a few metres to as much as 100 metres at places. Many stations arehowever supposed to of 1st order that is 1 in 50,000. Most of the stations of this control are onhills covered by jungles. Many stations have been destroyed and many others in poor condition,hence not suitable for geodynamic studies and zero/1st order geodetic horizontal control.

The need therefore is to provide complete horizontal control of zero and 1st order afresh andadjust it by least squares for the whole country at one go using available scientific adjustmentsoftware. BIGADJUST, the software used by National Geodetic Survey of USA has beenobtained by Survey of India to adjust the present control but the same has not been completedand it is not known as to what are there plans regarding this.

It is suggested that in addition to redefinition of Indian Geodetic Datum a project should beplanned to provide horizontal control of zero, 1st and 2nd order throughout India. The followingsteps are suggested:

1) Identify places for monuments. Care should be taken to choose places suitable forgeodynamic studies also. Rooftops of permanent public buildings can also be chosen inpreference to hilltops in many cases, as the control will now be provided using GPS.

2) Design suitable monuments and carry out construction of monument pillars. It should be seenthat pillars are fixed to bedrocks to be suitable for future geodynamic studies.

3) Design network and observe all vectors using dual frequency geodetic GPS receivers inrelative positioning mode.

4) Process the data using a scientific software such as Bernese.

5) Adjust the data by least squares using a network adjustment software such as BIGADJUST.

6) Compile the data in a suitable format for use for various purposes and for dissemination topublic.

Vertical Datum and Height Control


26/28

26

In India, the vertical datum for heights has been chosen as the mean sea level at a group ofnine tidal observatories situated at various Indian ports. Hourly tidal observations were carriedout at these ports for a number of years and averages obtained.

It was assumed that the mean sea level at these ports, belong to the same sea level surface. Allthese ports served as issue points for the first level net of India. Leveling net in India consists of

first level net of moderate precision covering 18,000 miles started in 1858, and second level netof 16,000 miles based on first level net. Second level net was adjusted on to first level netwherever necessary. We can see clearly from the above that assumptions were incorrect.Precision was moderate and adjustment was not carried out properly. Choice of vertical datumwas not unique and creates confusion. Gravity observations were not carried out which isnecessary for National Level Nets of high precision and 1st order accuracy.

The present heights are thus in varying degrees of error and are not of present day standards.These cannot be used as basis for geodynamic studies and many geodetic and geophysicalstudies where 1st order vertical control is required. It is therefore suggested that a fresh verticaldatum be adopted and vertical control of 1st and 2nd order be provided by spirit levelling alongwith gravity observations. The following steps are suggested:-

1) Select a tidal observatory where hourly tidal observations of 18.6 years cycle of successivenodes of the moon are available. Construct a few permanent benchmarks near the observatoryin stable and protected area. Provide heights of these benchmarks by 1st order spirit levellingfrom the chart datum to the benchmarks. These benchmarks should be taken as issue points forthe fresh levelling network of India. The mean sea level obtained here should be the NationalMean Sea Level for India at this observatory. Tidal observatory at Mumbai port may be chosenfor obtaining the mean sea level. Design the network and construct the benchmarks along theroutes selected for levelling in phases. Levelling of 1st order should be carried out along-withgravity observations using relative gravimeters throughout India.

2) Carry out adjustment of the network by least squares at one go and document the heightsalong with description of benchmarks.

3) Construct a few permanent benchmarks near other tidal observatories also. Find mean sealevel at these observatories also and provide heights of the benchmarks constructed near theobservatories from the chart datum of such observatories by 1st order levelling. These willrepresent the local mean sea level in those areas. There will be some difference between thenational mean sea level heights and local mean sea level heights. The difference can be appliedto heights in that area wherever needed based on sound statistical analysis. Scientific analysisof various mean sea levels and heights may be carried out for geoidal, geodynamic andgeophysical studies.

4) All the monuments constructed for zero and 1st order horizontal control, should also beconnected by 1st order spirit levelling. Monuments constructed for geodynamic studies should

also be similarly connected.

12.4 Gravity Datum

Presently we do not have a gravity datum in India. A 1st order gravity station exists at Palamairport Delhi, which was provided by relative gravity observations from other countries.


27/28

27

A precise gravity network of 42 stations was established in 1971 by Survey of India coveringairports of the country with an uncertainty of + or 0.05 mgal.

These stations served as reference for future gravity surveys in India. This gravity network wasadjusted within the framework of International Gravity Standardization Net 1971 (IGSN 71). La-Coste and Romberg model G gravimeters were used for observations.

Until recently we did not have any absolute gravimeter. Recently NGRI has acquired oneabsolute gravimeter, which is being used by them for scientific research. We have to planestablishment of absolute gravity datum in India and connect existing gravity stations to theabsolute gravity station/stations. It is hoped that NGRI will take leading part in this project. Allfirst order horizontal control monuments and 1st order levelling bench marks should beconnected to gravity network so as to have 1st order gravity values. This will facilitate preciserepeat gravity observations for geodynamic applications such as

1) Detection and interpretation of vertical ground motion in earthquake prediction.

2) Monitoring and interpretation of post earthquake motion.

3) Postglacial rebound studies.

4) Monitoring of movement of magma in volcanic areas along with levelling.

5) Reservoir depletion studies of all kinds.

6) Tectonic motions and crustal warping studies.

12.5 Indian GeoidPresently no satisfactory Indian geoid is available. To obtain heights above MSL with GPS weneed a geoid, which can give geoidal undulation accuracy of about 25 to 50 cm or better. It istherefore necessary that a project should be taken up to determine Indian geoid by gravimetricas well as by astro-geodetic methods.

12.6 Projection for MapsAll topographical maps in India are on polyconic projection. Assumptions and approximationsapplied to it make it a mockery if we say that a projection has been adopted. The sheets on1:25,000; 1:50,000; and1 :250,000 topographical sheets are individually projected assumingthat distortion along meridians can be neglected.

There is no distortion along parallels. Besides these the meridians and parallels are joined by

straight lines. This means that it is not a projection. It amounts to assuming that the earth is fiatin respect of individual sheets. It has created a lot of problems in integration of different maps,compilation of maps, digitization and hence in GIS. We should change over to LambertConformal Conic or Transverse Mercator/UTM for our topographical maps after forming suitablezones. Individual states of India should adopt one of the two projections for all mapping in theirstates similar to State Plane Coordinate System in various states of USA.


28/28

12.7 Indian Grid

Indian grid was designed during British days dividing India into 9 zones in Lambert ConformalProjection. The grid is not satisfactory as scale error at central parallels is 1in 850 and 1 in 650.Distortion is considered high. We should aim for 1 in 2500 but should not be more than 1 in

1000. Restriction of the grid is also irrational as parameters and all information about it isavailable to everyone anywhere in the world except in India. There is therefore an urgent needto design grids afresh. We should adopt either Lambert Conformal Conic or TransverseMercator depending upon whether the area to be projected is greater in E-W extent or N-Sextent.

Table 1: Availability of Maps in India.

Topic ResponsibleInstitute

Geodeticdatum

Coordinatesystem

Scale Printed/Digital

Geology GeologicalSurvey of

India

EverestSpheroid

WGS-84 1:250000

Both

Topography Geospatial EverestSpheroid

WGS-84 1:50000

Both

13 Referenceswww.imd.gov.in

www.usgs.govwww.soi.org

http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/index.htmlhttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/

https://research.cip.cgiar.org/gis/modules.php?name=Downloadshttp://webgis.wr.usgs.gov/globalgis/datasets.htm

MapInfo, MapInfo User Guide MapInfo Professional 10.0http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/http://eros.usgs.gov/#/Find_Data/Products_and_Data_Available/gtopo30_info

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/apps/vs30/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/epic/

http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/GSHAP/

http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/

Documents

Rainbow I Report_2014