LA— 10256-MS

DE85 016209

LA-10256-MS

UC-11Issued: June 1985

Radiological Survey and Evaluation of theFallout Area from the Trinity Test:

Chupadera Mesa and White SandsMissile Range, New Mexico

Wayne R. HansenJohn C. Rodgers

DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United StatesGovernment. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of theiremployees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsi-bility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, orprocess disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Refer-ence herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark,

DISTHIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS U N I : " ' '

Los Alamos National LaboratoryLos Alamos, New Mexico 87545

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 1

CHAPTER 1—SUMMARY 2

CHAPTER2—INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 5

I. THE DOE RESURVEY PROGRAM 5

11. THE TRINITY TEST 5

III. THE TRINITY FALLOUT ZONE 5

IV. THE RESURVEY OBJECTIVES 10

CHAPTER 3—METHODS AND \PPROACH 11

I. APPROACH II

II. METHODS II

A. In Situ Measurement II

B. Sampling and Analysis 12

CHAPTER 4—RESULTS 14

I. TOTAL AREA 14

A. Trinity Data Analysis: ""Cs in Soil 14B. Trinny Dam Analysis: :IM:4>I Pu in Soil 18C. Other Fission and Activation Products in Soils 20D. Natural Radioactivity in Soils 23

II. DATA SUMMARY FOR SOILS 24A. Plutonium in Soils 24B. Cesium-137 in Soils 25C. Strontium-90 in Soils 27

ill. AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS 27

IV. EXTERNAL PENETRATING RADIATION 29

CHAPTERS—POTENTIAL DOSE EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION 40

I. BASES OF DOSE ESTIMATES AND COMPARISONS 40

II. POTENTIAL DOSES FROM THE CURRENT CONDITIONS IN THE

TRINITY TEST FALLOUT DEPOSITION AREAS 43

III. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS 43

REFERENCES 45ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 48UNITS 49GLOSSARY 50

APPENDIX A—DATABASE TR1N DAT 52APPENDIX B—LOG OF FIELD OPERATIONS FOR SURVEY OF

TRINITY, 1977 82APPENDIX C—IN «T.TU INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION 86APPENDIX D—INTERPRETATION OF DATA 91APPENDIX E—SOURCES AND EVALUATION OF RADIATION

EXPOSURES HO

FIGURES

1. Central New Mexico. The sue of the Trinity Test is noted on theleft part of the map 6

2. Trinity test tower. Oscura Mountains in the background 73. Range after test 84. Diagram of Trinity GZ fences 95. The fallout zone from the Trinity test as determined by a 1945

beta-gamma survey 96 Outline map of the contaminated area as determined by 1947 and 1948

survey. A transeel was established with numbered laterals 107. General map of The Trinity fallout area and the measurement locations 148. Comparison of in situ and soil sample estimates of total n7Cs inventory 209. White Sands Missile Range. Bingham. and Chupadera Mesa sample locations 25

10. Sample locations for the San Antonio area 2511. External radiation dose rates measured at Trinity Site. June 9. 1983 to June 23. 1983 39

C-l. Nr/o as a function ofn 88C-2. N f/s= Nr/<t> • <D/s as a function ofa 89D-l. Location of June 1983 sampling 93

TABLES

1. ESTIMATES OF RISK BASED ON EXPOSURES ATTRIBUTABLETO RESIDUAL CONTAMINATION IN AREAS OF FALLOUTFROM THE TRINITY TEST 3

11. RiSK COMPARISON DATA 4III. "7 SOIL CONCENTRATION DATA !6IV. CHUPADERA MESA 137Cs PROFILE DATA 17V. GROUND ZERO TO CHUPADERA MESA 117Cs PROFILE DATA 18

VI. l37Cs INVENTORY ESTIMATES 18VII. COMPARISON OF IN SITU AND SOIL SAMPLE ESTIMATES

OF "7Cs TOTAL INVENTORY 19VIII. TRINITY SOIL CONCENTRATION OF :i":4UPu 21

IX. GZ ENVIRONS AND CHUPADERA MESA m-4l lPu SOU-CONCENTRATION PROFILE ESTIMATES 22

X. SURFACESOIL CONCENTRATION OF :38Pu AND:MUWPu RATIOS 22XI. 1977 ESTIMATES OF 1-cm AND TOTAL PLUTONIUM INVENTORY. . . . 23

XII. ACTIVATION AND FISSION PRODUCTS IN BULK SOIL SAMPLESAT TRINITY GZ AREA 23

XIII. SOIL CONCENTRATIONS OF NATURALLY OCCURRINGGAMMA-EMITTERS 24

XIV GROUND ZERO SURFACE MEASUREMENTS 26XV. WHITE SANDS MISSILE RANGE FALLOUT ZONE SOIL

MEASUREMENTS 28XVI. BINGHAM AREA SOIL MEASUREMENTS. US HIGHWAY 3^0

CORRIDOR 29XVII. CHUPADERA MESA SURFACE SOIL MEASUREMENTS 30

XV11I. FAR FALLOUT ZONE SURFACE SOIL MEASUREMENTS 31XIX. SAN ANTONIO AREA SURFACE SOIL MEASUREMENTS 32XX. AREAL CONCENTRATIONS OF 117Cs 33

XXI. CHUPADERA MESA IN SITU i r Cs DATA FOR SOILS BYLAND FORM 34

XXII. ""Sr BACKGROUND INFORMATION 35XXIII. POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF RF.SUSPENSION OF : "Pu

AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY 36XXIV. EXTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE SUMMARY FOR

IN SITU DATA 37XXV. EXTERNAL PENETRATING RADIATION MEASUREMENTS AND

ESTIMATES OF CONTRIBUTIONS FROM TRINITY FALLOUT 38XXVI. STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR RADIATION AND

RADIOACTIVITY 41XXVU. INCREMENTAL DOSES 44

C-l. COUNT RATE PER UNIT FLUX AT THE DETECTOR, Nr/<t>. AS AFUNCTION OF MEASURED a 89

D-l. NORTHERN NEW ME/K ) BACKGROUND REFERENCE VALUESFOR NATURAL OR FALLOUT LEVELS OF RADIOACTIVITY 92

D-II. 1983 PLUTONIUM DATA FOR SPLIT SPOON CORE SAMPLESFROM GROUND ZERO AREA 94

D-III. 1983 n :Eu DATA FROM SPLIT SPOON CORE SAMPLES INGROUND ZERO AREA 95

D-IV. JUNE 1983 PLUTONIUM DATA FROM TRINITY GZ AREA 96D-V. PARAMETERS FOR ESTIMATION OF RESUSPENSION OF RADIO-

NUCL1DES USING MASS LOADING 97

vn

D-Vl. ENRICHMENT FACTORS FOR RESUSPFNDABLE PARTICLES 98D-V1I. INHALATION DOSE FACTORS USED 99

D-VIII. ESTIMATED DOSES FROM INHALATION OF MRBORNEMATERIALS FROM RESUSPENS1ON 100

D-IX. INPUT PARAMETERS FOR DOSE CALCULATIONS 101D-X. INGESTION DOSE FACTORS USED 102

D-XI. INGESTED RADIONUCLIDES 103D-XII. ESTIMATED DOSES FROM INGESTION OF FOODS GROWN

IN EACH AREA 104D-XIII. ESTIMATED AIR CONCENTRATION FOR SOIL PREPARATION

FOR HOME GARDEN 105D-XIV. ESTIMATE DOSES FROM SOIL PREPARATION FOR

HOME GARDEN 106

E-I. RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS OF PRIMARY INTEREST IN THERADIOLOGICAL SURVEY 113

E-II. UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY USED IN THE RADIOLOGICALSURVEY 115

E-I 11. STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR RADIATION ANDRADIOACTIVITY 122

V l l l

Preface

This series of reports results from a program initiated in 1974 by the Atomic Energy Commission(AEC) for determination of the condition of sites formerly utilized by the Manhattan Engineer District(MED) and the AEC for work involving the handling of radioactive materials. Since the early 1940s, thecontrol of over 100 sites that were no longer required for nuclear programs has been returned to privateindustry or the public for unrestricted use. A search of MED and AEC records indicated that for some ofthese sites, documentation was insufficient to determine whether or not the decontamination work done atthe time nuclear activities ceased is adequate by current guidelines.

This report contains data and information on the resurvey effo't and the effect of residualcontamination as a result of nuclear weapons development programs conducted in this area. The reportdocuments the present radiological conditions within the realm of today's sophisticated instrumentationand the impact on any future area development.

This report was prepared by the Environmental Surveillance Group (HSE-8), Health, Safety andEnvironment Division of Los Alamos National Laboratory. This report was compiled and written byWayne R. Hansen and John C. Rodgers with major contributions from William D. Purtymun, Donald MVan Etten, John D. Purson and Kenneth H. Rea. Field work in 1977 was directed by Daniel W. Wilson.Field in situ measurements and laboratory sample counting were directed by John Kirby and DouglasSever of La-> rence Livermore National Laboratory. Other Los Alamos personnel involved in measure-ments were Thomas E. Hakonson, John W. Nyhan, Edward Rahrig, Thomas E. Buhl, and Alan K.Stoker.

IX

Radiological Survey and Evaluation of theFallout Area from the Trinity Test:

Chupadera Mesa and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico

by

Wayne R. Hansen and John C Rodgers

ABSTRACT

Current radiological conditions were evaluated for the site of the first nuclear weapons test, the Trinitytest, and the associated fallout zone. The test, located on White Sands Missile Range, was conducted aspart of the research with nuclear materials for the World War II Manhattan Engineer District atomicbomb project. Some residual radioactivity attributable to the test was found in the soils of Ground Zero onWhite Sands Missile Range and the areas that received fallout from the test. The study considered relevantinformation including historical records, environmental data extending back to the 1940s, and new dataacquired by field sampling and measurements. Potential exposures to radiation were evaluated for currentland uses. Maximum estimated doses on Chupadera Mesa and other uncontrolled areas are less than 3%of the DOE Radiation Protection Standards (RPSs). Radiation exposures during public visits to the U.S.Army-controUed Ground Zero area are less than 1 mrem per annual visit or less than 0.2% of the RPS fora member of the public. Detailed data and interpretations are provided in appendixes.

1. SUMMARY

This evaluation of current conditions at the site of thefirst nuclear weapon test (Trinity) and the associatedfallout areas is based on extensive field measurementsand sampling followed by interpretation of the resultingdata. The study was completed as pan of the FormerlyUtilized Sit. medial Action Program (FUSRAP)sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

The Trinity test was part of the research conducted forthe World War II Manhattan Engineer District (MED)atomic bomb project. The test was conducted on July 16,1945. Measurements of radiation levels at Ground Zero(GZ) and in the fallout zone began ihe same day. Thefallout was blown in a northeast direction over WhiteSands Missile Range. Chupadera Mesa, and otherranching areas. The land uses in the fallout zone remainthe same today. White Sands Missile Range extendsnorth of GZ about 17 km (!0 miles). Privately ownedranch land extends along the path of the fallout zone tothe northeast with Chupadera Mesa areas of interest atabout 50 km (30 miles) northeast of GZ. Land use onChupadera Mesa is for cattle grazing. Areas farther outin the fallout area also are used for cattle grazing withsmall areas of crop production.

This study considered all available relevant informa-tion. Records and reports provided the history of themeasurements of radiation and radioactivity at GZ andthe fallout zone. Environmental measurements and sam-ple results, some extending back to the 1940s, werereviewed for information on trends and patterns. Datafrom these and special radioecology research studieswere compiled to provide a basis for planning ihe acquisi-tion of new data. Most of the new data consist of severalhundred field measurements and samples of soil andvegetation.

The findings, based vn interpretation of the: data, areexpressed in this summary as maximum increments ofrisk to hypothetical individuals exposed to the existingconditions. Individual risks of cancer from exposure toradiation were calculated from factors derived from theNational Academy of Sciences 1980 study. Potentialexposures to radiation for various possible mechanismswere generally calculated as 50-year committed dose

equivalents resulting from 1-year exposures to accountfor cumulative doses from those radioactive materialsretained in the body for varying periods after initialexposure. Exposure to natural background results inexactly the same kind of risks. The risk-estimating factorswere applied to natural background radiation asmeasured in north central New Mexico to provide onecontext for judging the significance of other risks. Peopleliving in northern New Mexico incur an estimated in-cremental risk of cancer mortality of 8 chances in10 000. or a probability or 8 x I0~4, from a 50-yearexposure to the natural radiation background. The natu-ral radiation background dose, about 150 mrem eachyear, includes contributions from cosmic radiation, natu-ral terrestrial radioactivity, and natural radioactivityincorporated in the body. A larger perspective is that theoverall U.S. population lifetime risk of mortality fromcancers induced b\ all causes is currently about 2chances in 10, or a probability of 0.2.

The maximum likely incremental risks from allmechanisms of potential exposure in the areas havingresidual radioactivity attributable to the residual radioac-tivity range from about 2 chances in 10 000 (2 x 10~4) inthe restricted use area to a minimum of 6 chances in10 000 000 00G(6x lO*10) under current conditions ofland use as summarized in Table I. The mechanismsinclude direct exposure to penetrating radiation andinhalation of resuspended dust.

Table I gives the incremental risks of cancer mortality,bone cancer, and lung cancer, along with the 50-yeardose commitments from which they were calculated. Allcf the dose commitment values are considered overstatedto some degree because assumptions used in their deri-vation were made to maximize estimates of potentialeffects. All of the dose commitments are small fractionsof those permitted above natural background andmedical exposure by the DOE Radiation ProtectionStandards (RPSs). Maximum estimated doses onChupadera Mesa and other uncontrolled areas are lessthan 3% of the RPSs.

Another context for judging the significance of theserisks associated with exposure to radiation, whether from

natural background or other sources, is a comparisonwith risks from other activities or hazards encountered inroutine experience. Table II presents a sampling of risksfor activities that may result in early mortality and annualrisks of death from accidents or natural phenomena.Because not all of the risks are directly comparable, thevalues for mortality risks shown in Table I overlap therange of values for risks shown in Table II. The largestincremental risks from the exposure to the residual

contamination are about the same size as the incrementalrisk of a 1000-mile automobile trip; most are smal'er thanthe annual risk of death from lightning.

Some differences in future conditions will result fromradioactive decay processes. While the total doses fromtransuranium elements will noi change appreciably, thedoses from "°Sr and 137Cs will decrease 50% in about 30years. At the GZ area the external radiation doses willdecrease about 90% in the same 30 year period.

TABLE I

I S I I M A 1 I S OF RISK BASED ON EXPOSURES ATI RIBU 1 ABLH TO RtSlDUALCONTAMINATION IN AREAS OF FALLOUT FROM THE TRINITY TKST"

Locations/Exposure

Hypothetical Resident

O Z

Inner lenceBetween fences

White Sands Missile RangeHlnghamChupadera MesaFar Fallout ZoneSan Antonio

Other HypotheticalExposures

40 h of Work in GZinner fenced area

Security PatrolsAnnual visitor at Open

House of Trinity Site

OverallCa

Mortality

2.0 •1.1 •14 »4.0 .

1.8 >7.4 >2.2 >

4.6 >9.0 >

1.2,

10 4

I'J 4

10 "10 7

; 10 ': 10 '( 10 '

i 10 -1

i i o • • •

< 10 '

Incremental Risk

Increasedon 50 Yenr

Cancer

2 . 2 •

8 .7 •

6 . 3 •

5 .7 •

1.2 .4.8..6.0 >

: 10 '. 10 *• 1 0 "

. 10 "

. 10 'i 10 "( 10 '

Probability BasedCommitted Doses'

Cancer

1.4 • 10 7

2.3 •. 10 "

8 .7 • 10 "

4.2 - 10 "1.6 x 10 '3.1 < 10 "1.8 x 10 "

Cancer

I.I4.21.07.52 73.61.5

< 10 *- 10 "x 10 '« 10 "< 10 'x 10 "x 10 "

ExternalWholeBody

1700880

141.7

13

51.7

80.75

1.0

Committed Dosemrem in 50

from

Body

2 <:0.17I.K1.62.11.20.1

years1 Year Occupancy

Bone

752.9

211939

160.2

Lung

1.50.260.970.471.80.340.2

Liver

361.43.42.59.01.20.05

Natural Radiation Exposure,Los Alamos

I year occupancy 1.6 .50 year occupancy 8.0 >Radiation Protection Standard

134

6700

500 500 1500 1500 1500

"All calculations based on current conditions.hLocaMons are described in more detail in Chapter 4.'Probabilities are expressed in evponential notation; they can be converted to expressions of chance bytaking the numerical value in front of the multiplication sign (x) as "chances" and writing a one (I)followed by the number of zeros given in the exponent. For example, 9.7 x 10"' becomes 9.7 chances in10 000 000.

TABLE II

RISK COMPARISON DATA

Individual Increased Chance of DeathCaused by Selected Activities

Increase in ChanceActivity of Death

Smoking 1 pack of cigarettes (cancer, heart disease) 1.5 x 10 'Drinking 1/2 liter of wine (cirrhosis of the liver) 1 x 10~6

Chest x-ray in good hospital (cancer) 1 x 10~6

Travelling 10 .niles by bicycle (accident) 1 x l O 6

Travelling 1000 miles by car (accident) 3 x lO"6

Travelling 3000 miles by jet (accident, cancer) 3.5 x 10"6

Eating 10 tablespoons of peanut butter (liver cancer) 2 x 10"7

Eating 10 charcoal broiled steaks (cancer) 1 x 10"1

U.S. Average Indiviuual Risk of Death in One YearDue to Selected Causes

Cause Annual Risk of Death

Motor Vehicle Accident 2.5 x 10~4

Accidental Fall 1 x 10"4

F:-es 4 x 10"5

Drowning 3 x 10~5

Air Travel 1 x 10"5

Electrocution 6 x 1CT6

Lightning 5 x 10"7

Tornadoes 4 x I0~7

U.S. Population Lifetime Cancer Risk

Contracting Cancer from All Causes 0.25Mortality from Cancer 0.20

2. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

I. THE DOE RESURVEY PROGRAM

The 1977 and 1983 survey of the Trinity Site wascarried out as part of the DOE program aimed atformulation of any remedial actions for Manhattan Engi-neer District (MED) or Atomic Energy Commission(AEC) sites. In the DOE program, files were reviewed todetermine if residual radioactive contamination mightexist at the sites. If the radiological conditions wereuncertain, a survey of the area influenced by the site wasperformed. The files and special studies in existence forthe Trinity Site indicated a survey would be necessary toquantify the radiological condition of the 32-year-oldfallout area from the first nuclear explosion at WhiteSands Missile Range in New Mexico, July 16, 1945.

Several studies of the fallout zone had been carried outbefore the resurvey. These included surveys immediatelyafter the test in 1945, studies by University of California,Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1948, 1950, and 1951. In 1973and 1974, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) carried out an extensive soil sampling program forplutonium in the area. The study included air samplerslocated on Chupadera Mesa and in Socorro, New Mex-ico. Starting in 1972 and continuing until 1979, LosAlamos Scientific Laboratory, conducted specialecological studies of the movement of 137Cs and pluto-nium isotopes on study plots on Chupadera Mesa andnear Ground Zero (GZ) located on White Sands MissileRange. Factors influencing the survey were the history ofthe Trinity test, previous studies of the fallout zone, andthe stated objectives of the Formerly Utilized SitesRemedial Action Program. Each of these factors isdiscussed in more detail in following paragraphs.Separate chapters are devoted to the resurvey plan, theresults, and interpretation of the data. Appendixes areincluded that contain the historic data base, the raw datafrom this study, a log containing locations of samplelocations, calibration methods for the in situ detectorsystem used, and calculational methods used for estima-tions of radiation dose equivalents from any residualfallout radionuclides.

II. THE TRINITY TEST

The Trinity test of the first atomic bomb took place onJuly 16, 1945, on White Sands Missile Range in CentralNew Mexico. The test resulted in deposition and dispersalof radioactive fallout over a portion of central andnortheastern New Mexico. Figure 1 is a map of thegeneral area with Trinity Site marked on the lower left-hand corner of the map. The device was mounted on a100-foot tower with cables for instruments and timingstrung to shelters 9144 m (10 000 yds) away. Figure 2 isa photograph of the tower-mounted device before the test.The Oscura Mountains are in the background of thephotograph about 5 miles east of the test area.

Weather on the day of the test started out being cloudyand windy with scattered showers. At 2:00 a.m., the testwas rescheduled from 4:00 a.m. to 5:30 a.m. At 4:00a.m., the rain stopped and at 4:45 a.m., a favorableweather forecast indicated the 5:30 a.m. time was accept-able. Weather remained cloudy after the test, as observedby planes sent to drop sensors during and after the test.1

After the test, a crater and zone of melted sand werecreated (Fig. 3). The green fused sand is referred to asTrinitite in many reports. The GZ area has been desig-nated a National Monument. As noted earlier, GZ islocated on White Sands Missile Range, and access iscontrolled throughout the year. Once annually, the publicis invited for a controlled visit to the site, usually in themonth of October. Figure 4 is a diagram of the GZfenced area included in the public visits.

III. THE TRINITY FALLOUT ZONE

Following the test, measurements were made to estab-lish the trajectory of the fallout cloud and the depositionpattern over Chupadera Mesa and areas northeast of GZ.Measurements during 1945 were made across the falloutpattern to outermost edges of the fallout zone.

Figure 5 is a depiction of the fallout zone based onbeta-gamma surveys of the soil surface following the test.The fallout followed a northeasterly direction paralleling

\ c/ifluriro \ ALBUQUERQUEI r.fs \ -*^

Ncwkii

us \Mij.il.

IRI nv sinWilRLOS FIRST A10SIC BOMB

^ JULY 16 1945 HOSED TO PUil

Fig. /. Central New Mexico. The site ofthr Trinity Test is noted on the lower left part cj the map.

Fig. 2. Trinity test tower. Oscura Mountains in thebackground.

ihe west of U.S. Highway 54 (Fig. 1). The cloud passedover Chupadera Mesa, where localized areas of higherlevels were observed.

Another beta-gamma survey carried out in 1947 and1948 confirmed the earlier observations and added detailto the mapping of the area.2 Figure 6 is an outline map ofthe contaminated area taken from the 1947 and 1948studies.2 A primary transect reference line was estab-lished in the 1947 study. The transect of 34° 56" startedat the Section Marker at GZ At every 4930 feet,reference points were marked for the first 11 points. At

point 12, the reference points were marked every 9000feet. From this primary transect, reference line lateralswere extended 90° right and left. Sampling and studyareas were established according to the lateral numbers.For example, an area of special stuoy on ChupaderaMesa at lateral 21 (about 28 miles from GZ) is referred toas area 21. This type of designation is referred to inreports of several studies of the Trinity fallout zone.

Since 1945, radioactive decay has resulted in substan-tial reductions of the fallout levels so that only the long-lived radionuclides 90Sr, m Cs , and "9Pu with traces ofeuropium, remain. In the intervening years, environmen-tal and biological transport processes such as erosion,sedimentation, and biotic uptake have acted on the initialsurface deposition to redistribute these long-lived radio-nuclides. A number of studies were carried out tocharacterize the radionuclide distribution and redistribu-tion in the years following the test.

The first major studies were carried out between 1947and 1950. These studies emphasized radionuclide con-centrations including plutonium for soils and plants,particularly on Chupadera Mesa, the crater region, andthe region north of the crater, but still on White SandsMissile Range,3'4 The studies included characterization inthe soils and plants of the area.

Plant studies included a study of the revegetation ofGZ. Studies were also carried out that involved descrip-tions of the movement of small mammals, reptiles, andbirds in the area surrounding GZ.5 The results of thesestudies have been included in considerations of the designof this study.

In summary, elevated levels of plutonium and fissionproducts were measured in the fallout pattern. Themaximum concentrations in soil outside the fenced areaof GZ were detected on Chupadera Mesa about 28 milesfrom GZ. The authors suggest a localized rain showermay have scrubbed a portion of the fallout cloud.4 Duringthe study period ot 1947 to 1950, there also was observedsome downward migration of fission products in the soil.However, wind erosion in the crater area of GZ wasrelatively more important than water in spreading thecontamination.6 Plutonium was found in amounts up to19 pCi per square foot at area 21. No plutonium wasfound in samples collected 3 miles south of GZ.7 Studiesof plant invasion of the crater area through 1964 con-cijded that, while the area had not returned tc climaxvegetation, ustributicnal patterns were controlled bywater availability, soil conditions, and timing of climaticvariants rather than radiation.8

Crater and heat effects mark GZ on White Sands Missile.

Fig. 3. Range after test.

In 1972. a series of special studies of the plutoniumdistribution were started by Los Alamos Scientific Labo-ratory. Soil- vegetation, and rodent samples along thefallout transect were obtained at GZ and out to 56.4 km(35 miles).9 Soil samples from GZ indicated a relativelyuniform vertical distribution of plutonium in the 30-cm-deep soil samples. Increased migration of plutonium intothe soil was observed. Concentrations of plutonium invegetation and rodents were too low to make validcomparisons. From the data taken, four intensive studyareas were established at 1.6 km, 16 km. and 44 km. inaddition to a control site south of GZ.10 About half of the239.24opu j n fae Trinity fallout ione soils was found at the5- to 20-cm depth in 1973 compared with total plutoniuminventories being detected only in the upper 5 cm of soil

in previous studies (21 to 25 years). Penetration depths of239.240pu j n t 0 j j ^ f an o u t 2 O n e SOJIS w e r e r e i a t e t[ t 0 the

presence of subsoil horizons containing carbonate ac-cumulations and to the extent of rainwater penetration

into the soil profiles.10'" Studies of plutonium as relatedto concentrations on vegetation indicate concentrationratios as high as 1.0 for dry weights.121 ae range for forbswas 0.04 to 1.1 and grasses 0.05 to 1.2. Contamination ofplant surfaces with soil particles is considered the causeof plant-soil ratios higher than observed in greenhousestudies.

In 1973 and 1974, the EPA sampled and analyzedsoils from across the region of the Trinity fallout field for239Pu and 240Pu in the top 5 cm of the surface soil."Before publication, the results of the survey and the fieldnotes from the sampling were forwarded to Los Aiamosby the EPA. The highest surface plutonium level wasobserved on the White Sands Missile Range. The GZsample contained 1100 nCi of 239 ' :4 (1pu per square meterof soil surface. A soil sample taken approximately 3.2 km(2 miles) north of GZ contained 100 nCi per squaremeter, but neighboring sample locations gave plutoniumvalue factors of 4 to 10 times lower.

600 BOO 1

IQO ISO ZOO

SCfllES

Fig. 4. Diagram of Trinity GZ fences.

-35'

106

- 3 4 '

'ALBUQUERQUECLINES

CORNERS

WILLARO

MOUNTAINAIR

GRAN QUIVIRA

SOCORROSANANTONIO

WHITE SANDS !MISSILE <RANGE '

•CARRIZOZO

Fig. 5. The fallout zone from the Trinity test asdetermined by a 1945 beta-gamma survey.

Consistent with earlier findings of the initial falloutdistribution, plutonium levels generally decrease withdistance from GZ and with lateral distance from thecenterline. The increase or Chupadera Mesa, some 20 to30 miles from GZ, is also observed in the data. Thehighest level reported by EPA on the mesa at a singlelocation was 86 nCi per square meter. Backgroundvalues, that is, the minimum values, were reported at lessthan 1 nCi per square meter.

The EPA study also included carrying out air samplingfor airborne plutonium. An air-sampling station wasestablished at Socorro, New Mexico, and another air-sampling station was established at Monte Puerto Ranchon Chupadera Mesa. Air samples were collected over a10-month period. The samples were analyzed for239,24o.238pu T h e g^onx, station acted as a control areabecause it was located out of the fallout zone. The 238Puresults from both locations were below the detection level

CLAUNCH I

KILLING PLAINSREGION

BACKGROUNDPERIMETER

PRIMARY TRANSECTREFERENCE Ufti

.SECONDARY TRANSECTREFERENCE LINE

, NE BOUNDARY OFI TRINITY RESION

Fig. 6. Outline map of the contaminated area asdetermined by 1947 and 1948 survey. A transectwas established with numbered laterals.

on many of the samples. Often, the results for a

also were below detection limits, and only the datapertaining to the detected plutonium were reported. Theprimary results of the air sampling indicated that the airconcentrations were well below the proposed EPA limitfor transuranics deposited on soils. The conclusion of thestudy indicated that, while higher plutonium levels couldbe found at very localized individual sites, the samplingdensity used in the study on Chupadera Mesa makes itunlikely that grossly higher levels are present in the areaexceeding the EPA proposed guidance.

Because the EPA study limited itself to plutonium, itwas decided that the 1977 resurvey of the fallout zonewould include fission product and activation productmeasurements in addition to confirmatory plutoniummeasurements. Data for the resurvey concentrated inareas in the far fallout zone (the area north of WhiteSands Missile Range, and in particular, ChupaderaMesa) because, at the time, it was felt this was the mostimportant area.

IV. THE RESURVEY OBJECTIVES

As previously mentioned, a number of studies havetaken special views of either the early distribution offission products, or later, the distribution of plutonium.The special Los Alamos ecology studies concentrated onintensive studies of four relatively small areas, 1 hectarein size. The EPA study concentrated on the characterization of plutonium mainly in the Chupadera Mesa area.These data are included in the data base of this study(Appendix A). The objective of this study, however, wastwofold. The first objective, that of the resurvey program,was to design a sampling program that would allow theestimation of radiological dose to people living in the areafor current land uses. These land uses are for grazingcattle and small home gardens. It is anticipated that GZand the White Sands Missile Range will remain in controlof the U.S. Army. Second, because a data base existed fora number of years and it is known from the earlier studiesthat wind and water played a major role in redistributionof the fallout material, it was decided that the studywould also make special measurements to investigateredistribution of the materials from the actions of windand rain. Because high-resolution germanium lithium-drifted [Ge(Li)] gamma detectors now exist, and areusable under field situations, it was decided to use theLawrence Livermore Laboratory mobile radiation detect-ion system. Use of the germanium detector with a pulseheight analyzer in a mobile unit enabled the measurementof the distribution of fission products in soil in a rapidmanner.

Redistribution of the surface-deposited fission products and plutonium was an important considerationof the studies carried out during the UCLA series in 1947to 1951. A strong redistribution of surface soil by bothwind and rain was observed. Flash floods do occur in thearea and tend to move soils and sediments in runoffchannels in large quantities. Points of deposition for thesesediments that are moved by heavy water events areusually low points that are often dug out to collect thewater for livestock watering. Therefore, the study in-cluded a number of measurements where the U7Cscontent was measured both upslope and at the finaldeposition point for redistribution of the fission productsand probably of plutonium also.

To evaluate the significance of the residual contamina-tion at the GZ location, a series of core samples wastaken in 1983.

10

3. METHODS AND APPROACH

This study was designed to supplement existing data on the distribution of fallout from the Trinity Testto allow estimation of potential radiation doses based on land use. The sampling program took advantageof previous studies of the fallout area, as well as special studies of-small areas of the fallout zone.

I. APPROACH

Previous surveys had determined the extent of thefallout area and general concentrations of surface depo-sition of fallout. Later studies by Los Alamos NationalLaboratory concentrated on the mechanisms for re-distribution of the fallout in several intensive studyareas.14 In the case of the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency studies, the principal investigator provided fieldnotes so sample locations could be relocated for furthersampling.

The sampling programs were carried out during twotime periods. In 1977 the far fallout zone, ChupaderaMesa, and areas around GZ on White Sands MissileRange were sampled. Because time and resources werelimited, maximum use of previous survey resuits guidedthe plan for characterization of the residual falloutradionuclides. Also, the loan of a van with instrumenta-tion and personnel from Lawrence Livermore NationalLaboratory allowed use of real-time data for decisionsabout measurement locations in the field. In 1983 a set ofmeasurements and samples was taken at GZ. Analysis ofthe 1977 survey data had indicated more detailed infor-mation on the depth distribution of radionuclides at GZwould be necessary for engineering studies of the area. Inboth surveys, in situ measurements with a germaniumlithium-activated [Ge(Li)] high-resolution gamma-rayspectrometer and special sampling methods were used toobtain information on the concentrations and location ofradionuclides.

II. METHODS

A. In Situ Measurement

In planning the Trinity survey effort, it was determinedthat the utilization of in situ Ge(Li) spectrometry would

provide a number of advantages over sole reliance ontraditional soil-sampling techniques for obtaining an in-ventory of radionuclides in the soils of a very largeTrinity fallout field. The following considerations weretaken into account.

(a) The relatively short counting time required toobtain a satisfactory gamma spectrum for a sam-ple (30 min compared with 1000-2000 min in thelaboratory for a 100-g soil sample) allows a poten-tially larger number of sample locations to beexamined. Alternatively, it allows the reallocationof laboratory Ge(Li) analysis time to the necessarysoil profje concentration determinations in sup-port of the in situ measurements.

(b) Local inhomogeneities in soil radionuclide concen-tration (both in depth and in small regions) areautomatically averaged because the detector isresponding to photons from a very large quantityof soil (several metric tons compared with a fewhundred grams in a laboratory system).

(c) Combining the inherently high resolution of aGe(Li) spectrometer system with a mobile detectorand support system permits immediate feedback inthe field of both radioisotope identity and relativeactivity (cpm), which allows on-site decisions to bemade concerning what additional or differentmeasurements might be needed and where.

The methodology and instrumentation for and feasibil-ity of utilizing in situ Ge(Li) spectroscopy for identifyingand quantifying radionuclides distributed in soil havebeen investigated and successfully demonstrated at sev-eral laboratories over the past several years.15"" For theTrinity resurvey, equipment and techniques developed bythe Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)were utilized through a cooperative arrangement. Anoverview of the system and its calibration are found inpublished reports.17

11

The response of a closed-end, cylindrical Ge(Li) de-tector, placed at a fixed height (1 meter) above the soil, isan energy-dependent function of the angular response ofthe detector and the flux of unscattered photons incidenton the detector per unit of soil radioactivity. Normally,calibration of this response involves laboratory measure-ments and calculational procedures independent of thegeometries of the distributed sources to be evaluated.Radionuclidas that have been redistributed through thevertical soil piofile from an initial surface deposition (forexample, fallout) are usually assumed to be exponentiallydistributed in this calibration calculation. As acrosscheck of the laboratory calibration and the suit-ability of the exponential distribution assumption, anempirical calibration factor for 137Cs was derived as well.

Although detector response to a source does dependon such variables as the mass attenuation coefficients anddensities of soil and air under field conditions, the crucialvariable is the specification of the relaxation depth of theactivity heing measured (that is, the inverse of the powerof the exponential distribution function). Under ce^caincircumstances this parameter can be readily and reliablyestimated, as in the case of fresh fallout of short-livedradionuclides (7Be, for instance) or the case of naturallyoccurring radionuclides such as uranium, which tend tobe uniformly distributed in soil. But the case of aged,long-lived fallout radionuclides deposited over as largeand varied terrain as is found in the Trinity fallout fieldpresents a more difficult condition to interpret. Concen-tration profiles for I37Cs were determined at reasonablyrepresentative locations throughout the field by the tech-nique of soil sampling and laboratory Ge(Li) analysis. Asmight be expected, these distributions reflect in a complexway the effects of the wide differences in rainfall input,soil properties and depth, and vegetation type and den-sity, which occur over the range of low-elevation, drydesert terrain, through the grass and pinon-juniperhabitat of the mesas, to the conifer forests of the moun-tain slopes. Representative values were selected andassigned by judgment to each sample location. An effortto develop a linear box model of redistribution of l37Csfollowing deposition was made, but the many uncertain-ties in estimating the relevant parameters in the model ledto results judged to be of no more value than makingassignments on the basis of proximity to measuredprofile:, similarity of soil type, vagetation, elevation, andso forth.

B. Sampling and Analysis

Sampling of soils, sediments, and vegetation accom-panied most in situ measurements throughout the surveyarea. Of particular importance were soil profile samplestaken at the location of the in situ measurement. Thesesoil profile samples were used to develop a correctionfactor for calibration of the Ge(Li) detector system toaccount for the depth distribution of gamma-ray emittingraaionuclides.

The methods used for obtaining samples and subse-quent analysis considered the sensitivity of the systemsused and the survey design. At locations with changingtopographical features, additional soil samples weretaken to study plutonium and strontium distribution.These isotopes are not present in sufficient quantity fordetection by the in situ measurement system used.

Soil samples were obtained using a 12.8-cm- (5-in.-)diameter ring that was pushed or pounded 5 cm (2 in.)into the soil. Soil was removed from around the ring byuse of a shovel and hand trowel. An aluminum sheet waspushed under the ring and both soil and ring were liftedout. The soil was collected in plastic bags labeled with thelocation identification and an indication of the depth andsoil horizon sampled. The procedure was repeated foreach soil profile sample, taking care to avoid crosscontamination. At each in situ measurement location,three 5-cm-deep soil profiles or a total of 15-cm- (6-in.-)deep samples were obtained. At selected locations, profiledepths to 40 cm (16 in.) were sampled.

Vegetation samples were collected using grass shearsto cut the grass or weeds within 1 to 5 cm of the soilsurface. For trees, new growth and the last year's growthwere collected. Samples were placed in plastic bags withnotation of the plant species and the identification num-ber for that location. Notes were made on the vegetativecover, measured slope, and soil characteristics. Topo-graphic features of the surrounding area also were noted.Additional vegetation samples were collected for laterverification of species types.

Soil and vegetation samples were transported daily tolaboratories at New Mexico Institute of Mining andTechnology in Socorro, New Mexico. Samples wereplaced in drying racks of window screen on wood framesin an unused greenhouse. After initial air drying, heatlamps were used to dry the samples to constant weight.Constant weight was attained in 1 hour under the heat

12

lamps. A drying time of 2 hours for both soils and plantswas used as routine practice. After they were dried, soiland plant samples were pulverized using Waring Blen-dors. Vegetation samples were packed into cans byoverfilling above the top of the container. A manual canse 'er compressed the sample while the lid was fastenedto the can. About 80 g of dried vegetation was sealed inthe can for later counting on a laboratory Ge(Li) detectorsystem. At the same time, 10.05 g of sample was weighedinto a plastic sample bottle and labeled for transport toLos Alamos National Laboratory, where radiochemicalanalyses were conducted. Soil samples werehomogenized and about 360 g filled the cans. Samples of10.05 g of each soil or sediment sample were placed insmall plastic bottles and labeled for transport to LosAlamos National Laboratory radiochemical laboratories.

Because the soils were anticipated to contain greaterquantities of radionuclides than vegetation, a separate

laboratory was used for soil handling. Samples from theGZ area were handled with special precautions becauseof higher radionuclide contents. Special laboratory clean-ing before and after handling these segregated sanplesminimized cross-contamination potential.

Vegetation and soil samples were counted on a Ge(Li)system at New Mexico Institute of Mining and Tech-nology as an initial screening method for radionuclideidentification. Final analysis of the samples for gamma-emitting radionuclidcs was conducted by LLNL withcalibrated laboratory Ge(Li) systems and data reductionaccomplished using computer codes.20

Vegetation and soil samples sent to the Los Alamosenvironmental surveillance radiochemistry laboratorieswere analyzed for 238Pu, 23''240Pu, and 90Sr.21 Plutoniumanalyses used standard digestion, anion exchange, plat-ing, and alpha spectroscopy methods. Stron*ium-90 anal-yses utilized standard '°Y ingrowth methods.

13

4. RESULTS

I. TOTAL AREA

For an overview of the amount of radioactive falloutfrom the Trinity Test, the data have been reviewed foroverall measurement of l37Cs, 239i24(lPu, and other radio-nuclides. Figure 7 is a general map of the Trinity falloutarea. Data points are designated as small squares. Thesolid lines divide the data base into areas of generalinterest for assessment of the r;:dionuclides on more area-specific bases. The data base was divided into areasdesignated: Trinity GZ, San Antonio, White Sands Mis-sile Range, Bingham, Chupadera Mesa, and Far FalloutZone. Section II of the Results presents the mean data byarea. Appendix A lists the data from all data basessummarized in the Results section of this report.

A. Trinity Data Analysis: U7Cs in Soil

There are three independent modes of measurement ofradionuclide content in Trinity soils used: (1) direct, insitu gamma,spectroscopy, (2) laboratory gamma spec-troscopy of canned soil samples, and (3) laboratoryradiochemical an alysis of soil samples. (See Chapter 2 ofthis report for details.) There is only limited overlap ofdetermination of specific radionuclides by these ap-proaches. In the case of U7Cs, only in situ spectroscopyand laboratory spectroscopy of canned samples wereapplied: one providing inventory estimates and the othersoil concentration data. In application, these two sourcesof information on 137Cs inventory are not totally inde-pendent. The in situ measurement requires knowledge of

' 0 10 20 30 40 50J i i i I

KILOMETERS

Fig. 7. General map of the Trinity fallout area and the measurement locations.

14

the vertical distribution pattern in the soils in the vicinityof the detector in order to be translated into an inventoryestimate. The soil sampling results can be used to providethis needed distribution estimate. A discussion of thereduction of these data to provide 137Cs inventory esti-mates follows.

Soil samples were collected at a large number oflocations throughout the survey area at locations wherein situ spectroscopy measurements were made (but not atevery such location). Usually samples were collected atthree consecutive 5-cm depth intervals. However, whenthese samples were processed, not all samples wereprepared and counted. Profiles for which complete ornearly complete 137Cs concentration data exist are shownin Table III.

An estimate can be made of the 137Cs concentration inthose samples that were counted, but for which no cesiumdata were reported based on the minimum detectableactivity (MDA). Ucing the MDA estimate in thoseinstances where a sample was counted but no 137Cs datawere reported provides an upper-bound estimate of inven-tory. One approach to estimating the MDA for 137Cs is toexamine the trend in uncertainty in the reported data. TheMDA can be taken to be the smallest amount of activitythat would likely be reported with an error not greaterthan some acceptable limit, say 33%. At an uncertaintyof 33%, the corresponding concentration is approx-imately 0.1 pCi/g. Another approach based on statisticalconsiderations, described in Appendix E, yields similarestimates.

Replacing MDA everywhere by the estimate of 0.1pCi/g substantially increases the number >if profileestimates. The profile characterization is by means of anexponential fitting function:

C = Co exp(-ax) (1)

where C is the concentration at depth x, Co is the surfaceconcentration, and a is the inverse relaxation depth of thedistribution. This relation can be justified theoretically onthe basis of a simple box model in which the soil profile ischaracterized by a sequence of boxes that exchangecontaminants over a period of time at a certain flow rate(A. T. Jakubide, Migration of Plutonium in Natural Soil,1977). To incorporate the uncertainties in the concentra-tion determinations into the profile characterization (thatis, into the determination of the inverse relaxation depthestimate), a logarithmic transformation of Eq. (1) ismade and the method of linear least squares applied with

some modification to compensate for the fact that,unadjusted, the least-squares estimate underemphasizesthe uncertainties for small values of C. (See Appendix C,least-squares fitting of an exponential function.)

The resulting alpha estimates for the Chupadera Mesaare shown in Table IV and GZ samples in Table V.Evidently, the mesa samples are characterized by ashallower profile (large alpha), and show less variabilitythan the GZ samples do. This reflects, perhaps, themechanical disturbance of GZ soils but also differencesin the original deposition processes over these two areas,the geochemistry of the respective soils, and other envi-ronmental factors such as precipitation frequency, in-tensity, and so forth.

An estimate of the inventory of l37Cs (nCi/m2) in thesesoils can be made utilizing the concentration and profiledata. Since there can be expected considerable mixing inthe topmost layer of soil, the average concentration at themidpoint in the 0- to 5-cm interval will be taken to berepresentative of the 0- to 2.5-cm interval as well. (Thisestimation should tend to overestimate the actual inven-tory because there is most likely a parabolic distributionshape in the near surface layers caused from depletionprocesses at the surface.) Then the estimate of theinventory in the 0- to 2.5-cm interval is given, for adensity of 1.5 g/cm3, by

ii.i = C2.j (PCi/g) x 2.5 cm x 1.5 (g/cm3)

x 104 (cmVm2) x 103 (nCi/pCi) = 37.5 C2.5 . (2)

Then the total inventory can be estimated over the rest ofthe profile assuming the fitted exponential distribution:

I,

2.5 + ( / " V - dxj(1.5)(!.O)(C2.5)

(3)

where the integral is approximated by one-half.A comparison of the in situ inventory estimates with

many of the soil sample estimates is possible and providessome measure of the compatibility of these two ap-proaches to inventory estimation (Table VI). Because ofdelays in processing of canned soil samples, assignmentof the a profile parameter for each sample location had to

15

TABLE III

137Cs SOIL CONCENTRATION DATA

Location

GZorMesa

GGGGGGGGGGGMMMMGMMMMMMMMMGMMMMM

LADB"No.

19901991198819892006200520122016?.0182014201920272026204520481987205320502057204921152116211820812080199221202071205820282059

0-5 cm

13.66.040.611.750.350.770.380.820.260.990.543.195.421.182.081.870.710.792.560.832.955.422.061.290.320.101.753.125.145.871.04

FSDb

0.0110.0360.4860.1220.1880.0310.2270.0320.1730.0330.0570.0170.0630.0340.0470.110.0560.0250.0170.0520.0270.0130.030.0320.0810.3440.0300.020.010.010.04

Concentration

5-10 cm

21.79.26

24.950.170.280.520.410.260.26

—0.380.120.480.220.130.16

————0.090.480.10

——0.181.0

——0.18

FSD

0.0130.0140.0240.1790.1850.0320.1270.240.058

—0.1080.1350.0970.0850.2740.291

——...—0.1920.0970.162

...—0.2820.040

——0.29

(pci/g)10-15 cm

6.98c

—

MDAd

——

MDA0.110.150.970.140.21

MDA0.080.19

MDA0.060.28

MDAMDAMDAMDAMDAMDA

0.11—

MDA0.140.08

MDAMDA

FSD

0.036—————

MDA0.1640.3550.0590.2990.155

MDA0.2240.296

MDA0.2040.221

MDAMDAMDAMDAMDAMDA

0.163—

MDA0.350.34

MDAMDA

"LADB - Los Alamos Data Base.bFSD - Fractional Standard Deviation.c— means no data taken.dMDA - Minimum Detectable Activity.

16

TABLE IV

CHUPADERA MESA 137Cs PROFILE DATA

LADB"No.

20^62027202820452048204920502053205720582059207120802081211521162118

CCone at2.5 cm(pCi/g)

5.423.195.871.181.080.830.790.712.565.141.046.870.320.292.955.422.06

FSD (B)b

0.0130.0170.0100.0340.0470.0520.0250.0560.0170.0100.0400.0200.0810.0320.0270.0130.030

a(cnT')

0.330.330.530.320.220.220.100.250.330.420.240.390.110.270.490.480.47

FSD (a)

0.640.090.160.100.290.500.400.320.330.290.450.230.480.410.170.060.16

Sequenci

0.40.20.40.20.40.20.20.20.40.40.40.40.20.40.70.70.7

Note: Mean a = 0.3235 and a = 0.1281.

"LADB - Los Alamos Data Base.bFSD - Fractional Standard Deviation.

be made on the basis of limited information. Thus, thereare a number of significant differences between theassumed a for in situ estimation and the fitted a for soilsample estimation (Table VII). However, corrected in situestimates of inventory based on detector efficiencies as afunction of a (Chapter II) were made corresponding tofitted a's and are shown in column 5 of Table VII.

Figure 8, a plot of soil-sample gamma in situ inventoryestimates, suggests that the two estimation proceduresyield similar results. A paired t-test was calculated forboth corrected and uncorrected data (excluding sample2014, which is a GZ sample), with the result that the two

sample means are not significantly different at the 90%confidence limit in either the corrected or uncorrectedcases. The a parameter correction appears to make onlya small difference in comparability. Possibly the fact thatthe in situ technique is averaging over a considerablylarger volume of soil at each sampling location than thecorresponding soil samples is a compensating effect tothe uncertainties in estimating a.

Thus, it would appear that the in situ 137Cs totalinventory estimates are comparable with soil samplingestimates with an uncertainty on the order of 50%.

17

TABLE V

GROUND ZERO TO CHUPADERA MESAu 'Cs PROFILE DATA

TABLE VI

l37Cs INVENTORY ESTIMATES

A. Chupadera Mesa

LADBa

No.

1987198819891990199119922005200620122014201620182019

aLADBbFSD-

Conc at2.5 cm(pCi/g)

1.870.611.75

13.606.040.100.770.350.380.990.820.260.54

FSD (C)b

0.110.4860.1220.0110.0360.3440.0310.1880.2270.0330.0320.1730.057

- Los Alamos Data BastFractional S

a (err ')

0.37

0.120.400.060.080.120.080.040.030.0020.210.020.08

Standard Deviation.

FSD (a)

0.24

0.170.070.010.042.170.142.122.510.0060.214.270.43

LADBa

No.

2026202720282045204820492050205320572058205920712080

i.\JO 1

211521162118

1-cmInventory(nCi/m2)

81.347.8588.0517.7016.2012.4511.8510.6538.4

177.115.6

103.054.89

in is17.JJ

44.2581.3030.90

FSD

0.0130.0170.010U.0340.0470.0520.0250.0560.0170.010.040.020.081n nM0.0270.0130.030

TotalInventory(nCi/m2)

449.6264.6386.3

99.56114.187.7

148.169.2

212.4376.3104.0521.9

55.61 ?fi 0

200.9372.6142.9

FSDb

0.640.090.180.110.290.500.400.320.330.390.450.230.480 41

0.170.060.16

B. Trinity Data Analysis: 23»MOPu in Soil

Direct determination of the concentration and inven-tory of plutonium in Trinity soils was carried out by soilsampling and radiochemical analyses. Preliminary in-vestigation of the possibility of utilizing the determinationof 241 Am inventory as an indirect means of determining239.24Opu j n v e n t o r y p r o v ed unsuccessful because of anobserved very low concentration of 24lAm in the Trinitysoils, even in the vicinity of GZ.

The soil radiochemical results are tabulated in TableVIII. These data indicate a fairly rapid decrease inplutonium concentration with depth in most esses. Butthere are some significant exceptions such as at samplelocation 2072, which is a flat, grassy sediment trap onChupadera Mesa. Here, relatively high concentrations(>1 pCi/g) persist to a depth of 10 to 15 cm. Deepdistribution of plutonium might be expected to occur insuch sediment traps; however, no systematic attempt was

B. GZ to Chupadera Mesa

1987198819891990199119922005200620122014201620182019

28.059.15

26.25204.0

90.61.5

11.555.255.70

.14.8512.303.90

• 8.10

0.110.490.120.010.0360.3440.0310.188C.2270.0330.0320.1730.057

145.999.1

131.253710.01359.0

16.25173.25144.4204.3

7462.189.32

204.75121.5

0.260.510.200.010.052.170.143.10.230.030.214.20.43

"LADB - Los Alamos Data Base.bFSD - Fractional Standard Deviation.

18

TABLE VII

COMPARISON OF IN SITU AND SOIL SAMPLEESTIMATES OF '"Cs, TOTAL INVENTORV (nCi/rn2)

LADB"No.

20122014

20162018201920262027204920502053205720582059207120802081211521162118

Assumeda

0.20.030.200.200.200.400.200.200.200.200.400.400.400.400.200.400.700.700.70

InventoryIn SituReported

236.6858.2

84.5890.92

26.43540.0314.0139.6125.2189.0158.7323.4211.3388.7

81.5135.583.784.4

100.0

a

5.7325.29

4.462.96

1.1949.28

4.743.533.434.013.044.22

3.405.352.912.742.122.232.23

InventoryCorrected15

for a

701.31501.9

84.6269.5

99.7597.9'232.7139.6185.6189.0175.7323.4284.8388.7

120.8168.098.398.7

120.9

InventorySoil Sample

Estimate

204.37462.1

89.3

204.8121.5449.6264.6

87.7148.169.2

212.4376.3104.0521.9

55.6120.0200.9372.6142.9

FSDC

0.230.030.21

0.170.100.640.090.500.400.320.330.290.450.230.480.410.170.060.16

Measureda

0.030.0020.21

0.020.080.330.330.220.100.250.330.420.24

0.390.110.270.490.480.47

"LADB - Los Alamos Data Base.bThe number of counts in the 137Cs photopeak is converted to.nCi/m2 by a detector efficiency termN f/s, which is a r ncuon of a. The ratio of the efficiency values for the assumed a and actual measureda from profile data vas used to evaluate a corrected in situ estimate.CFSD - Fractional Standard Deviation.

made to fully explore the extent of vertical redistributionof plutonium in soils.

As in the case of 137Cs soil concentrations profile data,these plutonium data can be fitted by an exponentialdistribution model in most cases to provide an estimate ofdistribution with depth, and thereby, inventory. Lea it-squares fitting of these data (where possible) with anexponential fitting function yield the results tabulated inTable IX.

These profile characterizations clearly point to thehighly variable or indeterminate distribution conditions of

the GZ area due possibly to mechanical disturbance inthe characteristics of the fallout materials, and so forth.The fit of the shapes of the concentration depth profiles toan exponential function is reasonably good onChupadera Mesa; but there are some notable exceptions.Some of the cases where there is considerable uncertaintyin the profile parameter a are probably attributable tovery low concentrations, especially at greatest depth, withconsequent poor recovery and counting statistics. Others(sample 2080, for example) may reflect other processes at

19

IN-SITU

Fig. 8. Comparison of in situ and soil sample estimatesof total niCs inventory.

work affecting vertical redistribution rather than infiltra-tion, such as disturbances by burrowing rodents, cattle,or big game animals.

Concentrations cf 238Pu in these soils are so low as tomake reliable estimates of profile distributions, and con-sequently total inventory, impossible. Table X illustratesthe order of magnitude of some surface (0- to 5-cm)concentrations and corresponding 238Pu/239Pu ratios.There is apparently about 20 times more 239Pu than 238Puin the surface soils, independent of location.

The 23»-MOpu inventory estimate was made utilizing thesame strategy as was used for 137Cs inventory estimates,that is, by assuming an essentially uniform concentrationin the 0- to 2.5-cm layer, and a decreasing exponentialdistribution over the remainder of the profile. On theseassumptions, the 0- to 1-cm inventory I, (most readilyavailable for resuspension) and the total inventory IT

estimates are given, assuming again a density of 1.5g/cm3,

I, = 15C2.5 ± 0C

and

V °c2 (4)

These two inventories are tabulated in Table XI forthose cases where adequate data exist. Samples for whicheither the profile estimate could not be made or for whichthe uncertainty in the surface concentration and/orprofile a estimates were too great to provide useful totalinventory estimates, still have a surface inventory esti-mate listed. Evidently in the case of GZ environs samples,only the near surface inventory estimate is usable.

C. Other Fission and Activation Products in Soils

In addition to cesium and plutonium, several fissionproducts and activation products from the Trinity eventand more recent Chinese nuciear tests were detected bythe Ge(Li) systems used. The activation and fissionproducts from the relatively recent fallout were detectableat most locations by observing the 95Zr and 95Nb gammarays in the in situ spectra. The average 95Zr (half-life, 64d)22 areal concentration for the approximately 2500 mi2

surveyed was 2.4 ±0.12 nCi/m1 and the 95Nb (half-life,35.1 d)22 average concentration was 3.8 ± 0.1^ nCi/m2.The range of concentrations was from undetectable to 6.6nCi/m2 for 9!Nb. Of the 116 measurement locations for137Cs, 9!Zr was detected at 88 locations and 95Nb at 92locations.

Other short-lived radionuclides detected by the in situGe(Li) system were 7Be and 103Ru. The relatively shorthalf-lives of 53.4 d22 for 7Be and 39.3 d22 for 103Ru alsoidentify these radionuclides as being part of fallout fromthe 4-megaton Chines? nuclear test on November 17,1976.7 The 7Be concentration on an areal basis averaged8.1 ± 0.7 nCi/m2 with a range from undetected to 26nCi/m2. Of the 116 locations monitored for 137Cs, 62locations had detectable 7Be. Only 22 out of the 116locations contained detectable I03Ru with concentrat.onsfor the area surveyed averaging 0.21 ± 0.04 nCi/m2. Therange was from undetectable quantities to 1.9 nCi/m2.

The in situ gamma spectra and laboratory analyses ofsoil indicated the presence of the activation and fissionproducts 60Co, 152Eu, and 155Eu. Because of the longerhalf-lives associated with these radionuclides, the quan-tities present are considered to be from the Trinity test.The half-life ef 60Co is 5.27 yr; 152Eu, 14 yr; anci 153Eu, 5yr.22 The areal concentration of these radionuclides attwo GZ locations as measured by in situ methodsindicated 5000 nCi/m2 and 50 nCi/m2 of 60Co and LI x104 r.Ci/m2 and 1.2 x 103 nCi/m2 of 153Eu. For areas

20

TABLE VIII

TRINITY SOIL CONCENTRATION OF "'-""Pu

LADB"No.

1*982001200320092014201b20182026202"202820372047

2052'204820492057205920602065207120722073207620802082208420962097

21152118211921202121

:GZ or

<iesa(M)

GZGZ

GZ

GZ

M

GZ

GZ

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

MM

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

0-5 cm

24.364.9

3.8

0.480.1650.1220.673.511.714.071.830.980.1220.3980.2460.701.211.060.2711.544.586.700.4350.0270.951.230.2130.610.250.180.170.230.69

FSD"

0.020.020.050.040.050.080.040.030.030.040 0.1

004

0.070.0580.040.030.060.040.040.030 030.030.030.150.040.04

0.060.050.160.070.060.130.04

5 10 cm

57.444.4

0.050.450.71

-0.00 ld

0.1180.2040.1090.0820./410.0040.019

0.3830.0330.3020.002

3.88

0.0180.0240.0100.0560.0020.153

0.0210.013

-0.010.600.51

FSD

0.020.020.800.040.03

2.0

0.070.050.060.060.060.750.168

0.050.150.040.71

0.03

0.170.170.200.111.50O.fM0.190.232.0

0.050.04

Activity

10 15 cm

0.15201

-0.060.470.146

-0.68

0.0180.0740.007

0.1720.0100.00590.0010.010.0180.157

-0.0010.0611.15

0.0160.016

-0.00 i0.009

-0.0030.0070.00130.0010.0050.037

(pCi/g)

FSD

0.470.010.670.040.860.04

0.220.080.28

0.050.00010.321.550.00010.17

0.081.290.100.03

0.090.191.0

0.44

1.0

0.431.154.0

1.0

0.14

15 20 cm

c

0.0130.0017

0.088

FSD

0.2310.71

0.10

20 25 cm

0.007

0.002

0.053

0.002

. . .

FSD

0.29

1.50

0.01...

0.94

'LADB - Los Alamos Data Base.TSD is the standard deviation of the measured value divided by the measured value.blanks indicate that sample was not taken or not analyzed.•"Additional profiles: 25-30 crn, 0.007 (1.8) pCi/g; 30-35 cm. 0.0023 (0.61) pCi/g: 40-45 cm, 0.0O75 (0.25) pCi/g.cNtgative values represent observations smaller than chemical blank values.

21

TABLE IX TABLE X

GZ ENVIRONS ANDCHUPADERA MESA »''24OPu SOIL

CONCENTRATION PROFILE ESTIMATES

SURFACE SOIL CONCENTRATION OF:38Pu AND 238«'Pu RATIOS

LADB"

No.

19951998

2001200320092016201820262027202820372047204820492052205720592060206520712072207320762080208220842096209721152118211921202121

Surface SoilConcentration

C = Coneat 2.5 cm

(pCi/g)

(uniform

FSD (C)b

Inverse RelaxationDepth of

a (cm"1)

Profile

FSD (a)b

ly uncontaminated at background)(a indeterminate—disturbed soil at

(a positive—disturbed soil GZ)

3.80.48

0.050.04

0.860.001

(a positive—disturbed soil)(a indeterminate-—surface deposit

3.511.714.071.830.980.390.250.120.701.211.060.271.544.58

0.030.030.040.030.04

0.050.040.07

0.030.060.040.04

0.030.03

0.670.380.720.620.190.560.280.250.340.530.191.010.320.11

GZ)

16.512.9

only)0.060.050.050.070.060.365.74

0.090.030.190.053.380.120.02

(a indeterminate—only surface sample teste

0.440.030.951.230.210.610.250.180.17

0.030.150.040.040.060.050.160.070.06

0.410.050.910.610.930.280.490.520.35

0.313.530.440.157.190.090.540.784.03

(a positive—disturbed soils in stream chanr

0.69 0.04 0.06 0.24

Location

2009201420162018204720602065207220732076208221192121

Surface Coneof 238Pu

(PCi/g)

0.023

0.00590.0040.2040.0450.0480.0120.224

0.3230.0160.0460.0080.041

FSDa

0.170.320.500 010.110.11

0.170.0040.050.130.110.330.10

238,239pl

0.050.040.030.050.050.050.04

0.050.050.040.050.050.06

"LADB - Los Alamos Data Base.bFSD - Fractional Standard Deviation.

"FSD - Fractional Standard Deviation.

outside of GZ, 60Co was detected at 21 locations,whereas I52Eu and I35Eu were detected at only fourlocations in situ. The average 60Co areal concentrationarea from ground zero areas was 2.5 ± 1.5 nCi/m2. The60Co distribution for the fallout area does not correlatewith the l37Cs area concentrations. Away from groundzero areas, the correlation coefficient for 60Co and l37Csis 0.05. There was no correlation latwuen 60Co and ""Srin soils.

Laboratory counting of the soil samples in tuna cansprovided additional information about the fissionproducts from the Trinity fallout at GZ. The followingradionuclides: 60Co, I37Cs, I33Ba, 152Eu, li4Eu, and 155Euwere detected in most soil samples. Table XII indicatesthe range of soil concentrations of the radionuclidesdetected. The range is wide but not unusual in view of thedisturbances of the Trinity GZ area. The area wasplowed and bladed in 1945 to remove materials from thesurface. In particular, the fused sand and soil calledTrinitite was being picked up by visitors as a memento ofthe event. The surface was bladed and the Trinitite wasburieH in trenches in the GZ area in 1952. Other

22

TABLE XI TABLE XII

1977 ESTIMATES OF 1-cm AND TOTALPLUTONIUM INVENTORY (nCi/m2)

ACTIVATION AND FISSION PRODUCTS INBULfc SOIL SAMPLES AT TRINITY GZ AREA

LADS'No.

199519982001200320092014

20162018202620272028203720477.048204920522057205920602065207120722073207620822084209721152118211921202121

•LADB"FSD-

1-cm 2 ] 'PuInventory (I,)

Bkg«0.01)364.5973.5

57.07.22.51.8

10.152.725.7

61.127.514.75.93.7

1.810.518.215.94.1

23.168.7

100.56.6

14.318.59.23.82.7

2.63.3

10.4

FSDb

(IT)

0.020.020.050.04

0.050.080.040.030.030.040.030.04

0.050.040.070.030.060.040.040.030.030.030.030.040.04

0.050.160.070.060.130.04

- Los Alamos Data Base.

Total "'PuInventory (I,)

e

c

c

'

c

210.2131.6237.4112.9114.1

25.1"

11.757.179.6

123.4•

129.9796.3

•

32.651.376.4

•

17.011.9

•

1

Fractional Standard Deviation.

FSD°(IT)

—

0.080.130.070.110.320.66

0.S90.090.360.27

0.370.18

0.760.490.25

1.27

1.55......

Total inventory not calculated because of inadequate data(FSD> 3).

radionuclides identified with low confidence and expectedin fallout gamma-ray spectra were 1MCe and 12!Sb. Theselatter radionuclides are likely from the Chinese nucleartests.

In selected scil samples from areas off the White SandsMissile Range, the predominant fission products detectedwere 137Cs and l35Eu. These samples are from a largearea including Chupadera Mesa, Gallinas Peak, and thefar fallout areas northeast of New Mexico State Highway14. For laboratory counting, the 0- to 5-cm and 10- to15-cm samples were selected for counting for in situ

Isotope

60Co

137Cs

>»Ba

132Eu

Soil SampleInterval (cm)

0-5-

10-0-5-

10-0-5-

10-0-5-

10-05-

10

"Not detected.

51015510155101551015

•510

•15

Range of Cone(pCi/g)

12-12

0.12-4.2-

0.52-0.79-

1.6-0.58-N.D

12240N.D

1610

N.D

60

182148163.82.9

• 1 . 5 a

-1300-270-340-76- 15-17

detector calibration. Selected 5- to 10-cm samples werecounted, but they were fewer in number.

The mean values for the 15!Eu activity in soil were 0.17± 0.12 pCi/g for the 0- to 5-cm depth and 0.14 ± 0.07pCi/g for the 10- to 15-cm depth. An analysis of varianceindicates the means are equal at 'he 99% level ofsignificance. The same samples have unequal means for137Cs concentration with the greatest amounts in the 0- to5-cm samples. The equal concentrations of I55Eu concen-trations in the 0- to 5-cm and 10- to 15-cm soil depthsindicate possible movement of Eu deeper into the soilwith time. For a deeper soil sample of 20 to 25 cm in thesame region but for only one location, the 155Eu concen-tration was 0.23 pCi/g.

D. Natural Radioactivity in Soils

The in situ Ge(Li) detector system detects the gamma-emitting primordial radionuclides and these radiationscan be used for calibration of the detector for energy. Thequantities of 40K are determined directly. The quantities

23

of U 8 U and 232Th are determined from the quantities ofgamma-emitting daughter products. Use of the daughterproducts assumes radiological equilibrium between theparents and daughters with minimal or unimportantchemical redistribution in the soils.

The " K concentration, listed in Table XIII, averaged17.7 ± 0.56 pCi/g for the region surveyed with a range ofvalues from 3.4 to 42 pCi/g. The wide range of values isconsistent with the variable geological features of theregion surveyed. The N C R P report on natural back-ground radiation in the U.S. summarizes the concentra-tions of major radionuclides in rock types and soil.23 Theexpected range of values would be predicted to bebetween 2 pCi/g for carbonate rocks and 40 pCi/g forsalic rocks. The geological formations of the region arecomposed of limestones and sandstones with a small areaat the top of Gallinas Peak being intrusive rock identifiedas rhyolite. The highest value, 42 pCi/g, was from aregion of volcanic rocks in a canyon area where 40Kcontent would be expected to exceed 30 pCi/g. Soils forthe total U.S. averaged 12 pCi/g for in situ measurementstaken by Lowder ct al. in 1964 compared with theaverage of 18 pCi/g for this study.34

The concentrations of the natural radionuclides 231Thand 238U also varied within the study region. The 232Thaverage concentration for all in situ locations was 0.94 ±0.04 pCi/g with a range from 0.12 pCi/g to 2.8 pCi/g.The 238U concentrations for in situ locations averaged0.90 ± 0.03 pCi/g with a range from 0.32 pCi/g to 2.0pCi/g. The highest values of 232Th were detected at thetop of Gallinas Peak where intrusive rocks occur. Thehighest uranium value was detected in an area thatintegrates water runoff in a basin area. Areas of exposedlimestone where soils were relatively thin contained the

TABLE XIII

SOIL CONCENTRATIONS OF NATURALLYOCCURRING GAMMA-EMITTERS

Rndionuclide

238U

101101101

Mean Cone.(pCi/g) ± S.E.

17.7 ±0 .560.94 ± 0.040.93 ± 0.03

Range(PCi/g)

3 .4 -420.14-2 .80.32 - 2.0

lowest concentrations of 232Th and 238U, as expected fromliterature values.23 '24

II. DATA SUMMARY FOR SOILS

The separation of the overall data base into smallerlocations of measurement of radionuclides generally fol-lowed topographic areas of the fallout area from theTrinity test. An artificiality of the boundary selection wasthe use of roads or a property boundary, which tends toresult in a mixture of topographic features. However,directions and distances from GZ and land use allcontributed to the choice of boundaries for separate datatreatment.

The areas are bounded in Fig. 7 by solid lines. TrinityGZ is illustrated in Figs. 4 and 11. Located within aspecial fenced area on the White Sands Missile Range,Trinity GZ is the area of ground disturbance left from theinitial test. Figure 9 indicates the sampling locations forthe White Sands Missile Range, Bingham area, andChupadera Mesa. Earlier surveys by Larson et al. andspecial studies by Hakonson et al. indicated localizedareas of higher fallout on Chupadera Mesa.6-9 Figure 7includes the sample locations for the far fallout area.Figure 10 indicates the location of samples in the SanAntonio area, which is west and out of the fallout path.

The soil data for each area are summarized in TablesXIV through XIX. The results listed in the tables aresummaries of statistical treatment of the data by area todetermine means and standard errors (standard deviationof the mean).25 The dates associated with the 2 3 9-2 4 'pu

determinations are the data from studies by Olafson andLarson in 1948 and 1950, Los Alamos in 1972, EPA in1973 and 1974, and Los Alamos in 1977 and 1983. Alsonoted is the depth of soil samples taken br uise thesampling schemes used by different investigators varied.

A. Plutonium in Soils

From Appendix D, the level of 2 3 9-2 4 Ppu in soils fromworldwide fallout deposited in northern New Mexico is0.008 ± 0.01 pCi/g. Of the areas listed in Tables XIVthrough XIX, only the San Antonio Area contains239-240pu -m s o y s a t c o n c e n t r a t ions as low as NorthernNew Mexico fallout levels. The other areas of the falloutzone all contain 239-240Pu above worldwide fallout levels.

The no action level proposed by the DOE RemedialAction Programs for 239-240pu is 100 pCi/g. The only

24

Fig. 9. White Sands Missile Range, Bingham, and Chupadera Mesa sample locations.

/

u

oSANANTONIO

GRANDE S

ft! Ml* ;

aWHITESANDSMISSILERANGE

i

Fig. 10. Sample locations for the San Antonio area.

area exceeding this level of plutonium is the controlledinner fenced area of GZ. The EPA has proposed ascreening level for no action of 200 nCi/m2, which isequivalent to about 15 pCi/g in the top 1-cm layer ofsoil. Measurements of 239-240Pu in controlled areas ofGZ exceed this proposed limit. Measurements made in1972 within 1 km of GZ in the fallout path exceed thislimit, but EPA measurements in 1973 and Los Alamosmeasurements in 1972 do not exceed the limits.

B. Cesium-137 in Soils

The amounts of 137Cs in soils of the GZ area exceedthe levels found in soils elsewhere in the U.S.26'27 How-ever, the amounts detected by in situ measurements onthe White Sands Missile Range and other fallout areasare within the range of values reported for the arealdistributions of worldwide fallout Table XX lists a rangeof 19 to 305 nCi/m2 from California to Connecticut. Ifthe measurements at San Antonio are assumed to belevels representing worldwide fallout, the White Sands

25

TABLE XIV

GROUND ZERO SURFACE MEASUREMENTS

Radionuciide

60Com C s152Eu

Natural gammaTotal gamma

4 0 K

2 3 2 T h

" 8U

2J9.24Opu

Inner fence, 0-1 cm1-6 cm0-15 cm15-30 cm30-45 cm

Between fences, 0-1 cm1-6 cm15-30 cm

Inner fence, 0-2.5 cmCombined, 0-5 cm

5-10 cm10-15 cm

137CsInner fence, 0-1 crn

1-6 cm0-15 cm15-30 cm30-45 cm

Between fences, 0-1 cm1-6 cm4-10 cm10-15 cm

N

666

66

666

11111

119

112333

111113333

Mean ± S.E."

5554 ± 3094 nCi/m2

8104 ±3772 nCi/m2

107 200 ± 54 400 nCi/m2

7.9 ±0.7 nR/h131 ±62 jiR/h

24 ± 4.4 pCi/g0.86 ± 0.03 pCi/g0.60 ±0.13 pCi/g

(1983) 22.8 ±0.2 pCi/g(1983) 156 ± 15 pCi/g(1983) 23.7 ± 0.4pCi/g(1983) 256 ± 3 pCi/g(1983) 0.4 ±0.02 pCi/g(1983) 5.8 ±9.5 pCi/g

(1983) 1.14 ±2.9 pCi/g(1983) 0.0053 ±0.003 pCi/g

(1972) 127 ± 180 pCi/g(1977) 31 ±31 pCi/g(1977) 34 ±30 pCi/g(1977 67 ± 116 pCi/g

16.5 ± 3.3 pCi/g21.8 ±4.4 pCi/g12.6 ±2.5 pCi/g21.5 ±4.3 pCi/g0.67 ±0.19 pCi/g0.54 ± 0.37 pCi/g0.64 ± 0.48 pCi/g0.33 ±0.12 pCi/g0.07 ±0.41

Min

0488842

5.59.8

120.780

b

b

b

b

b

b

0.040.020.0020.043.80.05<MDA

b

b

b

b

b

0.170.290.22

-0.33

Max

19 30023 000

340 000

10.0397

430.970.88

b

b

b

b

b

288.80.01

25564.857

201

b

b

b

b

b

0.921.190.320.49

26

Radionuclide

TABLE XIV (cont)

Mean ± S.E."

"S.E. Standard Error.bSingle observation.

Min Max

152EuInner fence, 0-1 cm

1-6 cm0-15 cm15-30 cm30-45 cm76-91 cm106-122 cm

Between fences, 0-1 cm1-6 cm

112222288

284 ± 29 pCi/g245 ± 25 pCi/g382 ± 167 pCi/g

1013 ± 7 9 pCi/g225 ± 80 pCi/g

12 ± 16 pCi/g2.2 ± 2.4 pCi/g20 ± 18 pCi/g18 ± 14 PCi/g

b

b

264957169

0.50.43.43.5

b

b

5011069282

243.9

5946

Missile Range, Chupadera Mesa, and Far Fallout Zoneare 2.4, 4.2, and 2.2 times higher than levels expected incentral New Mexico.

Cesium also can be used as an indicator of the slowchanges in fallout distribution with time. Measurementsby the in situ detector on Chupadera Mesa were made fordifferent land forms at several locations. The ChupaderaMesa area has several closed drainage collection pointswhere the water and associated sediments from rainfallrunoff collect. Measurements were made on the slopesabove a collection point and on the sediment bed in thedry collection areas. Table XXI summarizes the datataken for such drainage systems on Chupadera Mesa.The arithmetic mean values for 137Cs on slopes abovedrainages and their associated collection points are notequal with a 99.5% confidence using Student's t-test forequal means. The data suggest that after 32 years thecesium bound to soils is slowly being transported intowater and sediment collection points. However, the proc-ess appears to be slow and any increased areal concentra-tion in the collection sediment points will be offset byradioactive decay with half of the activity disappearingevery 30.2 years.

C. Strontium-90 in Soils

Measurements of 90Sr in soils during the 1977 surveywere restricted to relatively few samples because ofanalytical costs. From the limited data, comparisons of

the 90Sr in soils of Chupadera Mesa and the Far FalloutZone with measurements of worldwide fallout in soils atvarious locations in the U.S. indicate a clear influencefrom the Trinity test. Table XXII summarizes data forlocations in mountain states of the U.S.; 90Sr levels in thefallout zone from the Trinity test range from 10 to 40times those both north and south of central New Mexico.

III. AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

Airborne radioactive materials measurements atTrinity site and in the fallout zone are extremely limited.During the 1973 and 1974 survey by the EPA, a 10-month air sampling was conducted on Chupadera Mesaand at Socorro, New Mexico, a community out of theinfluence of the Trinity test.13 Air concentrations ofplutonium at both locations were equal, but isotopicratios at Chupadera Mesa indicated the Trinity testplutonium contributed the major activity while worldwicefallout contributed the major activity at Socorro.13

Table XXIII includes plutonium concentrations in airsamples taken at GZ and at a control site 5.2 km south ofGZ in 1983. Also included are the air concentrationscalculate..' for resuspended plutonium (see Appendix Dfor details).

Comparison of the calculated resuspendsd plutoniumon Chupadera Mesa with the measured values indicatesthe calculations overestimate the actual amount by a

27

TABLE XV

WHITE SANDS MISSILE RANGE FALLOUT ZONE SCIL MEASUREMENTS

DepthRadionuclide

7Be60Co137CsI52Eu155Eu95Nb"Zr103Ru

Natural gammaTotal Gamma

4 0 K

2 3 8 U232 T h

238pu

239Pu (1948)"9Pu (1972)

(1972)(1972)(1973)

(1977)(1977)(1977)

90Sr

"7Cs

N

2222222222222222

2323

22—22

7......4444

13

767

443

121210

(cm)

—._...._________

...

...

...

0 - 55- 10

10- 150-2.50-2.5

2.2- 1010-300 - 5

0 - 55- 10

10- 15

0 - 55- 10

10- 15

0 - 55- 10

10- 15

Mean ± S.E.

5.7 ± 1.2 nCi/m2

27 ± 23 nCi/m1

162 ± 42 nCi/m2

77 ± 77 nCi/m5.5 ± 4.0 nCi/m2

3.1 ±0.26 nCi/m2

2.5 ± 0.27 nCi/m2

0.14 ±0.08 nCi/m2

7.8 ± 0.65 nR/h7.9 ± 0.56 nR/h

19 ± 1.4 pCi/g0.88 ± 0.05 pCi/g0.94 ± 0.08 pci/g

0.55 ± 0.43 pCi/g0.38 ± 0.38 pCi/g

0.009 ± 0.005 pCi/g1.32 ± 0.50 pCi/g

63 ± 63 pCi/g65 ± 65 pCi/g15 ± 15 pCi/g99 ± 84 nCi/m2

(1.42 pCi/g)10 ± 9 pCi/g

7.6 ± 7.3 pCi/g29 ± 29 pCi/g

1.8 ± 1.4 pCi/g0.38 ± 0.08 pCi/g0.70 ± 0.46 pCi/g

4.5 ± 2.3 pCi/g4.9 ± 2.6 pCi/g0.8 ± 0.7 pCi/g

Mm

<MDA<MDA

2.1<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA

1.51.8

4.40.480.29

<MDA<MDA<MDA

0.100.04

<MDA<MDA

0.3

<MDA<MDA<MDA

0.30.20.1

0.22<MDA<MDA

Max

19503858

1696824.651.5

1612

311.4

1.8

32.30.032.5

255263

621100

6544

201

60.61.6

2725

6.3

"S.E. - Standard Error.

28

TABLE XVI

BINGHAM AREA SOIL MEASUREMENTS, US HIGHWAY 380 CORRIDOR

DepthRadionuclide

1 Be60Co137Cs"NbNatural gammaTotal gamma40K21-Th- A 8 u23».24oPu (1948)

(1972)(1972)(1972)(1973)

N

222222222

2__.__.14

(cm)

...———.........___0- 1.50.-2.5

2.5 - 1010-300 - 5

Mean ± S.E."

5.8 ± 5.8 nCi/m2

0.6 ± 0.6 nCi/m2

52 ± 28 nCi/nr11.4 ±0.19 nCi/m2

5.6 ± 0.2 uR/h5.8 ±0.1 uR/h12 ±0.22 pCi/g

0.68 ± 0.035 pCi/g0.80 ±0.05 pCi/g

0.9 ± 0.4 pCi/g0.21 ±0.08 pCi/g0.43 ± 0.32 pCi/g

0.085 ± 0.085 pCi/g5.0 ± 3.3 nCi/m2/

(0.070 pCi/g)c

Min

<MDAb

<MDA34

1.25.45.7

12.10.640.750.50.130.12

<MDA0.56

Max

121.2

691.65.75.9

12.60.710.851.30.290.750.17

48

aS.E. - Standard Error.b < M D A = less than minimum detectable activity.'Calculation of the pCi/g based on 0.0143 (pCi/g)/(nCi/m2).

factor of 3. The calculated resuspended plutonium at GZoverestimates the measured amount by a factor of 2.

Also included in Table XXIII are comparisons withboth DOE and EPA air concentration limits for pluto-nium. The DOE air concentration limit for insolubleplutonium for an uncontrolled area is 1 x 106 aCi/m3 (1 x10~12 uCi/mi) . 2 8 The EPA has proposed an air concen-tration screening limit for no action of 1000 aCi/m3 oftransuranics from resuspension sources.29 All measuredand calculated air concentrations are well below eitherlimit.

IV. EXTERNAL PENETRATING RADIATION

Two types of external radiation dose measurementswere made for this study. The first was use of the in situgamma-ray spectroscope to estimate the dose from speci-fic radionuclides. The natural background gamma-rayspectra were summed for the uranium and thorium

daughters and 40K. Total external doses were calculatedfrom the gamma-ray spectra. The dose contributions byFission and activation products such as 137Cs and 132Euwere estimated from their spectra. These estimates arelisted in Table XXIV.

The second set of measurements was made withthermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) at locations on theinner and outer fences of GZ. A measurement was alsomade at the point of highest instrumental gamma-raydose near the center of G Z . The locations and results ofthese measurements are presented in Fig. 11.

From the two sets of measurements, an estimate of theaverage external dose rate from the Trinity test was madefor each area of the fallout zone. Table X X V lists thetotal measured external dose rate and the dose rate fromfission and activation products. These values were used inAppendix D and Chapter 5 for estimates of the doses andthe estimates of risk in the Summary, Chapter 1.

29

TABLE XVII

CHUPADERA MESA SURFACE SOIL MEASUREMENTS

Radionuclide

'BewCom C s'"Euc

'"Eu"Nb"Zr"»Ru

Natural gammaTotal gamma

« K

!):Th" ! U

"»Pu

; " ! 4 0 Pu

'°Sr

'"Cs

i(1948)(1950)(1972)(1972)(1972)(1973)

(1977)(1977)(19771(1977)

N

4949494949494949

4949

494949

1915153

109

33

1914

163

7

3

274

161

Depth(cm)

0-5 .

10-15-

5101520

0.-2.5

0-0-

2.5-

10-0

05 -

10-15

010

05

1020

2.52.510305

5101520

-5- 15

. 5

• 10

- 15• 2 5

Mean ± S.E.'

8.8 ± 1.1 nCi/rrr0.58 ± 0.16 nCi/m :

280 ± 30 nCi/m!

0.48 ± 0.48 nCi/nr4.2 ± 2.4 nCi/m :

4.65 i 0.15 nCi/m1

2.55 ±0.15 nCi/nr0.28 ± 0.07 nCi/m :

6.7 ± 0.24 nR/h8.2 ± 0.32 MR/h

16 ± 0.58 pCi/g0.85 ± 0.04 pCi'g0.88 ± 0.04 pCi/g

0.083 ± 0.020 pCi/g0.023 ± 0.013 pCi/g0.006 ± 0.004 pCi/g0.003 ± 0.003 pCi/g

3.1 ± 1.3 pCi/g3.2 ± 1.2 pCi/g

0.80 ± 0.34 PCi/g0.15 ±0 .10 pCi/g

0.033 ± 0.015 pCi/g20.6 ± 4.3 nCi/m2

(0.29 pCi/g)d

1.7 ±0.41 pCi/g0.38 ± 0.2" pCi/g0.11 ± 0.07 pCi/g

0.033 ± 0.03 pCi/g

2.3 ± 1.0 pCi/g0.76 ± 0.47 pCi/g

2.81 ±0.52 pCi/g0.16 ± 0.02 pCi/g0.04 ± 0.02 pCi/g0.05

Min

<MDAh

<MDA30

<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA

3.54.1

6.40.360.34

<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA

0.2<MDA

0.020.010.4

0.03<MDA<MDA<MDA

0.200.22

<MDA0.12

<MDA...

Max

264.2

947

2486

6.64.21.9

1013

241.421.81

0.320.190.060.01

10.81 1

1.40.340.06

86

6.73.91.20.09

6.81.7

10.40.220.21

"S.E. • Standard Error.b<MDA = less than minimum detectcMe activity.cForty-eight observations for '"Eu v. .re below MDA."Calculation of the pCi/g based on 0.0143 (pCi/g)/(nCi/m3).

30

TABLE XVIII

FAR FALLOUT ZONE SURFACE SOIL MEASUREMENTS

Radionuclide

7Be60Co137Cs" N b95Zr103Ru

Natural gammaTotal gamma

«oK

232 T h

238U

» 8 P u

239,24Opu

(1950)(1973)

(1977)

90Sr

137Cs

N

272727272727

2626

272727

1286

18

24

1498

4111

1054

Depth(cm)

——

—

...

...

...

0 - 5

5 - 1010-15

0-2.50-2 .50 - 5

0 - 55 - 10

10- 15

0 - 55 - 10

10- 1520-25

0 - 55-10

10- 15

Mean ± S.E."

12 ± 1.2 nCi/m2

0.82 ±0.61 nCi/m2

152 ±34 nCi/m2

4.5 ± 0.29 nCi/nr2.9 ± 0.24 nCi/m2

0.25 ±0.10 nCi/m2

8.3 ± 0.53 nR/h8.9 ± 0.55 uR/h

19 ± 1.1 pCi/g1.20 ±0.12 pCi/g0.94 ± 0.05 pCi/g

0.018 ±0.005 pCi/g0.008 ± 0.005 pCi/g<MDA

0.77 pCi/g0.94 ± 0.46 pCi/g

3.2 ± 0.88 nCi/m2

(0.046 pCi/g)c

0.30 ± 0.009 pCi/g0.15 ±0.08 pCi/g

0.008 ±0.005 pCi/g

1.47 ±0.68 pCi/g2.16 pCi/g0.30 pCi/g0.21 pCi/g

2.0 ±0.19 pCi/g0.24 ±0.19 pCi/g

<MDA

Min

<MDAb

<MDA10

<MDA<MDA<MDA

3.74.1

9.90.310.43

<MDA<MDA

—

<MDA0.32

<MDA<MDA<MDA

0.71.........

0.95<MDA

—

Max

21

16765

6.45.81.6

1516

312.81.7

0.060.03

...

4.121

1.21.50.04

3.5.........

31.0

...

"S.E. - Standard Error.b<MDA = less than minimum detectable activity."Calculation of the pCi/g is based on 0.0143 (pCi/g)/(nCi/m2).

31

TABLE XIX

SAN ANTONIO AREA SURFACE SOIL MEASUREMENTS

Radionuclide

7Be60Col37Cs93Nb"Zr

Natural gammaTotal gamma

4 0 K

2J2Th2J8U

239.24Opu

239,240pu

239,240pu

N

99999

99

990

444

Depth(cm)

———...

—

——

0-55- 10

10-15

Mean ± S.E.fl

3.9 ± 2.0 nCi/m2

9.7 ± 6.0 nCi/m2

67 ± 20 nCi/m2

2.0 ±0.3 nCi/m2

1.5 ± 0.33 nCi/m2

7.5 ± 0.6 uR 'h7.7 ± 0.5 uR/h

15 ± 1.4 pCi/g0.83 ±0.12 pCi/g

1.2 ±0.13 pCi/g

0.01 ±0.004 pCi/g0.003 ± 0.003 pCi/g

<MDA

Min

<MDA°<MDA<MDA<MDA<MDA

4.55.1

7.20.140.67

<MDA<MDA

...

Max

14.650

2203.52.6

9.99.9

19.71.322.0

0.020.01

...

"S.E. - Standard Error.b<MDA = less than minimum detectable activity.

32

TABLE XX

AREAL CONCENTRATIONS OF 157Cs

Location

Trinity Fallout AreasWS.MRBinghamChupadera MesaFar Fallout Zone

Central NMSan Antonio

Other Areas of U.S.Amarillo, TX°Burlington, 1A°Diablo Canyon, CAC

Humboldt Bay, CAC

San Clemente, CAC

La Crosse, WTBaxley, GAC

Daisey, TNC

Waterford. CNC

Mean(nCi/m2)

8104 ± 377252 ± 18

280 ± 30152 ± 34

67 ±20

148 ± 32105 ± 341053219

13960

168305

Min

488343010

<MDA

b

b

100b

811441

146b

Max

23 00069

947765

220

b

b

110b

36164

79190

b

"See Reference 28.bSingle data point reported.cSee Reference 29.

33

TABLE XXI

CHUPADERA MESA IN SITU 137Cs DATA FOR SOILSBY LAND FORM (nCi/m2)

Location

Cuate Tank

Three Peaks Area

Area 21

High Point on Mesa

SlopeAbove Drainage

388—

261314

—338428308428602

X s = 383S.E. = 38

H: X s

t = -

Closed DrainageCollection Point

756547947410590545512

...—

540XD = 605S.E. = 59

= x D3.16

True: <0.5% of timeFalse. Q9.f>% of time

34

TABLE XXII

90Sr BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Location

DenverSalt Lake CityE! PasoHoustonDallasChupadera Mesa

Far Fallout Zone

FalloutCone 90Sr(uCi/m2)

41.2191.6115.5536.4040.24688to334

1959-1976Rainfall

(cm)

692.73801.87335.15

2186.861300.49365

to914

Latitude andLongitude

39°46'40°46'31°48'29°39'32°51'33°4O'

to34°20'

1O4°53'110°49'106°48'95°17'96°51'

1O5°4O'to

106° 30'

Altitude(m)

161115161204

22160

1524to

2450

35

TABLE XXIII

POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF RESUSPENSIONTO 239Pu AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY

Measured Airborne239Pu Concentrations

Chupadera Mesa (10 months)b

Soccorro (10 months)b

GZ AverageCenter (28.7 h)b

Mid-radius (29.8 h)b

Entrance (34.8 h)b

Control Site WSMR (37.9 h)b

239pu

Concentration(aCl/m3)

4341

6331.21.1

Per CentDOE

ConcentrationGuide

0.00430.0041

0.00630.00030.000120.00011

Per Cent ofProposed EPADerived Limit"

4.34.1

6.30.30.10.1

Calculated Contributions ofResuspension to 239PuAirborne Concentrations

GZWhite Sands Fallout AreaBinghamChupadera MesaFar Fallout Zone

Range of 239Pu from WorldwideFallout, 1974-1978, at Santa Fe, NM

Low (1976)5-Year AverageHigh (1978)

"See Table XXVI.bSample time.

3822

712022

0.00380.00220.00070.0120.0022

3.82.20.7

122.2

3.81624

0.0060.030.04

0.41.62.4

36

TABLE XXIV

EXTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE SUMMARY FOR IN SITU DATA

White Sands South of GZ(Los Alamos National Labora-tory Control) 3 Miles South

GZ

White Sands Missile Range inFallout Path

Chupadera Mesa, Area 21, Los AlamosNational Laboratory Study Area30 miles from GZ)

Monte Puerto Ranch

Far Fallout Zone (~55 miles NE from GZ)

Due to NaturalTotal External

Due to NaturalTotal External137Cs132Eu

Due to NaturalTotal External137Cs

Others: M Co, 152Eu, 134Eu

9.3 ±9.8 ±

5.6 ±175 ±9.9 ±137 ±

8.1 ±22 ±1.8 ±13.1

0.17 uR/h0.23 uR/h

0.5 uR/h1.1 uR/h0.15 uR/h0.7 uR/h

0.26 uR/h0.3 jiR/h0.03 uR/huR/h

Due to NaturalTotal External137Cs

Due to NaturalTotal External137Cs

Due to NaturalTotal External

6.0 ±0.14 uR/h8.1 ±0.14 uR/h2.0 ±0.03 uR/h

8.2 ±0.13 uR/h9.8 ±0.14 fiR/h1.5 ± 0.02 uR/h

6.8 ±0.28 uR/h7.5 ± 0.28 uR/h

37

TABLE XXV

EXTERNAL PENETRATING RADIATION MEASUREMENTSAND ESTIMATES OF CONTRIBUTIONS FROM TRINITY FALLOUT

(urem/h)

Estimated ContributionLocation Measurement Above Background

GZCenter MaximumInner FenceOuter Fence

White Sands Missile Range

Bingham

Chupadera Mesa

Far Fallout Zone

485 ± 4205 ± 6110.8 ± 2.5

7.8 ± 0.6

5.8 ±0 .1

8.2 ± 0.32

8.9 ± 0.55

477187

3.1

0.1

0.2

1.5

0.6

38

on-i2

• CONTROL SITE3 MILES WEST7.1 1

•0

••

A

LEGEND

AUGER SAMPLES

SPLIT SPOON SAMPLES

AIR SAMPLER

METEOROLOGICAL TRAILER

TLD LOCATIONS

k J 9.8 ± Z^R/hr

\

SOUTH OATE

D 2O0

3 M

•100

100 150 2 0 0

8 0 0

no

A CONTROL SITE3 MILES SOUTH

2 P / l

Fig. 11. External radiation dose rates measured at Trinity Site, June 9,1983 to June 23,1983.

39

5. POTENTIAL DOSE EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION

The significance of the data on concentrations ofradioactivity on soils and sediments, radioactivity onairborne particulates, and external penetrating radiationmay be evaluated in terms of the doses that can bereceived by people exposed to the conditions. The dosescan be compared with natural background and ap-propriate standards or guides for one type of perspective.The doses can also be used to estimate risks orprobabilities of health effects to an individual, providinganother type of perspective more readily compared withother risks encountered. This section summarizes theanalysis of potential doses and risk estimates. The de-tailed analysis is presented in Appendix D. Readersdesiring more information on concepts of radioactivity,radiation, and dose interpretation may be helped byAppendix E, Evaluation of Radiation Exposures.

I. BASES OF DOSE ESTIMATES AND COMPARISONS

Doses were calculated for various pathways that couldresult in the inhalation or ingestion of radioactivity. Thecalculations were based on theoretical models or factorsfrom standard references and health physics literature asdetailed in Appendix D. The doses are expressed infractions of rems, where a millirem (mrem) is 1/1000 of arem, and a microrem (urem) is 1/1 000 000 of a rem.They are generally expressed as dose rates, that is, theradiation dose received in a particular time interval. Therem is a unit that permits direct comparison of dosesfrom different sources, such as x rays, gamma rays, andalpha particles, by accounting for the differences inbiological effects from the energy absorbed from differentradiations and isotope distributions. These doses can becompared with the DOE Radiation Protection Standardsshown in Table XXVI, which are expressed as thepermissible dose or dose commitment in addition tonatural background radiation and medical exposures.First-year doses represent the dose received during thefirst year that a given radioactive isotope is ingested orinhaled. Because most of the isotopes of concern in thisstudy are retained in various organs in the bod., for more

than a year, 50-year dose commitments were also calcu-lated. The 50-year dose commitments represent the totaldose that would be accumulated in the body or specificcritical organs over a 50-year period from ingestion orinhalation during the first year. (Alternatively, the nu-merical values can also be interpreted to represent theannual dose rate during the 50th year given continuousexposure over all 50 years.) The 50-year commitmentsare always as large or larger than first-year doses. In thissummary, only the 50-year commitments are comparedwith the standards.

Conceptually, this is in agreement with the recommen-dations of the International Commission on RadiologicalProtection (ICRP) that in effect charge the entire dosecommitment against the year in which exposure occursfor regulatory purposes.30 The use of the 50-year dosecommitment also permits making estimates of risk over alifetime from the given exposure and simplifies com-parisons between different exposure situations.

The dose commitments were calculated using pub-lished factors (Appendix D). The dose models employedin the derivation of these factors are based primarily uponreports of the ICRP. Other methods of computing dosesare available. Additionally, there are conceptually dif-ferent approaches emphasizing the dose at the time ofmaximum dose rate following exposure as the basis forcomparison with standards.31"33 This is significant forisotopes such as plutonium that accumulate in certainparts of the body and can lead to a constantly increasingdose rate under conditions of chronic exposure. One suchapproach has been proposed by the EPA as guidance forFederal agencies in regard to plutonium.29 These otherapproaches do not yield dose estimates or comparisonswith standards sufficiently different from the methodsused in this report to make any significant difference inthe conclusions drawn for the radionuclides of concern inthis evaluation. For example, under conditions of chronicexposure to Ftrbome 239Pu, the radiation dose in the yearof maximum dose rate (taken to be the 70th year)calculated by the methods of Healy or the EPA wouldgive organ-specific estimates ranging from about 1/4 (forbone) to 2.6 (for lung) times the values given in this

40

TABLE XXVI

STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

DOE Radiation Protection Standards forExternal and Internal Exposures"

Individuals and Population Groups in Uncontrolled Areas

Annual Dose Equivalent or Dose Commitment11

Based on Dose to Based on an AverageIndividuals at Points of Dose to a Suitable Sample

Type of Exposure Maximum Probable Exposure of the Exposed Population

Whole body, gonads, or bone marrow 0.5 rem 0.17 rem(or 500 mrem) (or 170 mrem)

Other organs 1.5 rem 0.5 mrem(or 1500 mrem) (or 500 mrem)

DOE Concentration Guides for Radioactivity in Air and WaterAbove Natural Background in Uncontrolled Areas"

Isotope

:"Pu239Pu

Media

WaterAir

ConcentrationIn Units of

Original Reference

5 X 10"6 uCi/m86X 10-|4iiCi/mfi

In Units Used inThis Report

5000 pCi/860 000 aCi/m3

EPA Maximum Contaminant Levels from NaturalInterim Primary Drinking Water Regulations'1

Isotope Media Concentration

Gross Alpha Water 15 pCi/fi(including22b Ra but ex-cluding radon and uranium)

41

TABLE XXVI (cont)

EPA Proposed Guidance on Dose Limits for Persons Exposedto Transuranium Elements in the General Environment'

Maximum Annual Alpha Radiation Dose Rateas Result of Exposure to Transuranium Elements:

1 mrad/yr to pulmonary lung (approximately 10 mrem/yr)3 mrad/yr to bone (approximatley 150 mrem/yr)

Derived Air Concentration Reasonably Predicted to Resultin Dose Rates Less than the Guidance Recommendations:

In Units of In Units Used inOriginal Reference This Report

1 fCi/nr' 1000aCi/m3

(for alpha emitting transuranium nuclideson an activity median aerodynamic particlediameter noi to exceed 0.1 urn)

aSee Reference 29.bTo meet the above dose commitment standards, operations must be conducted in such a manner that itwould be unlikely that an individual would assimulate in a critical organ, by inhalation, ingestion, orabsorption, a quantity of a radionuclide(s) that would commit the individual to an organ dose exceeding thelimits specified in the above table.cSse Reference 29.dSee Reference 30.LSee Reference 18.

report.33'31 These factors are about the same size as other For uniform whole-bociy doseuncertainties in the data (see Chapter 4.I.A) and smaller Cancer mortality 1.2 x 1CT4 per remthan some of the intentionally overestimated assumptions whole body,incorporated in this evaluation. Thus there would be nosignificant changes in the relative ranking or order of For specific organ dosesmagnitude of estimated doses and risks if other meth- Lung cancer 9 x 10~5 per rem toodologies were used. lung,

The estimates of radiological risks from doses,presented in Table I of the summary chapter, were based Bone cancer 3 x 10"6 per rem toon the risk factors recommended by the National bone,Academy of Sciences.34 Multiplying an estimated doseand the appropriate risk factor yields an estimate of the Liver cancer 3 x 1(T3 per rem toprobability of injury to the individual as a result of that liver,exposure. The risk factors used are

42

As an example, a whole-body dose of 10 mrem/yr (1.2 x10~2 rem/yr) would be estimated to add a risk of cancermortality to the exposed individual of 1.2 x 10~6 per yearof exposure, or about 1 chance in 1 000 000 per year ofexposure.

Such risk estimates must be placed in appropriatecontexts to be useful as a decision-making tool. Onecomparison is with other types of risks encountered innormal life that may result in early mortality. Table II (inChapter 1) of this report presented a range of selectedexamples of activities and risks that increase chances ofdeath.35'36 A second useful comparison is an estimate ofthe risk that can be attributed to natural backgroundradiation. Radiation from various natural external andinternal sources results in exactly the same types ofinteractions with body tissues as those from so-called"manmade" radioactivity. Thus, the risks from a givendose are the same regardless of the source.

Natural background radiation for people in the en-vironment consists of the external penetrating dose fromcosmic and terrestrial sources, cosmic neutron radiation,and self-irradiation from natural isotopes in the body.The several-year average for external penetrating radia-tion measured by a group of 12 perimeter stations locatedmainly in the Los Alamos area of New Mexico is about117 mrem/yr. Cosmic neutrons contribute about 17mrem/yr. and average self-irradiation, largely from natu-ral radioactive potassium (40K), is about 24 mrem/yr.These give a combined dose of about 158 mrem/yr.Because of the variations in the terrestrial componentwith location and time of year, this value is probablyvalid to about ±25% for most of the Los Alamospopulation. For purposes of comparison we will use arounded value of 150 mrem/yr as typical natural back-ground in the area. This can be interpreted, using the riskfactors, io represent a contribution to the risk of cancermortality of 1.8 x 10"5 (18 chances in 1 000 000) foreach year of exposure or a risk of 9 x 10~4 (9 chances in10 000) in 50 years of exposure to natural backgroundradiation. The natural radiation combined dose for ex-ternal penetrating dose, cosmic neutron dose, and self-irradiation from internally deposited radionuclides isestimated to be 106 mrem/yr for persons living in the FarFallout Zone. This would represent a contribution to therisk of cancer mortality of 1.3 x 10"s (18 chances in1 000 000) for each year of exposure or a risk of 6 x 10~4

(6 chances in 10 000) in 50 years of exposure to naturalbackground in that area. As perspective, estimates of theoverall U.S. population lifetime risk of mortality from

cancer induced by all causes are currently about 0.2 (2chances in 10.)

II. POTENTIAL DOSES *ROM THE CURRENTCONDITIONS IN THE TRINITY TEST FALL-OUT DEPOSITION AREAS

The dose calculations made from the summary data inChapter 4 are detailed in Appendix D. The overallsummary of Appendix D dose estimates is presented inTable XXVII along with the DOE Radiation ProtectionStandards for whole-body and organ exposures. Alsolisted is the proposed Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) guidance for transuranic elements in the environ-ment, expressed in mrem/yr. Comparison of the esti-mated inhalation and ingestion doses with the DOE andEPA guidance indicates there is no cause for concern forindividuals living full time in the uncontrolled areas of thefallout zone. However, the controlled GZ fenced areasstill have enough residual radiaHon to exceed standardsfor uncontrolled areas; but the levels are less than the5000 mrem/yr standard for controlled areas.

The controlled areas of the fenced GZ are within thelarger controlled access area of White Sands MissileRange (Fig. 4). The fence around GZ is locked, withaccess controlled by the Army's Range Safety Officerand by Security. Public access is limited to a 2-h visit inthe autumn of each year when the site is opened tovisitors. Visitors are escorted to the site and back off theWhite Sands Missile Range. The dose to any member ofthe public would be less than 1 mrem during such a visit.

Other possible means of exposure involve Army per-sonnel either as workers preparing for visitors or the dailysecurity patrols that pass the GZ area outside the fence.Assuming personnel spend 1 week in the inner fencedarea in preparation for visitors, the estimated dose wouldbe about 8 mrem total dose. Assuming the security patrolSDends 1 hour per day all year checking the outer fence,the estimated dose is 0.75 mrem. These doses are 1.6%and 0.2%, respectively, of the radiation protection stan-dard for a member of the public.

III. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

The GZ area of White Sands Missile Raiige wasdeclared a National Historic Site in 1962. Any actionsconsidered that alter current conditions will require con-sultation with the U.S. Army ard National HistoricPreservation Council of the U.S. Department of theInterior.

43

TABLE XXVII

INCREMENTAL DOSES

Location

GZInner fence-

Between fences'While Sands Missile Range1102BinghamChupadcra MesaFar Fallout ZoneSan Antonio

Radiation Protection StandardEPA Proposed Guidance

Mean External

Bbove Natural Background(mrem/yr)

17876

141.7

1351.7

500

Inhalation Total from Resusperuion1

Whole Body

0.0280.00730.0160.00490.0880.C!*0.00058

500

Bone

0.290.0740.170.0510.910.170.0056

1500150

Lung

0.300.0770.170.0530.950.170.0058

150010

Liver

0.140.0370.0830.0250.430.0830.0028

1500

mrem/yr (50- Year Committed Dose)

Ingestion Total from Foods*Whole Body

2.4O.I1.71.61.91.20.1

500

Bone

742.7

20193716

o.:1500

Liver

35

1.32.9

2.38.11.80.2

1500

Gl-LLI

1.30.031.31.21.51.00.05

1500

lnhalaikin of Dull by

Whole Body

0.110.017

0.0730.0390.0830.017

d

500

Bow

1.2

o.r0.760.400.860.19

d

1500ISO

Home Gardener*Lung

1.20.180.800.420.870.17

d

150010

Uver

0.590.0860.380.200.420.086

d

1500

"Major dose contributed by transuranics.

"Major dose contributed by transuranics and "Sr (see Appendix D, Table D-XII).'Equal time spenl at high-dose rate and low-dose rate areas. Assumes 168 h/wk, 52 wk occupancy.dNol calculated because other inhaiatioa doses are small.

REFERENCES

1. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos:Beginning of an Era 1943-1945, Los Alamos Scien-tific Laboratory Public Relations Office, 64 p (1965).

2. Stafford L. Warren, "The 1948 Radiological Surveyof Areas in New Mexico Affected by the FirstAtomic Bomb Detonation," University of Californiaat Los Angeles report UCLA-32, Part 1 (November17, 1949).

3. R. Overstreet, L. Jacobson, K. Larson, and G.Huntington, "Trinity Survey Program," AtomicEnergy Project, University of California at LosAngeles report R3091 (November 1947).

4. K. H. Larson, J. L. Leitch, W. F. Dunn, J. W. Neel,J. H. Olafson, E. E. Held, J. Taylor, W. J. Cross, andA. W. Bellamy, "Alpha Activity Due to the 1945Atomic Bomb Detonation at Trinity, Alamogordo,New Mexico," University of California at Los An-geles report UCLA-108 (February 1951).

5. J. L. Leitch, "Summary of the Radiological Findingsin Animals from the Biological Surveys of 1947,1948, 1949, and 1951," University of California atLos Angeles report UCLA-Ill (February 1951).

6. K. H. Larson, J. H. Olafson, J. W. Neel, W. F.Dunn, S. H. Gordon, and B. Gillooly, "The 1949 and1950 Radiological Soil Survey of Fission ProductContamination and Some Soil Plant Interrela-tionships of Areas in New Mexico Affected by theFirst Atomic Bomb Detonation," University of Cali-fornia at Los Angeles report UCLA-140 (June1951).

7. J. H. Olafson, H. Nishita, and K. H. Larson, "TheDistribution of Plutonium in Soils of Central andNortheastern New Mexico as a Result of the AtomicBomb Test of July 16, 1945," University of Califor-nia at Los Angeles report UCLA-406 (September1957).

8. D. B. Dunn and D. L. Spellman, "The Revegetationat the New Mexico Atomic Bomb Crater," Univer-sity of Missouri report COO-1296-1 (February1965).

9. T fi. Hakonson and L. J. Johnson, "Distribution ofEnvironmental Plutonium in the Trinity SiteEcosystem after 27 Years," Proceedings of the ThirdInternational Congress of the International Radia-tion Protection Association (IRPA, Washington,D.C., 1973),CONF-730907-Pl,pp. 242-247.

10. J. W. Nyhan, F. R. Miera, Jr., and R. E. Neher,"Distribution of Plutonium in Trinity Soils after 28Years," Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 5,No. 4, pp. 431-437(1976).

11. T. E. Hakonson and J. W. Nyhan, "TemporalChanges in Soil Plutonium Distribution in TrinitySite Environs," in "Biomedical and EnvironmentalResearch Program of the LASL Health Division,January-December 1976," Los Alamos ScientificLaboratory report LA-6898-PR (July 1977), pp.84-85.

12. T. E. Hakonson and J. W. Nyhan, "A Comparisonof Plutonium Concentration and Inventory Ratiosfor some Etosystem Components in the UnitedStates," in "Biomedical and Environmental ResearchProgram of the LASL Health Division, January-December, 1977," Los Alamos Scientific Labora-tory report LA-7254-PR (July 1978), pp. 3-4.

13. R. L. Douglas, "Levels and Distribution of Environ-mental Plutonium Around the Trinity Site," U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radia-tion Programs, Las Vegas, Nevada reportORP/V-78-3, 42p. (October 1978).

14. T. E. Hakonson and J. W. Nyhan, "EcologicalRelationships of Plutonium in Southwest Systems,"in "Transuraaic Elements in the Environment," W.C. Hanson, ed., U.S. Department of Energy reportDOE/TIC-22800, pp. 403-419 (1980).

15. H. L. Beck, W. T. Condon, and W. M. Lowder,"Spectrometric Techniques for Measuring Environ-mental Gamma Radiation," U.S. Atomic EnergyCommission Health and Safety Laboratory, NewYork report HASL-150 (1964).

16. H. L. Beck, J. de Campo, and C. Gogalak, "In-SituGe(Li) and Nal(Tl) Gamma Ray Spectrometry,"U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Health and SafetyLaboratory, New York report HASL-258 (1972).

45

17. L. R. Anspaugh, P. L. Phelps, P. H. Gudiksen, C. L.Lindeksen, and G. W. Huckaby, "The In-Situ Meas-urement of Radioisotopes in the Environment with aGe(Li) Spectrometer," in The Natural RadiationEnvironment, II, J. A. S. Adams, W. M. Lowder, andT. S. Gesell, eds., Energy Research and Develop-ment Administration report CONF-72-0805-P1,pp. 279-304 (1972).

18. P. L. Phelps, L. R. Anspaugh, S. J. Roth, G. W.Huckaby, and D. L. Sawyer, "Ge(Li) Low Level In-Situ Gamma-Ray Spectrometer Applications,"IEEE Trans, on Nucl. Sci. NS-21(1), p. 543 (1974).

19. H. L. Ragsdale, B. K. Tanner, R. N. Coleman, J. M.Palms, and R. E. Wood, "In Situ Measurement ofSome Gamma-Emitting Radionuclides in PlantCommunities of the South Carolina Castac Plain,"in Environmental Chemistry and Cycling Processes,Savannah River Ecology Laboratory report,Prepublication Copy, p. 1B-27B (1976).

20. R. Gunnik and J. B. Niday, "Computerized Quan-titative Analysis by Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy, Vol.I, Description of the Gamanal Program," LawrenceLivermore Laboratory report UCRL-51061 (1972).

21. Environmental Surveillance Group, "EnvironmentalSurveillance at Los Air. nos During 1977," LosAlamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-7263-MS(April 1978).

22. Bureau of Radiological Health, Radiological HealthHandbook, U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. Rockville, MD 20852, U.S. Govern-ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, pp.72-85 (1970).

23. National Council on Radiation Protection andMeasurements, "Natural Background Radiation inthe United States," NCRP report No. 45, Washing-ton, D.C. 20014 (November 1975).

24. W. M. Lowder, W. J. Condon, and H. L. Beck,"Field Spectrometric Investigations of Environmen-tal Radiation in the USA," in The Natural RadiationEnvironment, J. A. S. Adams and W. M. Lowder,eds.. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Illinois,pp. 597-616(1964).

25. N. H. Nie, C. H. Hull, J. G. Jenkins, K. Steinbrenner,and D. H. Bent, SPSS: Statistical Package for theSocial Sciences, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,NY (1975).

26. T. Buhl, J. Dewart, T. Gunderson, D. Talley, J.Wenzel, R. Romero, J. Salazar, and D. Van Etten,"Supplementary Documentation for an Environmen-tal Impact Statement Regarding the Pantex Plant:Radiation Monitoring and Radiological Assessmentof Routine Releases," Los Alamos National Labora-tory report LA-9445-PNTX-C (1982).

27. R. A. Mohr and I. A. Franks, "Compilation of 137CsConcentrations at Selected Sites in the ContinentalUnited States," EG&G, Santa Barbara, California,EG&G report 1183-2437 (1982).

28. U.S. Department of Energy, "Requirements forRadiation Protection: Concentrations in Air andWater Above Natural Background," DOE Order5480.1, Chapter XI (August 1981).

29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "PersonsExposed to Transuranium Elements in the Environ-ment," Proposed Federal Radiation Protection Guid-ance on Dose Limits, in Federal Register, Vol. 42,No. 230, Wednesday, Nov. 30, 1977, pp.60956-60959 (1977).

30. International Commission on Radiological Protec-tion, "Limits for Intake of Radionuclides by Work-ers," Annals of the ICRP, Vol. 2, No. 3/4, ICRPPublication 30(1979).

31. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "ProposedGuidance on Dose Limits for Persons Exposed toTransuranium Elements in the General Environ-ment," U.S. EPA Office of Radiation Programsreport EPA 540/4-77-016 (September 1977).

32. J. W. Healy, "A Proposed Interim Standard forPlutonium in Soils," Los Alamos Scientific Labora-tory report LA-5483-MS (January 1974).

33. J. W. Healy, "An Examination of the Pathways fromSoil to Man for Plutonium," Los Alamos ScientificLaboratory report LA-6741-MS (April 1977),

46

34. U.S. Department of Energy, "Radiological Guide- 36. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Final Envi-lines for Application to DOE's Formerly Utilized ronmental Statement on the Transportation ofSites Remedial Action Program," U.S. DOE, Oak Radioactive Material by Air and Other Modes,"Ridge Operations report ORO-831 (March 1983). Docket No. PR-71,73 (40FR23768), Office of Stan-

dards Development, USNRC document NUREG-35. W. Wilson, "Analyzing the Daily Risks of Life," in 0170, Vol. 1 (December 1977).

Technology Review, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-nology, pp. 41-46 (February 1979).

47

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AEC Atomic Energy CommissionALO Albuquerque Operations Officec countscpm counts per minuteCG concentration guideDOE Department of EnergyEPA Environmental Protection AgencyERDA Energy Research and Development AdministrationFDA Food and Drug AdministrationFSD Fractional Standard DeviationFUSRAP Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action ProgramGZ Ground ZeroICRP International Commission on Radiological ProtectionLADB Los Alamos Data BaseMDA Minimum Detectable ActivityMED Manhattan Engineer DistrictNCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and MeasurementsNRC Nuclear Regulatory CommissionOSHA Occupational Safety and Health AdministrationQA quality assuranceRCG Radioactivity Concentration Guiderem roentgen equivalent manRPS Radiation Protection StandardTLD thermoluminescent dosimeterTRU transuranicTSS total suspended solidsUSGS United States Geological SurveyWSMR White Sands Missile Range

aPYs.1

alphabetagammastandard deviationmean

48

Abbreviation

UNITS

Unit

caCICicmcpm/SfCiftghin.keVkgkmkm2

Smm3

mCiMeVmgminm?mmmremmS/mMGDMTuCiugurnnCipCiRradremsyr

countattocurie (1CT18 curies)curie (unit of radioactivity)centimetercounts per min per literfcmtocurie (1CT15 curies)footgramhourinchkiloelectron voltkilogramkilometersquare kilometerlitermetercubic metermillicurie (10~3 curies)megaelectron voltmilligram (10~3 grams)minutemilliliter(10"38)millimeter (10"3 meter)millirem (10~3 rem)milliSiemens/meter(l mS/m= lOumho/cm)million gallons per daymegaton (106 tons)microcurie (10~6 curies)microgram (10"6 grams)micrometer (10~6 meters)nanocurie (10"9 curies)picocurie(10~12 curies)Roentgen62.5 x 106 MeV/g (unit of absorbed dose)roentgen equivalent man (unit of dose equivalence)secondyear

49

GLOSSARY

alpha particle

beta particle

CG (Concentration Guide)

Curie

gamma radiation (or x radiation)

arithmetic mean

geometric mean

gross alpha

gross beta

rad

roentgen

A charged particle (identical to the helium nucleus) com-posed of two protons and two neutrons that is emittedduring decay of certain radioactive atoms. Alpha particlesare stopped by several centimeters of air or a sheet ofpaper.

A charged particle (identical to the electron) that isemitted during decay of certain radioactive atoms. Mostbeta particles are stoppped by 0.6 cm of aluminum or less.

The concentration of radioactivity in air or water that isdetermined to result in whole-body or organ doses equalto ERDA's Radiation Protection Standards for externaland internal exposures if the air is continuously inhaledor the water is the sole source of liquid nourishmentthroughout the year.

A special unit of radioactivity. One curie equals 3.70 X10'" nuclear transformations per second (abbreviated Ci).

Short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation of nuclearorigin that has no mass or charge. Because of its shortwavelength, gamma radiation can cause ionization. Otherelectromagnetic radiation (microwaves, visible light,radiowaves, etc.) has longer wavelengths (lower energy)and cannot cause ionization.

The average of n given numbers obtained by dividingthe;r sum by n.

The average of n given numbers obtained as the nth rootof their product.

The totai amount of measured alpha activity.

The total amount of measured beta activity.

The unit of absorbed radiation dose. It applies to thefraction of energy deposited by ionizing radiation in aunit volume of material exposed. 1 Rad= 1 X 10"2 Joulesper kilogram.

The unit of radiation exposure (abbreviated R). It appliesonly to the amount of charge produced by x or gammaradiation inai.. 1R = 2.58X 10~4 coulombs per kilogram.

50

rem The unit of radiation dose equivalence that takes intoaccount different effects on humans of various kinds ofionizing radiation and permits them to be expressed on acommon basis.

RPS (Radiation Protection Standard) DOE standards for external and internal exposure toradioactivity as defined in DOE Order 5480.

total uranium Uranium having the isotopic content of uranium innature (99.27% 238U, 0.72% : "U , 0.0057% 234U).

51

APPENDIX A

DATA BASE TRINDAT

The following computer printout contains the com-bined data from the several studies of environmentallevels of radioactivity through 1977. The printout con-tains 10 columns of information regarding each sample.The following provides a key to the information in eachcolumn:

Column 1—Sample number. "Tag Words" are discussedin Appendix B. The sampls numbers greater than 1000are for a given location from the 1977 survey. Appen-dix B is a field log describing each location.

Column 2—Radionuclide analyzed for in the sample ortype of radiation measured (G-NAT = natural gammadose).

Column 3—Date of the determination.

Column 4—Type of Sample.

INSITU—Field in situ gamma-ray spectroscopy by

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory system.JP—one-seeded juniperGR—grassesSK—snakeweedTH—ThistleUK—Unknown vegetationSG—mixed snakeweed and grassesSOIL—Soil sample. Column 5 contains informationon depth.

Column 5—Midpoint of depth from surface of soilsamples. Examples: 2.5 is for 0- to 5-cm sample; 7.5 isfor 5- to 10-cm sample, and 12.5 is for 10- to 15-cmsample.

Columns 6 and 7—Arbitrary coordinates from a basemap of sample locations. Used for computer graphicsin Chapter 4.

Column 8—Value of radionuclide concentration orpenetrating radiation dose.

Column 9—Units for amount of radionuclide or radia-tion dose.

Column 10—Laboratory or agency that conducted de-termination:

LASL77—Now Los Alamos National Laboratory;associated with in situ determinations.

LLL GELI—Samples counted at Lawrence Liver-more National Laboratory.

LASLCHEM—Sample determination made by LosAlamos National Laboratory Environmental Sur-veillance Chemistry Section.

CVEG—Vegetation content by same group asLASLCHEM.

EPA—Environmental Protection Agency de-termination.

UCLA—University of California at Los Angelesstudies of 1948 and 1950.

LASL72—Samplings by Los Alamos ScientificLaboratory in 1972.

With the large amount of data present in TRINDAT,much more information than covered by this report canbe recovered from the data base. The last item to beidentified is the label associated with PU239 as INSITUin Column 4 and PREDICTED in Column 10. Thosedata were calculated from known amounts of 137Cs insitu measurements and 2 3 ' M 0 p u soil samples at a numberof locations. Both 137Cs and plutonium isotopes are

52

strongly retained in the top few centimeters of soils. If measurements could be used for 23»-240Pu estimates atthere were a strong correlation between 137Cs and other sampling points in lar&. areas. The "predicted"?.3»-M0pu JJJ ggjj^ a few M9-i40pu radiochemical determina- data in TRINDAT were not used for any of the estimates

tions could establish the relationship with 137Cs. De- in this report, but the method has enough promise totermination of 137Cs by relatively inexpensive in situ merit further development in the future.

53

TRINDAT201B BE72055 BE71990 BE71988 BE7201B BE72096 BE72015 BE72099 BE72139 BE72153 BE72141 BE72015 BE72075 BE72127 BE72029 BE72121 BE72031 BE72072 BE72100 BE72140 BE72147 BE72155 BE72142 BE72032 BE71997 BE72132 BE72128 BE72076 BE72062 BE72090 BE72030 BE72138 BE72136 EE72059 BE72008 BE72134 BE72095 BE72129 BE72067 BE72077 BE72061 BE72025 BE72094 BE72068 BE72074 BE72O5C B£72126 BE72048 BE72146 BE72038 BE72088 BE72011 BE72006 BE72058 BE72081 BE72034 BE72097 BE72125 GE72093 BE72020 BE72053 BE72024 BE72083 BE72019 BE72135 BE72052 BE72014 BE72120 BE72047 BE72114 BE72065 BE72013 BE72130 BE720E2 BE72073 BE721 19 BE72080 BE72027 BE72064 BE72023 BE7

1977 GR1977 GR1977 GR1977 GR1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 I'J TTU1977 IIMSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU197/ IN^ U1977 INSi.U1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INFTTU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSTTU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSlTU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1S77 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU1977 INSITU

s.11.6.G.6.14 .7 .1 1 .6.3.6.7.10.13.10.13.10.9.14 .6.7 .3.6.3.6.6.13.1 1 .9.13.10.5.697614691091014991 1121 1991367101 13151414310812661 17141 1iO10761 19141010109

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1 .5.

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983972986810001000000047305083004000300065000878007479709000.00.49.00. 10.00.0000.00.00. 12.40.00.30.00.60.00.70.80. 12.52.90.40.0000.80.00.49.07.00.00.20.00.30.53.00.80.80.50.69.00.30.00.00.50

0.00141316141 1

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.50

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54

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55

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81

APPENDIX B

LOG CF FIELD OPERATIONS FOR SURVEY OF TRINITY, 1977

During the survey of the Trinity fallout zone, eachsample location was marked with a wooden stake with abrass tag attached. The number corresponding to thedata "tag word" was stamped on the brass tag. Thelocations were noted on topographical maps of the areaand in field noteuooks. These documents will be kept in amaster file with the Los Alamos National LaboratoryEnvironmental Surveillance Group. Tag words that arenot in the following list represent calibration checks ormeasurements at locations outside the Trinity falloutzone.

1985 6/20/77; background spectrum taken with planarGe(Li) at Los Alamos National Laboratory con-trol plot ~3 miles south of GZ.

1986 6/20/77; inside GZ inner fence. Planar Ge(Li).1987 6/20/77; inside GZ inner fence, 13 m from fence

northeast of monument. Planar Ge(Li).1988 6/20/77; inside GZ inner fence, 7 m north of the

monument. Planar Ge(Li).1989 6/20/77; inside GZ inner fence, 10 m from fence

east of the monument. Planar Ge(Li).1990 6/21/77; outside of inner fence at GZ, 12 m south

of east outhouses. Planar Ge(Li).1991 6/21/77; outside of the inner fence at GZ.

Located east of entrance road, 13 m north of thegate. Planar Ge(Li).

1992 6/21/77; located at Los Alamos National Labo-ratory GZ study plot, 1 mile north of fence.Taken at west side of the plot near the stake, 20 msoutheast of bunkers, 80 m southwest of Bagnoldsampler. Planar Ge(Li).

1993 6/22/77; near EPA No. 12117 (Beck Site).Planar Ge(Li).

1994 6/27/77; control site, 3 miles south of GZ. V-8Ge(Li) set up over stake at southeast corner ofplot.

1995 6/27/77; at northwest corner of plot, 1 mile northof GZ. Same location as No. 1992.

1996 6/27/77; taken at end of a playa north and westof GZ.

1997 6/27/77; 1 mile north of Beck Site. Same as No.1993.

1998 6/28/77; 23 m inside gate at outer fence at GZand 16 m of barbed wire fence along roadway.

1999 6/28/77; corresponds to location at tag word No.1991.

2000 6/28/77; inside inner fence, 10 m north of gate.Close to No. 1986 location.

2001 6/28/77; inside inner fence; 7 m north of themonument.

2002 6/28/77; inside inner fence, 8 m west offence oneast side of the monument.

2003 6/28/77; inside inner fence, 13 m from fencenorth northeast of the monument. Same as No.1987 location.

2004 6/28/77; 1 mile south of outer gate of GZ, 100 mwest of roadway.

2005 6/29/77; several miles east of Mine Site, about8-10 miles northeast of GZ. See page 17 ofTrinity Field log book for sketch.

2006 6/29/77; near WSMR radar site, close to No.2005.

2007 6/29/77; east of Nos. 2005 and 2006 in adrainage basin.

2008 6/29/77; 1.4 miles west of No. 2007.2009 2/29/79; taken in a watering pond 0.7 mile south

of Mine Site, which collects sediment from areasto the east.

2010 6/29/71; located at southwest corner of LosAlamos National Laboratory Area 16 study plot.

2011 6/30/77; located at southeast corner of Los Ala-mos National Laboratory Control Plot 3 milessouth of GZ Same location as No. 1994.

2012 6/2J/77; located 1 mile east of Junction of BeckSite Road and WSMR, Route 13 and -50 milesnorth of road.

82

2013 6/30/77; located 4.1 miles by road from Beck Site 2031Road/Route 13 Junction. Sample site is 1.7 milesnorth of the point where the road turns north andis -30 miles west of road. 2032

2014 6/30/77; located in bottom of Smith Tank (largertank to the west); 6.4 miles by road from Beck 2033Site Road/Route 13 Junction and 2.3 miles fromNo. 2013. 2034

2015 6/30/77; located at the crest of a ridge 0.3 milenorth of Smith Tank. 2037

2016 6/3O/V7; located 0.4 mile west offence aroundSmith Ranch buildings along old road, then 0.2mile north of road at east edge of an old playa 2038collecting sediment from the east.

2017 6/30/77; located -0.4 mile west of No. 2016 at 2039the west edge of the same playa.

2018 7/4/77; 6 miles north of outer fence of GZ about 204030 m to the east of road.

2019 7/4/77; 8-9 miles north ofGZ fence,-30 m east 2041of a telephone right of way.

2020 7/4/77; located 20 miles south of Hwy 380 in a 2042large arroyo. The arroyo is 2.5 miles east of SanAntonio. 2045

2021 II5111 \ located above Area 21 study plot at alarge black water tower. Same location as No. 20462146.

2022 7/5/77; 12 m south of Meteorological Station atArea 21 study plot on ridge. 2047

2023 7/5/77; on USGS "Broken Back Crater" 15 minquadrangle: P.I.E.; T.4S. Section 10, 600 m 2048south of 1919 m elevation marker. In basin. 2049

2024 7/5/77; -0.3 mile east and south of Hinkle RangeHeadquarters, 0.1 mile east of main highway ondirt access road. Adjacenc to large drainage.

2025 7/6/77; 0.7 mile past turnoff to Area 21 study 2050plot on top of a saddle, 30 miles north of the road.

2026 7/6/77; past No. 2025 east to first cattle guard, 2051then south -0.6 mile to a point where thedrainage basin begins to narrow.

2027 7/6/77;-1.5 to 2 miles east of a gas pump house 2052on the north. Sample site is on a knoll east of alarge basin 0.2 mile south of the main road. 2053

2028 7/6/77; -0.5 mile east c r No. 2027 and 0.3 milesouth of the highway in a closed basin. 2054

2029 7/6/77; same as No. 2028 but 60 m farther south 2055next to v/ater hole.

2030 7/6/77; 150 m northeast of No. 2028 in same 2057sediment basin.

7/6/77; same sediment basin as in No. 2028 butup on a slope leading to the basin. °>?«ftre sheeterosion.7/7/77; ~10 miles south of Hwy 380, -0.3 mileeast of Rio Grande, in dirt tank.Ill 111 \ 100 m north of Hwy 380 at bridge overRio Grande. Detector set up 10 m into river bed.7/7/77; located on a flood plain on east bank ofthe Rio Grande, 0.25 mile north from bridge.7/12/77; below Area 21 at water bank in basin,-0.5 mile off main road and 150 m west of thelarge dirt tank.1112111; located at the northeast corner of Area21 study plot.7/12/77; located at the northwest corner of theArea 21 study plot.7/12/77; located at the southwest corner of theArea 21 study plot.II Mill\ located at the southeast corner of theArea 21 study plot.7/12/77; located 100 m west of No. 2037 at dirttank below Area 21.7/13/77; located 90 m north of 20° west ofgarage at Copeland Ranch.II13111; 1 mile south of EPA No. 151 at awindmill. Also, at a section curner 1 mile northand 3 miles east of Copeland Ranch.7/13/77; replicate of No. 2046, but J00 m north-east.7/13/77; located at EPA No. 151.7/14/77; located on the shoulder of a largeenclosed watershed. Located at the depressionand tank in Section 24 R.8E., T.25, of "CatMesa" USGS quadrangle.7/14/77; 100 m east of . , . 2049 on shoulder.Replicate.7/14/77; located in bottom of depression 100 meast of the water tank. Same depression as Nos.2049 and 2050.7/14/77; replicaie of No. 2051, 100 m north and45 m east of No. 2051.7/14/77; located on a ridge top 1 mile north and0.7 mile east of Copeland Ranch.7/14/77; 100 m north of No. 2045. Replicate.7/14/77; 4.5 miles east of Copeland Ranch turn-off, 16 miles south of the road in a wide, low area.7/18/77; located -100 m from Monte PuertoRanch headquarters, north 65° west to front doorof house.

83

2058 7/18/77; located ~1.5 miles south of Monte 2083Puerto Ranch past Bench Mark, then 0.2 milesouth of road in open, grassy basin. 2084

2059 7/18/77; located at Mesa Well on Monts PuertoRanch, north of the windmill ~200 m. 2085

2060 7/18/77; located at a dirt tank called SouthPothole on the Monte Puerto Ranch, at middle ofsediment accumulation.

2061 7/18/77; replicate of No. 2060. 20862062 7/18/77; 100 m from fence gate at Pothole. 20872064 7/19/77'; -0.25 mile south of paved road Nc. 14.

This is the Gran Quivira control site and is ~ 10 mwest of the road just south of the Gran Quiviraservice road. 2088

2065 7/19/77; located on Cat Mesa 20 m east of road,0.1 miles south of Bench Mark 6239. 2090

2066 7/19/77; located 1.3 miles east of Rugh Well justsouth of Maxwell Ranch headquarters, 20 m westof road near junction of several major drainages 2090off Cat Mesa.

2067 7/19/77; located 2.25 miles south and 1.1 mileswest of Mesa Well on the Monte Puerto Ranch. 2092

2068 7/19/77; located 0.2 mile north of No. 2067 on aridge.

2069 7/19/77; located 1.2 miles east of Line Tank on 2093the Monte Puerto Ranch, 0.1 mile east of USGSBench Mark 6213.

2071 7/20/77; ridge north of Cuate Tank on Hinkle 2094Ranch.

2072 7/20/77; located in flat, grassy sediment trap atCuate Tank on Hinkle Ranch. 2095

2073 7/20/77; replicate of No. 2072, located 100 meast of No. 2072. 2096

2074 7/20/77; located 1 mile south of Cuate Tank onsouth facing slope.

2075 1/20/11; cabin in the " Y" of the road. 20972076 7/20/77; located near a water tank 3.25 miles

east of Maxwell Ranch turnoff, ~0.25 mile south 2099of road.

2077 7/20/77; located at intersection of NM 14 androad to Lovelace/Maxwell Ranches. 2100

2079 7/21/79; control site, same as No. 2064.

2080 7/21/77; located on NM 14, 2 miles east ofpavement past Gran Quivira. - '01

2081 1/21/11; located on NM 14, 4 miles east ofpavement past Gran Quivira.

2082 7/21/77; located on NM 14, 6 miles east of 2 1 0 2

pavement past Gran Quivira, 100 m south pastplace where road turns toward Claunch.

7/21/77; located on Forest Road 167, 3.5 mileseast of NM 14, 20 m south of road.7/21/77; located at the junction of Forest Road167 and Forest Road 161.7/21/77; located 3 miles south of Forest Road167 on Forest Road 161. Site is ai the intersectionwith a road from NM 14 going to the SurratRanch.7/25/77; Gran Quivira control site.7/25/77; located near the intersection of SR 14and the road to the Atkinson Ranch, T.l.N;R.10.E, Sec. 23 at northeast side of Forest Road167 and Forest Road 137 je..7/25/77; located 2 miles east of No. 2087, 10 mnorth of the road.7/26/77; located 7.25 miles west of SR 42 onForest Road 167. Located north of the road nearan occupied ranch.1/26/11; located just east of the intersection ofForest Road 167 and NM 42 at location of EPANo. 19.7/26/77; located about 6 miles northwest ofCedarvale on NM 42 at southwest side of road-side rest area.7/27/77; located ~1.5 miles southeast ofCedarvale near aircraft radio beacon at "CoronaAirport."7/27/77; located on north-south road to PinosWells in an arroyo upstream to a cattle tank,T.2.N;R.12.E.7/27/77; same as No. 2094, but moved up tonearest bench to the north above arroyo bottom.7/27/77; same as No. 2094, but moved up tonearest bench to the south above the arroyobottom.7/27/77; located in Salt Lake basin (southernextreme) R.13.E; T.2.N.7/28/77; located near the junction of NM 42 andthe ERDA Solar Irrigation Project turnoff, closeto El'A No. 24.7/28/77; located about 22 miles east of Willardon U.S. 60. Located on high ground, that is, slightrise.7/28/77; located about 15 miles north of Encinoon U.S. 285 on east side of road on east ridge ofPedernal Mountain.to 2113 were locations around Los Alamos usedfor TA-45, Bayo Canyon, Acid Canyon, andPueblo Canyon Resurvey.

84

2114 8/8/77; Gran Quivira control site. 21312115 8/8/77; located at junction of Forest Roads 99

and 161, 10 miles west of NftJl 54. Sample site ison the northeast side of the "T" intersection and 213230 m north of Forest Road 161 and 30 m east ofForest Road 99. 2133

2116 8/8/77; located ~2.3 miles east of No. 2115 onForest Road 161. Site is in a medium-sized 2134arroyu 40 m north road.

2118 8/9/77; located 5.5 miles west of Corona, 2.5 2135miles west on Forest Road !41 to "PrimitiveRoad" sign on south side of road, 30 m west of 2136sign.

2119 8/9/77; located in a saddle-0.5 mile southeast of 2138North Peak, 0.7 mile east of Foiest Road 104 ona "two-rut" road.

2120 8/9/77; located in a large stream channel just east 2139of Forest Road 140. Site is at the confluence of aside stream with the main channel, 40 m east ofForest Road 140 and just above a newly con- 2140structed dirt tank.

2121 8/9/77; located on Gallinas Peak -10 m north ofForest Road 102 at a small jeep trail. Site is on 2141the leeward slope (north).

2122 8/9/77; Replicate of 2121, 200 m east 21422123 8/9/77; located near the intersection of Forest

Roads 99 and 102 on Forest Road 102, 50-75 m 2143west of Forest Road 99, 10 m south of road.

2125 8/10/77; located 3 miles east of NM 54 on the 214Bond Ranch. Site is 40 m south of the road in 2146grassy stream bottom.

2126 8/10/77; located 17.2 miles west of NM 54, past 2147Harvey Ranch.

2127 7/10/77; located near the windmill at the Er- 2148ramouspe Ranch.

2128 8/10/77; located ~0.5 mile north of the Er- 2153ramouspe Ranch, 15 m from dirt tank.

2129 10/4/77; located at southeast corner of the GZcontrol plot. Same as Nos. 1985 and 1994. 2154

2130 10/5/77; located ~2 miles west of fence at GZalong WSMR No. 20. Site is 150 m north of road 2155on a playa.

10/5/77; 5.5 to 6 miles north of GZ. Fence atright-hand bend in the road, 50 m west of apex ofturn.10/5/77; located near mine site on WSMR. Site is~60 m southwest of the white dome.10/5/77; recount of No. i998 inside the outerfence at GZ.10/5/77; inside inner GZ fence and the right, ~ 10m inside gate.10/5/77; inside inner GZ fence, north of themonument and 7 m from fence.10/5/77; inside inner fence, 10 m west of woodencover.10/5/77; located on WSMR midway from Route7 to mine site at intersection of a road leadingsouth.10/6/77; within outer fence at GZ, from gate, 3rdfence corner in clockwise direction and 20 mtoward monument.10/6/77; within outer fence at GZ. Site is at 6thfence corner clockwise and 15 m toward monu-ment.10/6/77; within outer fence at GZ. Site is at 10thcorner clockwise and 30 m toward monument.10/6/77; southeast corner of Ecology GZ controlsite.10/6/77; located at White Sands "Gold" roadblock along NM 380, ~45 m south of road.20/7/77; Gran Quivira control site.10/7/77; recount of Nos. 2021 and 1981 aboveArea 21 at the black water tower.10/9/77; located ~0.5 mile northeast of Binghamin large dirt tank.10/9/77; located 1.5 miles east of San Antonioalong NM 380.10/11/77; located 4.6 miles past the first cattleguard after crossing Rio Grande Bridge at Escon-dida. This is east of the river at Socorro.10/11/77; located 7.7 miles from No. 2153 alongthe road. Site is east and a little south of Socorro.10/11/77; located 9.3 miles from No. 2154 nearan old stone house. Site is several miles north ofNM 380.

85

APPENDIX C

IN SITU INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

I. CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENT RESPONSEAND FIELD APPLICATION

Calibration of in situ gamma-ray spectroscopy instru-ment response depends on the distribution of the radio-nuclides of interest as a function of depth of soil.Naturally occurring radionuclides are usually uniformlydistributed, but surface-deposite' radionuclides such asthose from uie Trinity event, which have leached into thesoil horizons, exhibit a distribution that is a complicatedfunction of rainfall input, soil properties, vegetation typeand density, and the like. Accordingly, soil profile sam-pling at certain of the in situ measurement locations wasdone, and the results extrapolated to the rest of thelocations by a model to be described below.

A. Calibration of Instrument Response

The response of the closed-end, cylindrical Ge(Li)detector, placed at a fixed height of one meter above thesoil, is an energy-dependent function of the angularresponse of the detector and the flux of unscatteredphotons incident at the detector per unit of soil radioac-tivity.

A general equation expressing this relation is

Nr/s=(N0/4»)(Nf/N0)(4>/s) , (C-l)

where Nf/s is the counting rate in the photopeak per unitof soil radioactivity; No/ij) is the number of counts in rhephotopeak of interest per incident photon/cm2 for a pointsource at 0° from the detector's axis; Nf/N0 is an angularcorrection factor to account for nonuniform response atangles between 0° and 90°; and <j>/s is the theoretical fluxof unscattered photons incident at the detector per unit ofsoil activity. Normally, calibration involves a ca;.ula-tional procedure independent of the geometries of" thedistributed sources to be evaluated. Radionuclides thathave been redistributed through the vertical profile froman initial surface deposition are usually assumed to be

exponentially distributed. As a crosscheck of the labora-tory calibration and suitability of the soil sampling forestimation of vertical distribution, an empirical calibra-tion was attempted as well.

The coefficient Nf/<t> = (N0/<j>)(Nf/N0) (that is, theproduct of the first two terms on the right) represents thetotal detector registration efficiency for unscatteredphotons under field conditions. It is a function of theenergy and distribution of unscattered photons. Theunscattered photon distribution itself is a function ofphoton energy, source activity distribution vertically andover area, detector height, and the mass attenuationcoefficients and densities of soil and air. The sourceactivity distribution and photon energy are the mostimportant parameters. Small variations in the otherparameters result in only minor variations in the coeffi-cient Nr/(j». In Appendix D, it is shown that an independ-ent determination of this coefficient based on measuredinstrument response and a source term developed frommeasured vertical profiles of 137Cs activity fitted to anexponential distribution function provides an empiricalestimate of detector efficiency, which compares very wellwith the laboratory calibration performed at LawrenceLivermore National Laboratory (LLNL).

B. Field Applications

The gross, short-term stability of the total spec-trometer as well as long-term staoility under the stressesof a rather severe environment typical of the New Mexicodesert during the summer months were both concernsduring field operations.

The gross response of the system was checked at thebeginning of each day and at regular intervals during theday by counting a small calibration source placed directlyunder the detector. As a check of long-term stability, twocontrol plots were selected as convenient backgroundlocations that could be repeatedly counted during thecourse of the field work. One was an intensive study areaabout 1 mile south of the Trinity event GZ site on the

86

White Sands Missile Range; the other was near the GranQuivira National Park in the vicinity of Chupadera Mesa.

II. EVALUATIONS OF TRINITY U7Cs DATA

As a result of the present Trinity resurvey, there aretwo basic sources of raw data on 137Cs concentrations insoils and biota in the Trinity fallout field: the measure-ments made on canned samples submitted to LLNL foranalysis, and the in situ Ge(Li) spectral data. For most ofthe in situ locations, field integration of the cesium peakwas made by a reliable approximation technique. Thesefield data and the results of the laboratory measurementsof canned samples provided the basis for the preliminaryevaluations described in the following discussion.

An essential factor for purposes of estimating the totalinventory of l37Cs in the soil is the reciprocal of theexponential relaxation depth of contaminant in the soilprofile (a). Only nine sample locations on ChupaderaMesa yielded profile concentration data usable for esti-mating the profile distribution. Of these, three wereestimates based on data for the first and third 5-cmprofiles only, which would tend to make the estimatedprofile parameters less reliable. Overall, there is uncer-tainty in the estimate; of a from the soil data because ofthe way samples were collected and analyzed, as well asthe natural variability in the distribution from place toplace in the vicinity of the in situ measurement. Estimatesof o were generated from the soil profile data usingstandard least-squares regression techniques.

In order to extend this profile data set to the remainderof the sample locations on the mesa, it was determined bymultiple regression studies that a useful predictor couldbe developed from data on the elevation of each samplelocation and position on the local topological sequence(reduced to simply ridge top, side slope, or depression).The topological sequence information was made quan-titative by means of a linear compartment model of 137Csredistribution during the past 30 years among thesetopological sequences on the mesa. The regression rela-tionship derived accounts for 76% of the variability in thedata, which, considering the many sources of variabilityin 137Cs redistribution through the soil profile, seemremarkably good. Predicted reciprocal relaxation depthsranged from 0.1 cm"1 to 1.2 en"1, with the higher values(corresponding to shallower distributions) predicted forhighest elevations. For simplicity i:i computer processingthe field Ge(Li) spectrometer data, tbs.se predicted values

were reduced to one of four values of a, uniform (a=0),0.2, 0.4, or 0.7. Sample locations off Chupadera Mesawere assigned a values based on judgment and on limiteddistribution data when available. Ground Zero areaswere found to exhibit nearly uniform profiles, whileintervening regions had profiles typical of worldwidefallout (relaxation depth of 5 cm).

The response of a bare Ge(Li) detector to the inventoryof gamma-emitting radionuclides in the soil over which itis placed is dependent on detector-source geometry,photon energy, and the vertical distribution of activity(characterized by the a-parameter). Usually the detectoris calibrated for photon energy and geometry dependenceby the use of sealed sources, while the o-dependence isaccounted for theoretically. (See Chapter 2 for details onstandard calibration techniques.) The in situ calibrationefficiency term, Nr/s, is defined for sealed source calibra-tion by an energy-dependent zero-angle response term,Nr/(j), an angular correction (geometry) term Nr/N0, andan a-dependent source term §/s:

Nf/s =

where

Nr/s = count rate in photopeak/unit of soil activity(nCi/m2),

Nj/cj) = counts per min per incident photon/cm2 at thedetector for a source at 0° from detector axis,

N/s = angular correction term, and<j)/s = flux of unscattered photons incident at the

detector per unit of soil activity.

However, the in situ efficiency can also be estimatedfrom field data. In fact, an independent check of thesuitability of thp relatively weakly determined profileparameter for estimating total profile inventory, a, can bemade by an independent determination of the efficiencyof the detector. N,/s, from a set of field data. The flux perunit source, <j)/s, is determined mathematically as afunction of a. The count rate in the photopeak of l37Cswas field-integrated, yielding an estimate of Nf at eachlocation. "S" can be approximated under the assumptionthat the 137Cs activity is exponentially distributed in thesoil profile by integrating the exponential distribution:

S = S, f dx = (C-3)

87

where

So = approximate activity in the top layer of soil,

nCi/m2, and

a = reciprocal of relaxation depth, cm"1.

So can be approximated from the measured 137Cs concen-tration at each location where profile data are availablewith which to estimate a. These parameters suffice todetermine a lumped parameter, Nf/<|>, which, when multi-plied by <j>/S, yields an estimate of the calibration factor,N f /S. The theoretical relation between <j>/S and a isshown in Fig. C-l. The product of <|>/S and the estimatedS for each measured a divided into Nf yields estimates of

100 I I I T I I I I I I

90

80

70

40

30

20

10

N f / f * 6 0 . 9 4 • x p ( - l . l l a )

( R 2 = O . I 2 )

I I 1 I I 1 J I0.2 0.4 0 6 0.8

MEASURED a (cm"1)

F'g. C-l. Nf/ty as a function qfa.

Nf/<|> as a function of a. These values are tabulated inTable C-I. In Fig. C-2, these data are fitted to anexponential curve using standard regression techniques,ine low coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.12) isindicative of the large variability in the data, and hencethe somewhat arbitrary choice of an exponential fit to thedata. The predicted calibration term N f /s = (Nr/ij))(<t>/s) isplotted in Fig. C-2.

III. STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF MINI-U<JA DETECTABLE ACTIVITY OF > " C S AND239,240pu

In the Trinity resurvey project there were several typesof radioactivity measurements made with a variety ofequipment and techniques. Results are reported as ac-tivity per gram or per square meter. The sensitivity andprecision of a given instrumentation and method dependson such parameters as detection efficiency, energy resolu-tion, and background levels. In addition, sample volume,available counting time, and degree of statistical precisionrequired are crucial determinants. Following the ap-proach of Walford and Gilboy,ci and Kirby,c2 an ex-pression can be derived what will enable an estimation ofsensitivity limits (or minimal detectable activity) in termsof zone of these parameters.

It was assumed that whether U7Cs or 239Pu was beingmeasured, the detection system utilized possessed anenergy resolution capability such that radionuclide-speci-fic counts (for example, counts in a photopeak) wereidentifiable while situated on a background continuum. Inthis context, precisian of the count is definable in terms ofthe coefficient of variaticn c, where c = standard devia-tion of the net peak counts/net peak counts. If S is themeasured peak plus background counts within the chan-nel defining the peak and B and D are the backgroundand peak counts in this region, all measured for a time T,then

S = D + B (C-4)

For a highly stable counting system, variation is prin-cipally from counting statistics in both the peak channels(s = B)"2 and in the statistical variation in the data oneither side, giving rise to an additional variance V. Thecoefficient of variation can be written in these terms as

C =(D + 2B +V)1'

D(C-5)

88

TABLE C I

COUNT RATE PER UNIT FLUXAT THE DETECTOR, N/ifr,

AS A FUNCTION OF MEASURED a

SampleNo.

202720452048205820712080211511 IS2120

Measureda (cm"')

0.270.270.430.420.390.100.710.600.79

InventoryS (nCi/nr)

187.568.839.7

193.7

126.8

51.166.154.6

252.7

MeasuredNf

111.2215.7681.81

170.37187.029.656.3769.0288.05

Flux

•

3.281.20.87

4.202.660.461.821.42

7.33

Nr/<)>

33.8913.0993.6940.5370.27

65.0631.0148.6312.02

0 01 02 03 0" 05 06 07 08 09 10

Fig. C-2. l\\/s = Nr/ty • <j>/s as a function qfa

Solving for P yields

D= ii^I2C:

The total count in a peak is a product of the detector peakefficiency. N r/S, which is the count rate in the peak perunit activity in the ground S, the time of the count T, andthe activity in the ground SA

D = (Nf/S)(TXSJ (C-7)

The minimal detectable level of activity (minimum SA) is,thus, from Eqs. (C-6) and (C-7)

4 C 2 ( 2 B + v )

(C-8)

Since the variance in the net peak counts, VAR(D), is thesquare of the numerator of Eq. (C-5), the quantity (2B +V) in Eq. (C-8) can be replaced by the equivalentVAR(D) - D. This permutation allows calculation of theminimum detectable activity without introducing thespecific background count. The in situ and laboratoryGe(Li) data are reported only in terms of peak count rateand standard deviation or fractional standard deviation.

If the criterion of acceptability is that the coefficient ofvariation be no larger than 0.3 for a typical count time of

(C-6) 2000 s (33.3 min), then Smin becomes

0.167

Nr/s[1 +0.36(VAR(D)]!/?( . (C-9)

For the known peak count, R, and the fractional standarddeviation of the peak count rate, acpm, Smln becomes

0.167+ 400 (OcpmR2 " 0 / 0 3 R > ] '

(C-10)

89

REFERENCES C2. J. A. Kirby, L. R. Anspaugh, P. L. Phelps, G. A.Armantrout, and D. Sawyer, "A Detector System

C1. H. G. V. Walford and W. B. Gilboy, "Fundamentals for In Situ Spectrometric Analysis of M1 Am and Puof Sensitivity Units in Low Level Counting," in The in Soil," IEEE Transactions on Nuclear ScienceProc. Natural Radiation Environment II, August (February 1976).7-11, 1972, Houston, Texas (1973).

90

APPENDIX D

INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This appendix provides the information and assump-tions used to calculate the doses from the current condi-tions at Trinity Site and the fallout zone to the northeastincluding Chupadera Mesa. The land uses in the areainclude the restricted area of White Sands Missile Range,grazing of cattle, and a few crops grown in the far falloutareas. Chupadera Mesa is all grazing with ranchesranging in size from 100 square miles to some exceeding200 square miles. Home gardening is practiced withirrigation valer being supplied from wells. Well watersamples did not contain any significant amounts of thefallout radionuclides now remaining in the area.

I. SOILS DATA BY AREA

A. Background Levels of Radionuclides and Radiation

Reference values for background concentrations ofradioactivity in soils and sediments attributable to naturalconstituents or general worldwide fallout were assembledfrom several studies to provide a basis for comparison(Refs. Dl, D2, D3, and D4). This information is sum-marized in Table D-I. Most of the data were from acompilation on soils and sediments collected in northernNew Mexico over the period 1974-1977 as part of theLos Alamos National Laboratory routine environmentalsurveillance program. Some of the data were taken fromother studies representing generally smaller numbers ofsamples.

The data in Table D-I can be used only as a generalcomparison for the data taken for Trinity fallout zone.The distribution of worldwide fallout radionuclides varieswith latitude and longitude in the U.S. However, the datafor northern New Mexico are the only compilationavailable for this area of the U.S.

B. Survey Sample Results

I. Trinity Site GZ Area. Measurements of the radia-tion present at GZ of Trinity Site were started very early.

On July 16, 1945, measurements at 30 000 feet to thenorth of GZ recorded 10 R/h, while 30 000 feet to thewest only 0.2 R/h was recorded (Ref. D5). At 12 000feet south of GZ, nothing was recorded. At 4500 feetsouth, 0.011 R/h was recorded. At 6:30 p.m. on July 16,1945, a measurement 30 feet west of GZ recorded 6000R/h (Ref. D5). Measurements made August 12 and 14,1945, recorded 7 R/h at GZ with a circular area aroundGZ reading 15 R/h (Ref. D6). In October, 1945, anumber of excavations were made to study the blasteffects of the test (Ref. D7).

Ground disturbances at the GZ area occurred anumber of times. In 1947, the Trinitite containing themost radioactivity was placed in 12 drums and buriedinside the GZ area (Ref. D8). In 1952, the removal of thetop inch of earth including the remaining lower activityTrinitite was arranged (Ref. D9). In 1965 a monumentwas erected at the center of the GZ tower. In 1967 adetailed radiulogical survey was conducted to documentthe radiation doses present. The study detected a high of3 mR/h and low of 0.03 mR/h within the fenced areas(Ref. D10). At the same time, the 12 drums of Trinititewere dug up with a backhoe and shipped to Los AlamosNational Laboratory where disposal was accomplished inthe low-level waste burial facility (Ref. D8). The 1967study concluded there was no risk to persons visiting thesite. <•

Visits by the public to the site currently are limited toan Army-sponsored 2-h stay time. The keys to the areaare only available from the White Sands Missile Rangesecurity office and only after approval by the safetyofficer.

In 1977 the radiation survey for the DOE RemedialAction Programs made a few surface measurements atGZ. However, no data were taken on the depth ofcontamination during previous surveys. In 1983 bothauger samples and split-spoon samples were obtained inthe fenced areas of GZ. Figure D1 indicates the locationsof the soil samples at depth as well as locations of airsamples and external radiation measurements. External

91

TABLE D-I

NORTHERN NEW MEXICO BACKGROUND REFERENCE VALUES FORNATURAL OR FALLOUT LEVELS OF RADIOACTIVITY

MeanConcentration Range of

Isotope (x ± s) Concentrations

239Pu 0.008 ±0.010 <0.002-0.045

" 8 Pu <0.000 ± 0.0064 <0.003 - 0.010

241Am 0.004 ±0.004 <0.001 - 0.009

90Sr 0.25 ±0 .27 <0.05-1 .0

7Cs

Total U

0.32 ±0.30 <0.10 - 1.06

1 8± 1.3

232Th 14.3 ± 3.6

226Ra 2.4 ± 0.8

<0.1 -5.1

9.2-20.1

1.6-3.9

No. ofUnits Samples

pCi/g

pCi/g

pCi/g

pCi/g

pCi/g

liG/G

pCi/g

149

151

7

68

76

118

8

7

Comment

Soils and sediments0-5 cm

Soils and sediments0-5 cm

Sediments 0-5 cm

Soils and sediments0-5 cm

Soils and sediments0-5 cm

Soils and sediments0-5 cm

Soils vi-30 cm

Soil 0-5 cm

Reference

Dl

Dl

Dl

Dl

Dl

D3

D4

radiation measurements were made with fourthermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) at each location.

Tables D-II and D-III provide the data from soilsamples for 23'-240Pu and I52Eu. Samples from the GZinner fence area exhibit 239"240Pu levels 1.5 to 2.5 timesproposed guidance levels of 100 pCi/g developed by theDOE Remedial Action Programs (Ref. Dl 1). The quan-tities in the GZ samples also exceed the U.S. Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA) guidance on trans-uranics of 0.2 uCi/m2 for the top 1 cm of soil (Ref. D12).

Examination of the 239-24Opu surface sample data forbetween the fences indicates none of the surface samplesexceeds the Remedial Actions Program criteria. Table D-IV includes the means for surface samples at similardistances from GZ. None of the means exceeds either

DOE or EPA proposed criteria for surface contamina-tion. For soil samples between 1-6 cm taken between thefences, all results were below DOE and EPA proposedcriteria. Below 40 cm (16 inches), all soil sample resultsfor 2«-24Opu were the same as fallout levels in northernNew Mexico.

Europium-152 is the predominant gamma-ray emitterin the soils of the GZ area. In undisturbed areas betweenthe fences around GZ, the 132Eu appeared in soil samplesat deeper levels than plutonium. This would appear tosuggest some mobility greater 'han plutonium. Also,measurements by in situ gamma-ray spectroscopy indicate 132Eu is the major contributor to external radiationdoses at GZ. There are no specified criteria for theamount of I52Eu in soils. However, the DOE limits the

92

onus

OIE-I4

• AUGEfi SAMPLES

O S P L I T - S P O O N SAMPLES

• .MR SAMPLER

» METEOROLOGICAL TRAILER

A TLD LOCATIONS zoo •100

0 M PO BO ZOO 230 m

tCALES

Fig. D-l. Location of June 1983 sampling.

maximum ace ; table whole-body exposure to 500mrem/yr. The annual visit allowed by the Army wouldresult in a maximum dose of 1 mrem/yr added to about150 mrem/yr from natural radiation for the area. Theaverage dose per 2-h visit is likely to be about 0.5 mrem.

2- Radioactivity in Soils of Trinity Fallout Areas.Based on the soil data taken by this survey and the 1973and 1974 survey by the U.S. EPA, the u»-24Opu arithme-tic mean content of surface soils and deeper soil samplesis less than criteria for removal by both the DOE and

EPA. That is, the levels are considered safe for continu-ous residence by the public in the area. The plutoniumcontent and content of other radionuclides from theTrinity test fallout are summarized in Tables XIVthrough XIX in Chapter 4. The tables are summaries ofthe data from Appendix A.

II. DOSE CALCULATIONS

The EPA guidance for transuranics in the generalenvironment is based on a set of assumptions on how

93

TABLE D-II

1983 PLUTONIUM DATA FOR SPLIT SPOON CORESAMPLES FROM GROUND ZERO AREA

'"Pii (pCi/g)

Depth

0-1 cm

t -6 cm

0-6 in.

6 12 in.

12 18 m.

18-24 in.

24-30 in.

30-36 in.

36 42 in.

42 48 in.

GZ 1 (

256.00000.4000

12 m)

t 3.0000j 0.0200

1.3300 ±0.0400

Sample Number and

GZ 2 (12 m)

22.8000 ± 0.2000156.0000 ± 15.0000

23.7000 ± 0.4000

9.9000 -t 0.30000.1030 ±0.00804.9300 ±0.13000.1350 + 0.0080

Depth

0-1 cm

1-6 cm

16-22 in.

22-28 in.

Distance from GZ

1-3 (210 m)

20.6000 ± 0.2000

0.0056 ±0.00!00.0029 ±0.0010

II-4 (275 m|

0.3100 ±0.02000.1810 ±0.0150

0.0043 ± 0.00100.0110 ±0.0030

HI-5

0.99000.0440

0.00220.0041

(280 m

± 0.0300±0.0140

± 0.0010± 0.0010

Depth IV 6 (265 m) 1-7 (250 m) U-8(245m) Depth IV-10 (185 m) -11 (330 rn)

0-1 cm

16 cm

16 22 in.

22 28 in.

5.0900 t 0.8000 0.0440 ± 0.0070 27.5000 ± 0.30000.0590 ± 0.0080 0.7300 ± 0.0400

0.0021 ± 0.0010 0.0070 ± 0.00200.0070 ± 0.0020 0.0160 ± 0.0030

0.0100 ±0.0020

0.0180 ±0.0030

0-1 cm

1-6 cm

4-10 in.

16-22 in.

22-28 in.

0.5600 ± 0.03CP 8.5000 ±0.1500

0.1570 ±0.015"0.0230 ± 0.00500.0021 ± 0.001 C 0.0068 ± 0.00100.0005 ± 0.0000 0.0130 ±0.0020

Depth

0-1 cm

1-6 cm

16-22 in.

22-28 in.

11-12 (510 m) n i l 3 (475 m) IV14(32Om)

0.0430 ± 0.0080 0.0940 ± 0.0130 0.0410 ± 0.00900.0410 ± 0.0100 0.1500 ±0.0200 0.0190 ± 0.0060

0.0110 ± 0.0020 0.0025 ± 0.0010 0.0047 ± 0.00100.0038 i 0.0010 0.0091 ± 0.0010 0.0040 ± 0.0010

Depth

0-11-2

2-3

nft

ftft

Control (5200 m)

0.0019 i 0.00100.0006 r 0.0000

0.0024 ± 0.00100.0011 ±0.0000

94

TABLE D-III

1983 15!Eu DATA FROM SPLIT SPOONCORE SAMPLES IN GROUND ZERO AREA

1S2Eu (pCi/g)

Depth

0-1 cm1-6 cm0-6 in.6-12 in.

12-18 in.18 24 in.24-30 in.30-36 ;n.36 42 in.12-48 in.

GZ 1

500.7191

1069.0675282.022540.1567

22.50860.55661.03310.4203

(10 m)

± 50.6747

± 107.7231± 28.3633± 4.0812± 2.2929±0.1335±0.1636±0.1278

Sample Number and Distance from GZ

GZ-2 (12 m)

284.3388 ± 29.0322245.4959 ± 24.9538264.5681 ± 26.8594957.6400 ± 96.2607169.0552 ± 17.4506222.9221 ± 22.4308129.8201 ± 13.073124.1423 ± 2.462310.4316 ± 1.08583.9016 ±0.4443

Depth

0-1 cm1 6 cm4-10 in.

10-16 in.16-22 in.22-28 in.28-34 in.

34-40 in.40-46 in.<•' <: "I in.

1-3 (210 m)

33.6445 ± 3.535930.8438 ± 3.490214.7625 ± 1.62365.7801 ± 0.62220.9959 ± 0.15:80.8026 ±0.15511.4461 ± 0.28190.0415 ±0.15520.1950 ±0.11690.3665 -• 0.1436

IM (275)

13.3744 ± 1.715910.5350 ± 1.24125.4157 ±0.90140.8868 ±0.71040.5379 ±0.21880.2654 ±0.1115

III 5 (280 m)

9.9419 ± 1.386910.0096 ± 1.44445.3234 ± 0.89802.2046 ± 0.28000.7792 ± 0.24000.3642 ± 0.1086

Depth

0-1 cm

1 6 cm4-in in.

10-16 in.16 22 in.22-28 in.28-34 in.34-40 in.

IV 6 (265 m)

13.8847 x 1.665416.9154 x 2.01742.0848 ± 1.52034.1317 ± 0.94920.6858 ±0.18230.4285 ± 0.1389

17 (230 m)

3.4109 ±0.38884.5362 ± 1.14052.8248 ±0.87100.4960 ±0.19400.2761 ±0.18710.4526 ±0.1697

IV-10 (185 m)

58.6909 ± 6.1822

46.1493 ±4.840023.0370 ± 2.55765.7562 ± 0.65221.5456 ± 0.24050.5428 ±0.13210.4930 ±0.14760.2072 ± 0.4930

Depth

0-1 cm1-6 cm4-10 in.

10-16 in.16-22 in.22 28 in.

I l l (330 m)

5.1252 ± 1.07783.5483 ± 0.92480.8999 ± 0.78062.1553 ±0.69750.3492 ±0.16660.2080 ±0.1061

II 12 (510 m)

1.3496 ±0.69561.1844 ±0.53682.1175 ±0.57560.694i ±0.43110.4024 ±0.1540

0.2385 ± 0.2039

III-13 (475 m)

0.0760 ±0.25152.5695 ± 1.04000.6602 ± 0.40740.4506 ± 0.50430.6390 ±0.23910.2231 ±0.1409

Depth IV 14 (520 m) Depth n-8 (245 m) Depth II 8c (245 m)

0-1 cm 0.6312-t 0.5778

10-lf-16-227.2-28 i

0-6 in. 18.2771 ± 2.21561-6 cm 0.1291 ± 0.4440 6-12 i

0.1585 ±0.5181

0.4468 ±0.1902

18-25 in.24-30 in.30-36 in.36-42 in.

0.2456 ± 0.10560.3192 ±0.19960.4045 ±0.1628O.3IO8 ±0.1398

0-1 cm5.2162 i 0.9229 1-6 cm

410m. 0.5836 ± 0.2980 12-1S in. 4.1792 ± 0.1840 6-11 cm

8-13 in.13-19 in.19-25 in.

25-27-1/2 in.

25.OH2 ±3.011421.0319 ± 2.731516.4178 ± ? 17626.7864 ± 1.05622.2228 ± 0.26490.6343 ±0.16650.4335 ±0.1455

95

TABLE D IV

JUNE 1983 PLUTONIUM DATA FROM TRINITY GZ AREA

Location

See Figure D-l

Outside fencesOutside fencesOutside fences

Between fencesBetween fencesMean for Betweenfenced area

3 Miles South ofEntrance gateGround ZeroInner fence

NorthernNew Mexico

"Data for 0-1 foot.

Sample

III -IV-

I-II-II-

II-III-IV-

IVI

5• 6

-7-8-4

- 12-13- 14

-10- 11

Control site

GZ

Average

0-1 cm

0.99 +5.09 ±

0.044 ±27.5 ±0.31 ±

x = 6.78 ±

0.043 ±0.094 ±0.041 ±

i = 0.059 ±

0.56 ±8.5 ±

x =5.8 ±

0.0019 ±

22.8 ±

0.008 ±

0.030.80.010.30.0211.8

0.0080.0130.0090.03

0.030.159.5

0.001'

0.2

0.01

1-6 cm

0 044 ±0.014

0.059 ± 0.010.73 ±0.040.18 ±0.02

—

0 041 ±0.010.15 ±0.02

0.019 ±0.006—

0.157 ±0.0158.8 ±0.13

...

156 ± 15

—

Distancefrom

280265250245275

—

510475520

—

185330

—

5.2

12

GZ

mmmmm

mmm

mm

km

m

radionuclides reach man. The guidance only considerstransuranic elements such as plu> mum. In the Trinityfallout zone, there are also residual fission products. Theresidual fission products are dominated by I37Cs and 90Sr.Thus, investigations regarding the safety of living in thefallout zone need to consider the total doses from allradionuclides present.

The doses are from three major paths to man. Theexternal radiation doses as measured are reported inChapter 4. The doses from inhalation and ingestion of

radionuclides in air and food require calculational esti-mates. The following sections discuss the informationused for these calculations, as well as present, inter-mediate, and final results.

A. Inhalation of Radionuclides

The residual contamination in the soils of the falloutzone provides a source of particulate matter that may beresuspended by wind movement or other mechanical

96

TABLE D-V

PARAMETERS FOR ESTIMATION OF RESUSPENSION OFRADICNUCLIDES USING MASS LOADING

(24 ug/m3)"

Estimated Annual

Area

Trinity SiteInner FenceOuter Fence

White SandsBinghamChupadera MesaFar Fallout ZoneSan Antonio, NM

Effective SoilConcentration (pCi/g)

239.240^5

22.85.8

i3.2b

O.36c

3.2b

O.57b

0.019"

90Sr

1.8—

2.31.47

l 3 7Cs

16.50.544.53.7C

2.82.04.8C

Iglf,

0.07!0.0710.0710.781.61.61.6

239.2

3.8 x9.8 x2.2 x6.7 x1.2 x2.2 x7.3 x

40Pu

io-"io-'2

10""io-'2

,o-io

io-"IO-13

Average AirConcentration (uCi/m3)

90Sr

...

....

3 x 10'12

...8.8 x 1 0 ' "5.6 x 1 0 ' "

137

2.8 x9.2 x1.8 x6.9 x1.1 X7.7 x1.8 x

Cs

io-"io-13

io-12

io-"lo-io

io-"JQ-IO

60

4

4

Measured?39.240p..

(uCi/m3)

.3x 10""

.1 x 10""......

. lx 10-" d

—.3x 10-" d

"Reference D13.bFor samples other than 1 cm deep, a Correction Factor Applied for profit distribution: 1.32 for WhiteSands, 0.34 for Bingham, 1.9 for Chupadera Mesa, Far Fallout Zone and San Antonio. See ReferenceD14.

•"Estimated from in situ measurements.dRefeienceD15.

action. Such airborne particulate matter could be inhaledby persons occupying the areas. Few direct measure-ments of total airborne radioactivity have been made inthe area. Some of these results were discussed in Chapter4. Another method of evaluating the potential contribu-tion of resuspension of residua! contamination in theareas is described here. The theoretical model selected isthe straightforward mass-loading approach, which hasbeen assessed as being suitable for conditions where thecontaminant has been aged in the environment for sometime (Ref. D16). Refinements to account for unequaldistribution of the contaminant on different particle sizesand for the limited size of the contaminated area wereincluded. The basic approach predicts the concentrationof airborne activity (activity/unit volume of air) as theproduct of the mass of particulates in the air (mass/unitvolume of air) and the concentration of activity in the soil(activity/unit mass of soil) in the area. This predicted air

concentration is modified by an enrichment factor toaccount for the generally higher concentration per unitmass on smaller particles in the respirable range and forthe generally small weight fraction of sma!l particles insoils.

The various parameters and the estimated airborneconcentrations of 239Pu for the individual areas aresummarized in Table D-V. The arithmetic mean 239Pusoil concentrations came from Tables XIV through XIX.

The enrichment factors for each area where particlesize and activity distribution data were available werecalculated as shown in Table D-VI. The enrichment ratiog, is the quotient of the activity fraction for a givenparticle size increment i and the mass fraction for thatsize increment. These fractions were taken from or basedon actual measurements of soils in the GZ andChupadera Mesa areas as indicated by the references inthe table. The airborne mass fraction f, for the size

97

TABLE D-VI

ENRICHMENT FACTORS FOR RESUSPENDABLE PARTICLES

Area

Trinity Site

White Sands

Bingham

Chupadera Mesa

Far Fallout Zone

San Antonio

SizeIncrement

(urn)

53 - 105<53

53 - 105<53

53 - 105<53

53- 105<53

53- 105<53

53 - 105<53

Wt.Fraction

c.ir0.089°

0.1 lb

O.O89b

0.19b

0.10"

0.18b

0.36"

0.18C

0.36c

0.18C

0.36c

"»PuActivityFraction

0.0043"0.078"

0.0043"O.O78b

0.03b

0.1 lb

0.16"O.73b

0.16C

O.73c

0.16c

0.73c

ActivityMassRatio

&

0.0390.088

0.0390.088

0.161.1

0.892.0

0.892.0

0.892.0

AirborneMass

Fractionf,d

0.350.65

0.350.65

0.350.65

0.350.65

0.350.65

0.350.65

Enrichment

g,f,

0.0140.057

0.0140.057

0.0560.752

0.311.32

0.311.32

0.311.32

0.071

0.071

0.78

1.6

1.6

311.6

"Assumed to be the same as measured at 1.6 km location northeast of GZ."Reference D14.cAssumed to be the same as measured at Chupadera Mesa.d Reference D13.

increment was taken from Fig. A2-3 in Ref. D13. Theenrichment factor (£, f, g,) is the sum over the sizeincrements of the respective f, g, products.

The annual average mass loading was taken to be 24ug/m3 (Ref. D16). This value is an annual geometricmean.

The estimated annual average 239Pu air concentrationis shown for each area. Table D-V also shows estimatedannual average air concentrations for 90Sr and 137Cs foreach area in which these isotopes occurred at concentra-tions on soil statistically above background as sum-marized in Table D-I as measurements had been made.

Potential doses that could result from the estimated airconcentrations were calculated by using standard inhala-tion rates to determine intakes and appropriate doseconversion factors (Ref. D17). For dose estimation, thepresence of transuranics other than 239Pu (i.e., 238Pu,241Pu, and 241Am) was accounted for by using a dosefactor combining the effect of aging weapons gradePlutonium for 50 years (Ref. D18). Table D-VII presentsa summary of the dose factors for the first year and 50-year committed dose equivalents for the isotopes andorgans of interest.

98

T A B L E D-VII

I N H A L A T I O N D O S E FACTORS U S E D

(mrem/nCi)*

Radionuclides

Plutonium i so topes" '

•°Sr

' " C s

Whole

2.3 x

8.3

3.3 x

First

Body

102

10'

Year Dose

Bone

8.3 x 10 ]

1.9 x 10-

3.3 x 10'

Lung

5.3 x 10*

7.0 x 10 !

5.2

Whole Body

8.7 x 10*

7.6 x 101

5.6 x 10'

5 0 Year

Do^e

Bone

9.0 x 10'

1.2 x 10*

6.1 x 10'

Committed

Equivalent

Lung

9.4 x 10'

1.2 x 101

9.4

Liver

4.5 x 10'

'Dose factors are from References D19 and D17 .

"Annual air intake of 8.4 x 103 mVyr.

' Includes decay of : " P u to " ' A m for 50 years plus o ther plutonium isotopes.

Doses for transuranics were estimated as the productof the estimated average airborne 239Pu concentrationsfor each stratum, a standard average breathing rate of 23m3 day (from Ref. D17), continuous occupancy, and thedose factors. These results are summarized in Table D-VIII by stratum for "9Pu and total transuranics including239Pu. Doses estimated for 90Sr and 137Cs are also shownin Table D-VIII. They are the products of the estimatedresuspended air concentration attributable to soil con-tamination, the breathing rate, and the appropriate dosefactor.

In the case of some air sampling data being available,the measured average for 10 months on Chupadera Mesais 41 aCi/m3 (Ref. D14), while the estimated resuspensionby calculation is 120 aCi/m3. The estimated doses frominhalation are likely to be an overestimate.

B. Ingestion of Radionuclides

Dose calculations for ingested radionuclides con-sidered the land use limitations of the areas of interest.Cattle grazing is the only land use out to the far falloutarea. Beyond Chupadera Mesa, a few scattered fields ofdry land wheat is raised, but the major land use is stillcattle grazing. For the dose estimates here, the presentland use assumes that all meat consumed, all milkproducts, and one-half the produce and vegetables areraised in the area being considered. The meat is furtherassumed to be all beef. Feed for the beef is assumed to bebe by grazing or forage raised in the area of interest. Thefood intakes used are those listed in Table D-IX for theaverage individual. Other parameters used for the estima-tion of transfer of radionuclides through the food chain to

man are listed in Table D-IX. Based on the feed cropsavailable per unit area, the doses calculated for the innerfenced area and the area between fences at GZ areoverestimates. Not all of the food assumed to be con-sumed could be produced in the area available withoutaltering present land use practices. The dose factors usedfor the calculations are listed in Table D-X.

1. Produce, Vegetables, and Forage. The transfer ofradionuclides from soil to plants was estimated using thesoil concentrations measured for the fallout areas in 1974and 1977 listed in Tables XIV through XIX in Chapter 4.The GZ data for 1983 were used for plutonium isotopes.The plant transfer parameters used for 239-240Pu weremeasured for GZ and Chupadera Mesa (Ref. D20). Theconcentration ratio (CR) between plant and soils wasused for calculations at GZ and the White Sands MissileRange fallout area. The measured 239-24Opu CR forChupadera Mesa was used for the other fallout areas.The CRs listed in Table D-X were used to calculateestimated radionuclide intake by beef and milk cows fromforage and grazing. The produce and vegetable uptakesof radionuclides were estimated from the wet weighttransfer parameter, Bv, and reduced 50% for removal ofsoils by washing. Estimated yearly radionuclide intakesfrom 50% locally grown produce and vegetables arelisted in Table D-XI.

2. Beef and Milk Pathways. To estimate the amount ofradionuclide intake by cattle, both the radionuclide trans-fer from soil to plant and direct consumption of soil wereused.

99

TABLE D-VIII

ESTIMATED DOSES FROM INHALATION OF AIRBORNEMATERIALS FROM RESUSPENSION

Inhalation Dose in Area of Interest (mrem; -}

Dose Calculated forTrinity Site

Inner Fenced AreaTrinity Site

Outer Fenced AreaWhite SandsMissile Range Bingham

Chupadera

Mesa

FarFallout Zone

SanAntonio

TransuranicsFirst Year Residence

Whole body 7.3 x 1 0 ' 1.9 x 1 0 "Bone 2.6 x 1 0 ' 7.0 x 10"'Lung 1.2x10- ' 4 . 4 x 1 0 '

50-Year Committed DoseWhole body 2.8 x I 0 ' 1 07.3 x 10"3

Bone 0.29 7.4 x 10"'Lung 0.30 7.7 x 1 0 'Liver 0.14 3.7 < 10 2

MSrFirs! Year Residence

Whole bodyBoneLung

50-Year Committed DoseWhole bodyBoneLung

'"Cs

First Year ResidenceWhole body 7.8 x 1 0 ' 2.5 x 1 0 'Bone 7.8 x 10"' 2.5 x 10~7

Lung 1.2 x 10"' 4 . 0 x 2 0 '50-Year Committed Dose

Whole body 1.3x10"' 4 .3x10- 'Bone 1.4 x 10 ' 4.3 x 10"'Lung 2.2 x 10"' 7.2 x 10"8

Totals Tor InhalationFirst Year Residence

Whole body 8.1 x 10"' 1.9 x 10"'Bone 2.6 x 10"J 7.0 x 10"'Lung 1.7x10"' 4 .4x10" '

50-Year Commiued DoseWhole body 2.8 x 10"2 7.3 x 10"'Bone 0.29 7.4 x 10"'Lung 0.30 7.7 x IO"!

Liver 0.14 3.7 x 10 '

4.2 x 10"'1.5 x 10"'9.8 x 10"'

1.6 x lO'1

0.170.17

8.3 x 10"'

2.1x 10"'3.1 x 10"'1.8 x 10'

2.0 x 10-'3.1 x 10*3.1x10"'

'.Ox 10-'5.0 x 10"'7.9 x 10""

8.5 x 10"'8.5 x 10 '1.4 x 10"'

1.3 x5.0 x3.0 x

4.9 x5.1 x5.3 x2.5 x

1.9 x1.9 x3.0 x

3.2 x3.2 x5.4 x

10'10 *10'

io-]

io-'10 '10 '

io-'io-'io-'

io-J

10'10"*

2.3 x 10"*8.4 x 10"'5.3 x 1 0 '

8.8 x 2O"3

0.910.950.45

6.1 x 10"'8.9 x 10-'5.0 x 10"*

6.0 x 10-*8.9 x I0"3

8.9 x 10"*

3.0 x 10"'3.0 x 10"'4.8 x 10"'

5.2 x 10"'5.2 x 10"'8.7 x 1 0 '

4.2 x 10"'1.5 x 10"3

9.8 x 1(1"'

1.6 x 10"'0.170.17

8.3 x 10"'

3.9 x 10-'5.6 x 10"'3.0 x lO"4

4.0.x 10"*5.6 x I0-J

5.6 x 10"*

2.1 x 10"s

2.1 x 10 '3.4 x 10"'

3.6 x 10"'3.6 x 10-'6.1 x 10"'

1.4 x5.1 x3.0 x

5.0 x5.5 x5.8 x2.8 x

5.0 x5.0 x7.8 x

8.5 x8.5 x1.4 x

io-'10"'10"*

10'10"'10"'10 '

io-'10"3

io-'

10 'io-'IO-3

4.3 x 10-'1.5 x 10-J

9.8 x 10 J

1.6 x 10 2

0.170.17

8.3 x 10 '

3.25.23.0

4.95.15.32.5

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

10'io-*10 '

10 '10 '10 '10 '

2.3 x 10"*8.4 x 10 '5.3 x 10"'

8.8 x 10"'0.910.950.45

6.71.51.0

1.600

8.3

x 10-5

x ! 0 3

x 10"'

XI0-'.17.17x 10 '

5.1 x1.0 x3.0 x

5.8 x5.6 x5.8 x2.8 x

10"'10~*10"*

io-*io-3

io-3

IO-3

means no data.

100

TABLE D-IX

INPUT PARAMETERS FOR DOSE CALCULATIONS'

Breathing Rate

Ingestion Rates

22.8m'/day

Max Individual Population (Average Individual)

Prouuce (kg/yr)Leafy vegetables (kg/yr)Milk(8/yr)

Average Agricultural Pro-ductivity per Unit Area

Feed crops (kg/rrr)tdry weight)

Produce or leafy vegetablesfor garden of maximumexposed individual(kg/nv) (wet weight)

Consumption rate of feed byanimal (kg/day) (dry weight)

Fraction of radioactivity re-moved from plant by washing

Soil ingested by cattle

52064

310

Chupadera

0.043

2.0

11.9"

0.5

250

i7n18

112

Other

0.056

2.0

11.9"

0.5

250

(Ref. D18)

(Refs. D2I.D22)

(Rcf. D22)

(Ref. 23)

(Ref. D24)

(Ref. D25)

Radionuclides

Transfer Parameters'

FFCR

Plutonium

GZ

I.0X 101.0 X 10

5X 10"1.2X 10

Chupadera

1.0 x 10 '1.0X 10'*i . i x i o"2.7X 10 '

Strontium

1.4 X 1 0 '3.0 X 10"1.8 X 10"7.2 X 10 ;

Cesium

•» i x io2.0X 10'4.1 X 105.0 X 10

Europium

2 .0X10 '5.0 X 10 '2.1 X 10 :

7.3 X 10 4

(Rcf. i.\26)(Rcf. V.-.17)I Refs :20, D28)(Rcfs. "J20, D28)

"Ref. D29."Taken as 2.5% of body weight, where the average live weight of catlle at slaughter of 4 77 kg was used.rFM = fraction of each day's radionuclidc intake appearing in each liter of milk. FF = fraction of each day's radionuclide intake appearing in r;> -;i kilogram offlesh, CR = concentration ralio forradionuclide uptake from soil to pasture or feed (pCi/kgdry weight pcrpCi/kgdry soil), and B, = concern D lion ratio forradionuclidc uptake from soil to edible parts of vegetable crops (pCi/kg wet weight per pCi/kgdry soil).''Pluton'um CR based on measurements bv Hakonson.

Experiments at contaminated zones of the NevadaTest Site have indicated that cattle ingest about 250 g/dof soil while grazing (Ref. D24V Transfer of the radio-nuclides from the cattle's diet into milk and meat wereestimated using the factors lited in Table D-X. Estimatesof the amount of radionuclides consumed yearly byhumans in meat and milk are listed by area in Table D-XI.

3. Dose Estimates from Ingestion. The total intakes of"'•240Pu, *°Sr, 137Cs, and 152Eu from consumption of beef,milk, and home garden products are listed in Table D-XI.The product of these values and the dose factors in TableD-X provide the maximum year dose and the 50-yearcommitted dose equivalent for whole body, bone, liver,and the lower large intestine. The results of these calcula-tions are listed in Table D-XII.

C. Special Pathways

The above dose estimates assume human activities thatdo not create any special considerations of sources of

radionuclide intake. However, to grow 50% of theirproduce and vegetables, individuals would have to gothrough soil preparation activities. Measurements madeduring soil preparation activities indicate higher re-suspension rates than normally encountered (Ref. D30).To estimate the dose to the home gardener requires somebroad assumptions regarding breathing rate, suspendedparticle concentration, enrichment factor, dose factors,and appropriate soil concen'-ation. The breathing rateused for this type of work was 43 £/min, or that for heavywork (Ref. D17). Air concentrations were assumed to be10 mg/m\ the threshold for nuisance dust. Enrichmentfactors from Table D-VI were used. Soil concentrationsused are the mean values of the summary data for 0-5,5-10, and 10-15-cm soil samples in Chapter 4. The soilpreparation time was assumed to be 30 h for a growingseason. The parameters used are presented in Table D-XII! and estimated doses in Table D-XIV.

TABLE D-X

INGESTION DOSE FACTORS USED

RadionucJide

Plutonium isotopes'"'°Srd

137Csd

"2Eud

Maximum Year Dose[(mrem/yr)(pCi)/g soil)]"

Whole Body

cc

0.63

Bone

0.455

c

50-Year

Whole Body

c9.45 x 10"'4.91 x 10-'

3.9 x 10-8

Committed Dose

Bone

7.8 x 10"4

1.17 x 10"3

6.82 x 10"'2.0 x 10"1

Equivalent

Liver

3.4 x 10"4

5.7x10-'7.87 x 10-'4.4 x 10~8

(mrem/pCi)

GI-LLI

c7.78 x 10-'2.59 x I0-5

2.6 x 10-'

'Reference D30."Includes decay of 241Pu to 241 Am after 50 years.T^ot calculated."Reference D3 i and D32 for 50-year Committed Dose factors.

102

TABLE D XI

INGESTED RADIONUCLIDES (pCi/yif

Radionuclide and Medium

Area of Interest

Trinity Site Trinity Site White Sands Chupadera Far SanInner Fence Between Fences Missile Range Bineham Mesa Fallout Zone Antonio

TransuranicsProduce and vegetables'5

MilkB;ef

Total intake90Sr

Produce and Vegetables'3

MilkBeef

Total intakem C s

Produce and vegetables'5

MilkBeef

Tot intake132Eu

Produce and vegetables'1

MilkBeef

Total intake

9.1 x 10"1.46

12.2

9.1 x 10"

c

c

c

5.3 x 103

1.3 x 104

3.1 xlO4

4.9 x 104

8.7 xlO 3

2.7 x 102

8.6 x 103

1.7 x 104

3.4 x 103

0.0550.46

3.4 x 103

1.6 x 102

3.8 x 102

8.9 x 102

1.4 x 103

7.1 x 102

2.2 x 101

7.1 x 102

1.4 x 103

5.8 x 103

0.0950.79

5.8 x 103

6.3 x 103

6.1 xlO3

l . l O x l O 3

1.3 x 10"

1.1 x 103

2.6 x 103

6.2 x 103

9.9 x 103

1.9 xlO2

6.01.9 x iO2

3.8 x 102

4.6 xlO3 2.2xlO4

0.052 0.250.44 2.12

4.6 xlO3 2.2x10"

8.0 x 103

7.8 x 103

1.4 x 103

1.7 x 104

6.8 x 102

1.6 x 103

3.9 x 103

8.2 x 103 6.2 x 103

9.0 x 102

2.2 x 103

5.1 x 103

1.10.0341.1

2.2

3.9 x 103

0.0450.38

3 9 x 103

5.2 x 103

5.1 x 103

9.2 x 102

1.1 x 104

4.8 x 102

1.2 x 103

2.8 x 103

1.3 x 102

0.00550.012

1.3 x 102

c

c

c

2.2 x 102

5.4 x 102

1.3 xlO3

4.5 xlO 3 2.1 xlO 3

"Estimated for average individual in population.bFifty per cent of produce and vegetables are grown locally in gardens.cNot calculated because no soil data were available.

TABLE D-XII

ESTIMATED DOSES FROM INGESTION OF FOODS GROWN IN EACH AREA

Ingestion Dose in Area of Interest (mrcm/yr)

Dose Calculated

TransuranicsMaximum year

Bone50-Year Committed Dose

Whole bodyBoneLiverGI-LLI"

wSrMaximum Year

Bone50-Year Committed Dose

Whole bodyBoneLiverGI-LLI

1J7CsMaximum Year

Whole body50-Year Committed Dose

Whole bodyBoneLiverGI-LLI

"2Eu50-Year Committed Dose

Whole bodyBoneLiverGI-LLI

Totals for ingestionMaximum Year

Whole bodyBone

50-Year Committed DoseWhole bodyBoneLiverGI-LLI

Trinity SiteInner Fence

70

•

7131

•

•

•

14

2.43.43.81.3

7 x 10"1

3 x 10"]

7 x 10"'0.4

14

2.47435

1.3

Trinity SiteOuter Fence

2.6

•

2.61.2

D

*

a

a

•

a

0.4

0.10.1O.i0.03

5 x 10"'3 x 10 - '6 x 10- '4 x 10"2

0.4

0.12.71.30.03

White SandsMissile Range

4.5

•

4.52.0

•

9

1.2150.071.0

2.8

0.50.70.80.3

I x 10"'8 x 10"'2 x 10"'

ft

2.813.5

1.720

2.91.3

Bingham

3.6

D

3.61.6

ft

9'

1.2C

15'0.07c

I.0c

2.3

0.40.60.60.2

9a

•

2.3—

1.6192.31.2

ChupaderaMesa

17

ft

177.5

»

11.5

1.6200.091.3

1.8

0.30.40.50.2

•

•

•

•

1.828

1.937

8.11.5

FarFallout Zone

3.0

•

3.01.3

•

7.5

1.0130.060.9

1.3

0.20.30.40.1

a

•

•

a

1.311

1.216

1.81.0

SanAntonio

0.1

a

0.10.04

•

•

•

•

•

0.6

0.10.10.20.05

•

••

0.6

0.10.20.20.05

'Not calculated.'Gastrointestinal tract—large intestine.cNo measurements for Bingham for *°Sr, so doses are assumed to be equal to those for White SandsMissile Range.

104

TABLE D-XIII

ESTIMATED AIR CONCENTRATION FOR SOIL PREPARATION FOR HOME GARDEN0

Effective Soil Concentration (pCi/g) Air Concentrations (uCi/m3)

Area

GZInner fenceBetween fencesWhite Sands Missile RangeBinghamb

Chupadera MesaFar Fallout Field

239-2*0

24 ± 0.43.5 ±3 .315 ± 12

0.74 ± 0.490.73 ± 0.850.15 ±0.15

90Sr

...

...

0.96 ± 0.74...

1.5 ± 1.11.3 ±0 .9

137Cs

12.6 ±2 .50.4 ± 0.25?.4 ± 2.2

0.25 ± 0.091.0 ± 1.5

0.75 ± 1.1

= ftf.

0.0710.0710.0710.781.61.6

239-24Opu

1.7 X 10"8

2.5 x 10"'1.1 x 10"8

5.8 x 10"9

1.2 x 10"8

2.4 x 10' '

6.8

2.4

2.1

"•Sr

ccx 10-'°cxlO"8

xlO"8

137

8.9 x2.83.;

2.4 x2.0 x1.6 x1.2 x

Cs

10"'lo-io

io-'10"'io-8

10"8

"Dust loading of 10 000 ug/m3.""Estimated from area measurements."Not calculated.

oin

oON

TABLE D-XIV

ESTIMATE DOSES FROM SOIL PREPARATION FOR HOME GARDEN"

Inhalation Dose (mrem/yr)

50-Yr Committed Doses for

TransuranicsWhole bodyBoneLung

Liver90Sr

Whole bodyBoneLung

137CsWhole bodyBone

Lung

TotalsWhole bodyBoneLungLiver

GZInner Fence

0.111.21.20.59

b

b

b

3.8 x 10"'4.2 x 10-'6.5 x 10"'

0.111.21.20.59

GZBetween Fences

0.0170.170.180.086

b

b

b

1.2x10-'1.3 x 10"'2.0 x 10-7

0.0170.170.180.086

White SandsMissile Range

0.0730.760.800.38

4.0 x 10~3

6.0 x 10"4

6.3 x 10"'

1.0 x 10-'1.1 x 10-'1.7x10-'

0.0730.760.800.38

Bingham

0.0390.400.420.20

b

b

b

8.7 x 10"'9.4 x 10-'1.4x10"'

0.0390.400.420.20

ChupaderaMesa

0.0820.840.870.42

1.4 x 10-'2.2 x 10~2

2.2 x 10"'

6.9 x 10"'7.5 x 10"'1.1x10-'

0.0830.860.870.42

FarFallout Zone

0.0160;17

0.170.084

1.2 x 10-'2.0 x 10-2

2.0 x 10"'

5.2 x 10"'5.7x10-'8.7x10"'

0.0170.190.170.086

"Assumptions are breathing rate of 43 i/min for 30 h/yr.^ calculated.

REFERENCES

Dl. W. D. Purtymun, R. J. Peters, and A. K. Stoker,"Radioactivity in Soils and Sediments in and Adja-cent to the Los Alamos Area, 1974-1977," Loi>Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-8234-MS(February 1980).

D2. Environmental Surveillance Group, "Environmen-tal Surveillance at Los Alamos During 1978," LosAlamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-7800-ENV (April 1979).

D3. U.S. Department of Energy, "Radiological Surveyof the Bayo Canyon, Los Alamos, New Mexico."Los Alamos National Laboratory reportDOE/EV-0005/15 (June 1979).

D4. A. J. Ahlquist, A. K. Stoker, and L. K. Trocki,compilers, "Radiological Survey and Decon-tamination of the Former Main Technical Area(TA-1) at Los Alamos, New Mexico," Los AlamosScientific Laboratory report LA-6887 (December1977).

D5. L. D. P. King, "Ground Activity After the TrinityShot," Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory reportLA-658-MS (December 1947).

D6. P. Aebersold and P. B. Moon, "July 16th NuclearExplosion: Radiation Survey of Trinity Site FourWeeks after Explosion,'" Los Alamos ScientificLaboratory report LA-3 5 9 (September 1945).

D7. F. Reines, "July 16th Nuclear Explosion: Ex-amination of Tower Footing," Los Alamos Scien-tific Laboratory report LA-365A (November1945).

D8. Charles D. Blackwell, memorandum to Dean D.Meyer, "Preliminary Report of Surveys andCleanup Program at Trinity Site from March 14,1967 through April 17, 1967," Lcs Alamos Scien-tific Laboratory (April 17, 1967).

D9. G. P. Kraker, memorandum: "Decontamination ofTrinity Site," U.S. Atomic Energy Commission(June 1951).

D10. F. L. Fey, Jr., "Health Physics Survey of TrinitySite," Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory reportLA-3719(July 1967).

Dl 1. U.S. Department of Energy, 'Radiological Guide-lines for Application to DOE's Formerly UtilizedSites Remedial Action Program," U.S. DOE, OakRidge Operations report ORO-831 (March 1983).

D12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "PersonsExposed to Transuranium Elements in the En-vironment: Federal Radiation Protection Guidanceon Dose Limits," Federal Register, Vol. 42, No.230, November 30, 1977, pp. 60956-60959(1977).

D13. J. W. Nyhan, F. R. Miera, Jr., and R. E. Neher,"Distribution of Plutonium in Trinity Soils after 28Years," Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 5,No, 4, pp. 431-437(1976).

D14. Richard L. Douglas, "Level and Distribution ofEnvironmental Plutonium Around the TrinitySite," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Of-fice of Radiation Programs report ORP/LV-78-3(October 1978).

D15. W. J. Wenzel and A. F. Gallegos, "SupplementaryDocumentation for an Environmental ImpactStatement Regarding the Pantex Plant: Long-TermRadiological Risk Assessment for Postulated Acci-dents," Los Alamos National Laboratory reportLA-9445-PNTX-O (December 1982).

D16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,"Proposed Guidance on Dose Limits for PersonsExposed to Transuranium Elements in the GeneralEnvironment," U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, Office of Radiation Programs report EPA540/4-77-016 (September 1977).

D17. International Commission on Radiological Protec-tion, "Report of the Task Group on ReferenceMan," International Commission on RadiologicalProtection Publication 23 (October 1974).

107

D18. T. Buhl, J. Dewart, T. Gunderson, D. Talley, J.Wenzel, R. Romero, J. Salazar, and D. Van Etten,"Supplementary Documentation for an Environ-mental Impact Statement Regarding the PantexPlant: Radiation Monitoring and Radiological As-sessment of Routine Releases," Los Alamos Na-tional Laboratory report LA-9445-PNTX-C (De-cember 1982).

D19. Alan K. Stoker, "Radiological Survey of the Site ofa Former Radioactive Liquid Waste TreatmentPlant (TA-45) and the Effluent Receiving Areas ofAcid, Pueblo, and Los Alamos Canyons, LosAlamos, New Mexico," Los Alamos NationalLaboratory report DOE/EV-0005/30, LA-8890-ENV (Mav 1981).

D20. Y. C. Ng, C. S. Colsher, and S. E.Thompson,"Soilto Plant Concentration Factors for RadiologicalAssessments," U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Co- :mission report NUREG/CR-2975, UCID-19463(November 1982).

D21. R. E. Moore. C. F. Baes III, L. M. McDowell-Boyer, A. P. Watson, F. O. Hoffman, J. C.Pleasant, and C. W. Miller, "AIRDOS-EPA, AComputerized Methodology for Estimating Envi-ronmental Concentration? and Dose to Man fromAirborne Releases of Radionuclides," Oak RidgeNational Laboratory report ORNL-5532 (1979).

D22. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Calcula-tional Models for Estimating Radiation Doses toMan from Airborne Radioactive Materials Result-ing from Uranium Milling Operations," U.S. Nu-clear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide3.51 (March 1982).

D23. Y. C. Ng, C. S. Colsher, D. J. Quinn, and S. E.Thompson, "Transfer Coefficients for the Predic-tion of the Dose to Man via the Forage-Cow-MilkPathway from Radionuclides Released to theBiosphere," Lawrence Livermore National Labo-ratory report UCRL-51939 (July 1977).

D24. W. E. Martin and S. G. Bloom, "Nevada AppliedEcology Group Model for Estimating PlutoniumTransport and Dose to Man," in "Transuranics inNatural Environments," M. G. White and P. B.Dunaway, eds., Energy Research and Develop-ment Administration report NVO-178, pp.621-706 (October 1976).

D25. R. W. Shor, C. F. Baes III, and R. D. Sharp,"Agricultural Production in the United States byCounty: A Compilation of Information from the1974 Census of Agriculture for Use in TerresirialFood-Chain Transport and Assessment Models,"Oak Ridge National Laboratory reportORNL-5768 (January 1982).

D26. Y. C. Ng, C. S. Colsher, and S. E. Thompson,'Transfer Factors for Assessing the Dose fromRadionuclides in Agricultural Products," Law-rence Livermore National Laboratory preprintUCRL-82545 (June 1979).

D27. T. E. Hakonson and J. W. Nyhan, "EcologicalRelationships of Plutonium in Southwest Eco-systems," in "Transuranic Elements in the En-vironment," W. C. Hanson, ed., U.S. Departmentof Energy report DOE/TIC-22800, pp. 403-419(1980).

D28. J. W. Heaiy, J. C. Rodgers, and C. L. Wienke,"Interim Limits for D&D Projects," Los AlamosNational Laboratory document LA-UR-7C>-1865Rev (September 1979).

D29. U.S. Nuclear Regulato.-y Commission, "Calcula-tion of Annual Doses to Man from Routine Releases of Reactor Effluents for the Purpose ofEvaluating Compliance with 10 CFR Part 50,Appendix I," U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Com-mission Regulatory Guide 1.109 (October 1977).

D30. J. W. Healy, "Review of Resuspension Models," in"Tranuranic Elements in the Environment," W, C.Hanson, ed., U.S. Department of Energy reportDOE/TIC-22800, pp. 209-235 (1980).

108

D31. G. R. Hoenes and J. K. Soldat, "Age Specific D32. G. G. Killough, D. E. Dunning, Jr., S. R. Bernard,Radiation Dose Commitment Factors for a One- and J. C. Pleasant, "Estimates of Internal DoseYear Chronic Intake," U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Equivalent to 22 Target Organs for RadionuclidesCommission report NUREG-0172 (November Occurring in Routine Releases from Nuclear Fuel1977). Cycle Facilities," Vol. I, Oak Ridge National

Laboratory report NUREG/CR-0150, ORNL/-NUREG/TM-190 (June 1978).

109

APPENDIX E

SOURCES AND EVALUATION OF RADIATION EXPOSURES

I. INTRODUCTION

This appendix provides additional background onsome of the technical aspects of radiation and its effects.It will familiarize the interested reader with the conceptsand terminology used in the evaluations presented in themain body of this report and other appendixes. It is notcomprehensive in that other concepts and terminologyapplicable to other circumstances are not included. Ashort bibliography is included at the end for thosedesiring to read further.

II. RADIATION

Radiation is the transmission of energy through space.There are many kinds of radiation including visible light,microwaves, radio and radar waves, and x rays. All ofthese are electromagnetic radiations because they consistof a combined electrical and a magnetic impulse travelingthrough space. Much of this radiation is vital to us. Forexample, light is necessary so that we can see. Theseradiations can also be harmful: too much ultravioletradiation from the sun can cause sunburn or even skincancer on prolonged exposure. Energy can also betransmitted through space by particulate radiations byvirtue of their motion. Some of the most commonpaniculate radiations include alpha particles, beta parti-cles, and neutrons. The first two were given names of thefirst letters of the Greek alphabet by their discoverers as aconvenient way of designating them. It turns out that thebeta particle is an electron. The electron is the fundamen-tal negative charge in all matter and is responsible forelectric currents. However, beta particles are electronsmoving at very high speeds, even approaching the speedof light. The other particulate radiations are also funda-mental particles from atoms.

The class of radiation important to this report isionizing radiation. Ionizing radiations are either waves orparticles with sufficient energy to knock electrons out of

the atoms or molecules in matter. This disruption istermed "ionization."

The simplest example is the ionization of a single atom.The nucleus, or center of the atom, is composed ofparticles called protons and neutrons. The proton has apositive charge . .id the neutron has no charge.Negatively charged particles called electrons orbitaround the nucleus and are held in place by the attractionbetween the positive and negative charges. A simpleanalogy to this is the planets in orbit around the sun heldin place by gravitational attraction. In a neutral atomthere are exactly the same number of electrons as protonsand the positive and negative charges are balanced. Whenionizing radiation knocks an electron out of an atom, theatom is left with a positive charge, and the free electron isnegatively charged. These two are referred to as an "ionpair." Ion pairs are chemically active and will react withneighboring atoms or molecules. The resulting chemicalreactions are responsible for causing changes or damageto matter, including living tissue.

This brief description covers the basic concepts ofradiation and its effects. The rest of the discussion willelaborate on particular aspects: the types and sources ofionizing radiation, the basic units for measuring energydeposited in matter by ionization, ways to estimate theamount of biological effect and its significance, and thenature of radiation standards.

III. TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION

The most common types of ionizing radiation are xrays, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, andneutrons.

A. X and Gamma Radiation

X rays are pure energy having no mass. They are partof the electromagnetic spectrum, as are light and micro-waves, but with much shorter wavelengths and, therefore,

110

the ability to transmit larger amounts of energy. Gammarays are identical to x rays except that they originate inthe nucleus of an atom, whereas x rays are produced byinteractions of electrons. An x or gamma ray, having noelectrical charge to attract or repel it from the protons orelectrons, can pass through the free space in many atomsand, hence, through relatively thick materials beforeinteracting. The most likely interaction occurs when the xor gamma ray encounters an electron. When this occurs,some or all of the energy of the x or gamma ray will betransferred to the electron, which then will be ejectedfrom the atom. The electron may have enough energythat it can, in turn, produce additional ionizations in otheratoms it passes through. The electron, once its energy isspent, becomes a free electron (an electron not directlyassociated with an atom) like those found in all matter.

B. Alpha Radiation

Alpha particles are made up of two neutrons and twoprotons. This combination is the same as the nucleus of ahelium atom. Because of the two protons, with nonegative electrons to balance their positive charge, thealpha particle is positively charged. Alpha particles trans-mit energy as kinetic energy, or the energy of motion. Thefaster they move, the more energy they carry.

The comparatively large size and the positive charge ofan alpha particle mean that it interacts readily withelectrons and will not slip through the spaces between theatoms easily. It causes many ionizations in a shortdistance of travel. Because each of these ionizationsdissipates energy, the alpha particle travels only a veryshort distance. For example, most alpha particles will notpass through a piece of paper or the protective layer of aperson's skin. However, if an alpha particle is producedby radioactive material inside the body, it may causemany ionizations in more sensitive tissue.

C. Beta Radiation

Beta particles are electrons moving at high speeds.They transmit energy as kinetic energy. High-energyelectrons approach the speed of light. They have com-paratively small mass and a negative charge, so theirpenetration through matter is intermediate between thealpha particle and the gamma ray. They produce fewerionizations along their path than the alpha particle, butmore than gamma radiation. They can be absorbed by asheet of rigid plastic or a piece of plywood. However,

they can pass through the protective outer layer of theskin and reach the more sensitive skin cells in lowerlayers. They can irradiate internal tissues if produced byradioactive materials inside the body.

D. Neutrons

Neutrons are the particles that, with protons, form thenuclei of atoms. When free from the nucleus, they cantransmit energy as kinetic energy. There are two majortypes of neutrons, fast and slow. Fast neutrons aremoving rapidly and, when they strike a nucleus of anatom, they will give up some of their energy. With heavynuclei such as those of lead, little energy is lost becausethe neutron rebounds. However, with light nuclei, such asthose of hydrogen (hydrogen has one proton with thesame mass as a neutron), the neutron undergoes a"billiard ball" type of collision with considerable energytransferred to the proton. The proton then moves throughsurrounding matter, producing less ionization than analpha particle but more than a beta particle.

Slow neutrons do not have enough energy to causeionization. But, because they have no charge, they canpenetrate into the nucleus of an atom. This disrupts thebalance in the nucleus and can result in the emission ofradiations that produce ionization in the surroundingmatter. One example of this is the transmutation ofcertain atoms of uranium into atoms of plutonium.

IV. SOURCES OF RADIATION

Radiation arises from radioactivity, both natural andmanmade, cosmic sources, and radiation-producing ma-chines. In this report, the sources of interest includecosmic radiation and natural radioactivity, which bothcontribute to normal background, and manmade ortechnologically enhanced radioactivity, which contributeradiation in addition to background. This report does notaddress the production of radiation by devices such as x-ray machines or accelerators.

A. Radioactivity

The atoms of most familiar things are structurally thesame as when they were formed and have little prospectof changing. Thus, most atoms of carbon in a tree or inour bodies will remain atoms of carbon. In time, an atommay change its association with other atoms in chemical

111

reactions and become part of other compounds, but it willstill be a carbon atom.

There is a class of atoms, however, which are notstable and will spontaneously emit radiation and changeto another type of atom or element. These atoms are saidto be radioactive.

Many radioactive atoms such as isotopes of uraniumand radium, 40K. (potassium-40), and 14C (carbon-14)occur naturally. In the cases of potassium and carbon,only certain proportions of the naturally occurring ele-ments are radioactive and are known as radioactiveisotopes. (The radioactive isotopes have the same numberof protons in the nucleus as do the stable isotopes and,therefore the same chemical properties. However, theradioactive isotopes have a different number of neutronsthan the stable atoms. A particular radioactive isotope issymbolized by the letter symbol for the chemical elementwith a numerical superscript representing the total num-ber of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. See Table E-Ifor the symbols and names of isotopes of concern in thisreport.)

Many radioactive atoms can also be "manmade" in thesense that 137Cs, 90Sr, and radioactive isotopes of pluto-nium can be produced in large quantities during nuclearfission of uranium in a reactor. However, these isotopesare also produced during the normal spontaneous fission-ing of uranium in nature. The difference is that in naturethe reaction happens at a slow enough rate that thenumber of naturally produced radioactive atoms ofcesium, strontium, and plutonium is small and dispersed.Other manmade radioactive elements produced in nu-clear reactors or by accelerators are not normally presentin nature.

Radioactive atoms attempt to achieve a more stablestate by spontaneously decaying to alter the ratio ofprotons and neutrons in the nucleus toward a more stablecondition.

Radioactive atoms decay at a characteristic rate de-pendent upon the degree of stability of the individualatom. The rate is characterized by a period of time calledthe ha(f-lffe. In one half-life, one-half of the initial numberof atoms decay. The amount of radiation emitted alsodecreases by one-half in the same period. In the next half-life, the number of atoms and the amount of radiation willagain decrease by one-half, down to one-quarter of theoriginal amount. Half-lives are unique for each particulartype of radioactive atom: that is, each isotope has its ownhalf-life that cannot be changed by man. Half-lives fordifferent radioactive materials range from a fraction of a

second to billions of years, in fact, some are so long thatcertain radioactive materials made at the time of theformation of the universe are still around. Examplesinclude some isotopes of thorium and uranium.

When an atom decays, radiation may be emitted fromthe nucleus as alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, orgamma rays. This changes the character of the nucleus,and the atom changes to an atom of a new element. (Oneparticular type of decay, known as fission, results in theproduction of two new atoms.) Each type of radioactiveatom decays with emission of characteristic types ofradiation, each carrying specific amounts of energy. Forexample, natural 234U always emits alpha particles withenergies of about 4.8 relative energy units, and manmade239Pu emits alpha particles with energies of about 5.1relative energy units. Other than the slight difference inthe initial amount of energy, the alpha particles areindistinguishable.

Atoms resulting from radioactive decay are called"daughter" atoms, whereas the original atom is called the"parent" atom. In some cases, the daughter atom result-ing from the decay of a radioactive atom is, itself,radioactive. For naturally occurring uranium andthorium, there may be a sequence of as many as 12-14radioactive daughters before the original uranium orthorium atom finally reaches stability as an atom of lead.

Table E-I lists the radioactive materials of primaryimportance to this report giving the half-lives and theprincipal types of radiation they emit during decay.

B. Cosmic Radiation

The high-energy radiations that enter the earth's at-mosphere from outer space are known as primary, ,smicrays. The origin of primary cosmic rays is si.li notcompletely determined, but most of the observe J radia-tion originates in our galaxy. Some is produced by solarflares. Primary galactic cosmic rays are largely high-energy protons. Primary solar cosmic rays have re-latively low energy and have little effect at the earth'ssurface.

When primary cosmic ray particles enter the at-mosphere, a complex variety of reactions occur,especially with oxygen and nitrogen nuclei. These reac-tions result in the continuous production of radioactiveelements including tritium, 7Be, 14C, and 22Na amongmany others. The reactions also result in the productionof neutron and beta particle radiation, referred to assecondary cosmic radiation. The amount of radioactivity

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TABLE E-I

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS OF PRIMARY INTERESTIN THE RADIOLOGICAL SURVEY

Isotope Approximate Half-Life Principal Types of Radiation

Natural Radioactivity of Interest as Background

"<U (Uranium-234)"STVJ (Uranium-235)"BU (Uranium-238)"2Th (Thorium-232)"aRa (Radium-226)"2Rn (Radon-222)"K (Potassium-40)

247 000 yeara710 000 000 years4 500 000 000 years14 100 000 000 years1 600 years3.8 days1 300 000 000 years

alpha, gammaalpha, beta, gammaalpha, beta, gammaalphaalpha, gammaalpha, gammabeta, gamma

Radioactivity of Interest as Residual Contaminantsor Worldwide Fallout from Atmospheric Testing

" 'Pu (Plutonium-239) 24 000 years" 'Pu (Plutonium-238) 87 years" 'Pu (Plutonium-241) 15 years"'Am (Americium-241) 458 years'"Cs (Cesium-137) 30 yearsMSr (Strontium-90) 28 yearsSH (Hydrogen-3 or Tritium) 13 yearsUranium and radium as given above

alpha, gammaalpha, gammabetaalpha, gammabeta, gammabetabeta

and radiation from cosmic rays increases significantlywith altitude above sea level because of the decreasingthickness of the atmosphere. The influence of the earth'smagnetic field results in more cosmic radiation in polarlatitudes responsible for the so-called northern and south-ern lights.

V. UNITS FOR RADIATION AND RADIOAC-TIVITY

Units to quantify radiation or radioactivity provide foruniformity in measurements or comparisons and permitthe establishment of standards specifying the amount ofradiation allowable under various circumstances. Radia-tion units may initially seem obscure and difficult tounderstand. However, as in the case of the pound or

kilogram, familiarity with the units makes them under-standable and useful.

A. Radiation Units

The basic unit for measuring radiation is the rad. It isthe amount of radiation that deposits a specified amountof energy by ionization in each gram of material (about1/28 of an ounce). The amount of energy released in thematerial is small; it increases the temperature of the gramof material by a few billionths of a degree. However, it isnot the amount of heat liberated or the temperature risethat is important. Rather, it is the ionization that induceschemical changes. The rad applies to all radiations and allmaterials that absorb the radiation.

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The most commonly used radiation unit is the rem.The rem quantifies the biological response to radiationrather than the amount of energy delivered to the tissue.To understand this, remember that different types ofradiation produce ionizations at different rates as theypass through tissue. The alpha particle travels only ashort distance, causing intense closely spaced ionizationalong its track. The beta particle travels much farther,causing much less ionization in each portion of its track.Therefore, the alpha particle is more damaging to tissuethan the beta particle for the same number of ionizationsbecause the damage to cells in the tissue is localized. Thebiological effectiveness of the alpha particle is greaterthan that of the beta particle for the same total amount(rads) of energy deposited, and this difference is ac-counted for by the use of appropriate factors. In general,the factors used are 1 for x or gamma radiations andmost beta particles, 5 to 10 for neutrons, and 10 to 20 foralpha particles. The rem is defined as the amount ofradiation (in rads) from a given type of radiation multi-plied by the factor appropriate for that type of radiationto approximate the biological damage that it causes.Thus, 1 rad of energy from gamma rays would result in 1rem, and 1 rad from alpha particles would result in 10 to20 rem of dose. Because the approximate relative degreeof damage from each of the types of radiation is known,the rem can be used to estimate the approximate biologi-cal effect. Within these limits of uncertainty, the rempermits evaluation of potential effects without regard tothe type of radiation or its source. One rem of exposurefrom natural cosmic radiation results in the same biologi-cal consequences as 1 rem from medical x rays or 1 remfrom radiation produced by decay of either natural ormanmade radioactivity.

A frequent source of confusion encountered in the useof radiation units is their application to a standard weightof tissue, rather than all of the tissue irradiated. Thus, aperson can receive 1 rad or 1 rem of radiation from an xray of the teeth, where little tissue is irradiated; from achest x ray, where a moderate amount of tissue isirradiated; or from full-body radiation, where all tissue inthe body is irradiated. Although these are all 1 rem ofradiation, the effects will be different depending upon theorgans involved. Thus, one must always keep in mind theportion of the body or organs involved and make com-parisons only for corresponding exposures. In this report,radiation doses were evaluated for the whole body, for thelungs, and for bone. Whole-body doses must be com-

pared only with other whole-body doses or to whole-bodydose standards, and so on.

Because many of the radiation doses discussed in thisreport were small, the metric prefixes milli for "one-thousandth" (1/1000 or 0.001, symbolized as "m") or asmicro for "one-millionth" (1/1000 000 or 0.000001,symbolized "u") were often used. One million microrem(urem) = 1000 millirem (mrem) =• 1 rem. Millirems areused exclusively in the rest of this appendix to simplifycompanions.

In b jme cases, radiation measurements are expressedas a dose rate, or the amount of radiation received in aunit of time. For example, some instrument measure-ments of background are reported in "microrem perhour" or urem/h. To get total dose, the rate is multipliedby me time of exposure. This is conceptually similar tomultiplying speed (rate of travel, say in miles per hour) bytime to get total distance travelled.

Dose or dose rate may be expressed using rads orrems, depending on whether the reference is to energydeposited or to biological effect.

B. Radioactivity Units

The basic unit for measuring the amount of radioac-tivity or quantity of radioactive material is the curie,named in honor of Madame Curie. The curie (Ci)is the amount of radioactive material in which37 000 000 000 (J7 billion) atoms are decaying eachsecond. This apparently peculiar number is the approx-imate number of atoms decaying each second in 1 gramof pure radium, the element discovered by MadameCurie. The mass of material in a curie varies from oneisotope to another. The different half-lives of each radio-active material are the main cause for this variation. Formaterials with short half-lives, a large fraction of theatoms present are decaying in any given second, and theweight of 1 curie is small. For radioactive materials withlong half-lives, the weight of 1 curie will be large. Forexample, the weight of 1 curie of naturally occurring 40Kis about 310 pounds, or about 140 000 times as much as1 curie of radium.

The curie is a relatively large quantity of radioactivityfor most purposes of this report. Accordingly, the metricprefixes are used to indicate units in fractional parts of acurie, such as microcurie or picocurie. The units usedmost often in the report are summarized in Table E-II.

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TABLE E-II

UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY USED IN THE RADIOLOGICAL SURVEY

Disintegrations Equivp.lent Value inUnit Abbreviation per Second Other Time Units

curiemillicuriemicrocuriepicocurieattocurie

CimCi/iCipCiaCi

37 000 000 00037 000 00037 0000.0370.000000037

...

. . .2.22 per minute1.2 psr year

The text often discusses radioactivity in environmentalmedia, such as air or soil. In these cases, radioactivity isreported as a concentration, or the amount of radioac-tivity in or associated with a certain amount of air or soil.Much of the information on radioactivity in soils isreported as picocuriet per gram (pCi/g) of someparticular radioactive isotope. This means that there are acertain number of picocuries of the isotope associatedwith each gram (454 grams = 1 pound) of soil. Forexample, a value of 1 pCi/g means that each gram of soi!has an associated radioactivity of about 2.2 decays eachminute. Concentrations of radioactivity in air are gener-ally reported as attocuries per cubic meter (aCi/m3). Thismeans that there are a certain number of attocuries of aradioactive isotope dispersed throughout the volume ofair equivalent to a cube 1 meter on each side (1 meter =1.09 yards). For example, a value of 3 aCi/m3 wouldmean that a cubic meter of vr ;c;itains radioactivity ofabout 3.6 decays in a year.

VI. DETERMINING HOW MUCH RADIATION ISRECEIVED

Radiation doses can be received from sources externalto the body, such as cosmic radiation or radiationproduced by radioactivity in the earth. Radiation dosescan also be received from radiation produced by radioac-tivity taken into the body by inhalation or ingestion.These two modes of exposure are important in this studyin terms of both normal doses from background radiationor radioactivity and incremental doses attributable toresidual contaminants.

The important distinction between radiation and radio-activity must be emphasized at this time to avoid con-fusion. When radiation interacts with a person's body, itis quickly dissipated as ionization and eventually heat.However, radioactive materials can enter a person's bodyand remain there for some period of time, ei'i^ngradiation. Thus, it is incorrect to say that there is"radiation in a person's body." It is correct to say theperson has radioactive materials in his body and radia-tion is emitted from these radioactive materials.

A. External Penetrating Radiation

Normal external penetrating radiation doses comeprimarily from natural terrestrial sources or naturalcosmic sources. These doses affect the entire body,including all internal organs.

1. Natural Terrestrial Sources. The radioactivity inrocks, soils, and other natural materials arises primarilyfrom three sources: uranium and its daughters (such asradium), thorium and its daughters, and potassium. Thereare many other natural radioactive materials, but theircontributions to human dose are small. The amount ofgamma radiation from these sources varies in differentpart, of the country depending upon the amounts ofnatural radioactivity in the soil. The average for thecoastal plain is about 15 mrem per year; for the non-coastal plain, excluding the Colorado plateau area, it isabout 30 mrem per year; and for the Colorado plateauarea, it is about 60 mrem per year. There are, however,variations within these averages, with higher values in

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given localities. For example, radiation up to 100 mremper year from soils and rocks has been measured incentral Florida and in the granitic regions of NewEngland. In India and Brazil, terresti.su radiation reachesseveral hundred mrem per year over large regions andeven higher values in smaller parts of these regions.

Measurements in the Los Alamos, New Mexico, areaindicate an average of about 57 mrem per year fromnatural terrestrial sources. Because of the variety ofgeologic formations in the area, the range is from about30 to 90 mrem per year. Thus, the average is about 40%higher than for the U.S., as a whole, but the range is lessthan for the U.S.

The same natural radioactive materials, especiallyuranium and thorium, are responsible for penetratingradiation doses from masonry structures. A United Na-tions study reports that doses average about 30% higherinside masonry structures than outdoors. Conversely,structures of wood or metai materials afford some shield-ing and may reduce indoor doses from natural terrestrialradioctivity by 25% compared with outdoor doses.

2. Natural Cosmic Sources. As previously discussed,cosmic radiation arises primarily from space outside ofour solar system. The atmosphere provides some shield-ing, but there is a definite increase in cosmic ray intensityas one goes to higher altitudes. At sea level, cosmic rays,including cosmic neutrons, produce about 30 mrem ayear. At the altitude of Denver, Colorado (5000 ft), theyproduce about 55 mrem per year, and at Leadville,Colorado (10 000 ft), they produce about 120 mrem peryear.

Airline travel at higher altitudes can result in doses of0.2 to 0.3 mrem j- - hour or 1.5 to 2 mrem total for asingle transcontinental trip.

3. Medical Diagnostic X Rays and Other ManmadeRadiation. People receive manmade radiation from anumber of sources. By far, the most important aremedical procedures, including diagnostic x rays and themedical use of radioacL isotopes. The average annualwhole-body dose to a resident of the U.S. from diagnosticmedical procedures is estimated at 70 to 90 mrem peryear, or an amount about equal to normal backgroundradiation.

Otiiei sources of manmade or man-enhanced radia-tion, including television, smoke detectors, luminous-dial

watches, mining and milling of phosphate, and burningcoal and natural gas, add 2 to 5 mrem per year.

B. Radiation from Internally Deposited Radioactivity

Many radioactive materials, both natural and man-made, can be incorporated into tissues because theirchemical properties are identical or similar to those ofisotopes in the tissues. For example, 0.012% of naturalpotassium is the radioactive isotope 40K. The radioactiveportion of potassium is incorporated into plant andanimal tissues in the same manner as the stable potassiumisotopes because the chemical properties are identical.Radioactive 90Sr, which results from nuclear fission, canbe incorporated in tissues because its chemical behavioris similar to that of calcium. Once such radioactiveisotopes are deposited in biological tissue, they emitradiation that results in an internal dose to the organ ororganism, An important point is that internally depositedalpha emitters can be significant because the alphaparticle radiation is emitted directly into tissue, whereasexternal alpha particle radiation is stopped by theoutermost skin layers.

I. Pathways. Although radiation from internally de-posited radioactive materials may cause the same ul-timate effects as external penetrating radiation, theevaluation is more complex. This is because the physicaland chemical processes that govern movements of thematerials in nature and biological systems must beconsidered. The evaluation of movements of materials bysuch processes as dispersion in the atmosphere, transportin water, uptake in plants or animals, and ultimately, thebiochemistry of the human body is often termed pathwayanalysis. There is nothing unique to pathway analysis ofradioactive materials; the methods and principles areequally applicable to movements of natural substancesand nonradioactive pollutants.

The major types of environmental pathway analysesconsidered in the radiological survey were resuspension,hydrologic transport, and food chains. These are all waysof transporting contaminants to the human body.

Resuspension encompasses various mechanisms, suchas wind or mechanical disturbance, for making particlesof dust and soil airborne. Once airborne, the particles andany contaminants on them are potentially available forinhalation.

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Hydrologic transport encompasses movement ofmaterials dissolved in water and movement of materialsattached to sediments. Such movements can make con-taminants available for ingestion with drinking water anduptake in plants or animals or can redistribute sedimentsto different locations.

Food chains encompass the movement of materialsthrough natural biological systems. A typical sequencestarts with plants taking up materials from soil or waterduring natural plant growth or gardening. The next stepcould be ingestion of plant materials by cattle or fish,followed by ingestion of beef or fish by humans.

Once environmental pathways have made materialsavailable for entry into the human body, the analysismust determine how the substances of concern will beassimilated within the body. This requires an understand-ing of the complex biochemistry of the body to determinewhere particular substances will be deposited and howlong they will be retained. For example, both strontiumand plutonium can ultimately be preferentially depositedin bone and are then retained for long periods. However,the amount deposited depends strongly on the chemicalform of the element and whether the materials gain entryby inhalation or ingestion. For the same amounts ofradioactivity, strontium is deposited to a greater degreewhen ingested, and plutonium is deposited to a greaterdegree when inhaled.

Internally deposited radioactivity gives off radiationand thereby produces doses as long as it is in the body.Accordingly, doses delivered must be accounted for overa period of time beyond the period during which theradioactivity was ingested or inhaled.

The 50-year dose commitments represent the total doseaccumulated in the body or specific organs over a 50-year period because of ingestion or inhalation of radioac-tivity during the first year. The 50-year commitments arealways as large as or larger than first-year doses. In thissummary, only the 50-year commitments are comparedwith the standards.

Conceptually, this is in agreement with the recommen-dations of the International Commission on RadiologicalProtection (ICRP), and, in effect, for regulatory purposescharges the entire dose commitment against the year inwhich exposure occurs. The use of the 50-year dosecommitment also permits making estimates of risk over alifetime from the given exposure and simplifies com-parisons between different exposure situations.

The dose commitments were calculated using pub-lished factors from references currently used in regula-

tion. The mathematical dose models employed in thederivation of these factors were based primarily uponrecommendations of the International Commission onRadiological Protection.

Other methods of computing doses are available, andsome are considered more up-to-date in terms of utilizingthe best current understanding of the behavior of isotopeswithin the body. Additionally, there are conceptuallydifferent approaches that emphasize the dose at the timeof maximum dose rate following exposure as the basis forcomparison with standards. This is significant forisotopes such as plutonium that accumulate in certainparts of the body and can lead to a constantly increasingdose rate under conditions of chronic exposure. One suchapproach has been proposed by the EPA as guidance forFederal agencies in regard to plutonium.

These other approaches do not result in dose estimatesor comparisons with standards for the radionuclides ofconcern sufficiently different from the methods used inthis report to make any significant difference in theconclusions drawn. For example, under conditions ofchronic exposure to airborne 239Pu, the dose in the year ofmaximum dose rate (taken to be the 70th year) calculatedby alternate methods gave estimates ranging from about1.4 (for bone) to 2.6 (for lung) times the 50-year dosecommitment. These differences are of about the samemagnitude as other uncertainties in field data and aresmaller than some of the intentionally overestimatedassumptions incorporated into these evaluation. Thus,there would be no significant changes in the relativeranking or general magnitude of estimated doses andrisks if other methodologies were used.

2. Radiation from Natural Radioactivity. The mostprominant internal natural radioactive material in thebody is a radioactive isotope of potassium. Potassium-40is distributed throughout the body and contributes about17 mrem per year to the whole body. Other naturalradioactivity taken in with food or air adds enoughradiation to bring the total whole-body dose to about 27mrem per year.

Some natural radioactive materials tend to concentratein particular parts of the body. For example, radium andits daughters concentrate in bone and contribute a majorpart of the approximately 47-mrem-per-year bone dose.

Radon, a natural radioactive gas given off by allterrestrial materials including soil and masonry products,is the largest contributor to internal lung doses. Radon isinhaled with air and decays by alpha-particle radiation

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through a chain of other radioactive daughters thatcontribute doses as they, in turn, decay. Concentrationsof natural radon in the air can be greatly increased inirasonry structures or in tightly sealed structures wheredilution by ventilation air exchange is low.

3. Radiation from Worldwide Fallout Radioactivity.Radioactive materials released by atmospheric nuclearweapons testing have been dispersed worldwide anddeposited on soils everywhere. By various pathways,including resuspension and food chains, small amounts ofsuch radioactivity are incorporated into every humanbody. The average dose from worldwide fallout radioac-tivity to the population in the U.S. for the whole body isabout 4.4 mrem a year. For lungs and bones, the dosesare less than 1% of doses from natural materials.

VII. POTENTIAL HARM OR RISK FROM RADIA-TION

The damage done by radiation results from the way itaffects molecules essential to the normal function of bodycells. Four things may happen when radiation strikes acell.

1. It may pass through the cell without doing anydamage.

2. It may damage the cell, but the cell partially repairsthe damage. (The ability of a cell to repair some ofthe damage from radiation explains why a givendose of radiation delivered in small amounts over along period of time is generally believed to be lessdamaging than the same total dose given all atonce.)

3. It may damage the cell so that the cell fails to repairitself and reproduces in damaged form over aperiod of years.

4. It may kill the cell.

The death of a single cell may not be harmful, butserious problems occur if so many cells are killed in aparticular organ that the organ no longer can functionproperly. Incompletely or incorrectly repaired cells may,over a period of time, produce delayed health effects suchas cancer, genetic mutations, or birth defects.

Radiation at high enough doses will kill in a short time.The lethal dose is estimated to be 400 000 to 500 000

mrem for gamma radiation with death occurring in 10-3Cdays. However, the public is seldom, if ever, subjected tosuch high doses. We will, therefore, concentrate ourattention on the effects that occur later, cancer andgenetic effects.

A. Cancer

Information on the induction of cancer in humansarises from several sources. The most important data onexternal radiation are for the Japanese who survived theblast effects but received radiation at Hiroshima andNagasaki and for ths people who were exposed toradiation during medical therapy. Information on internalemitters comes from the radium dial painters who in-gested radium while painting dials in the early 1920s,from a group of patients who were administered radiumas a tonic, and from uranium miners who were exposed toradon and its daughter products. Evaluations of suchdata have led to estimates of the likelihood of radiation-induced cancer. These estimates are accepted by the vastmajority of scientists working nationally and interna-tionally with radiation.

Before discussing the actual risks, there are severalpoints that are fundamental in interpreting the values.First, cancers or genetic changes caused by radiationcannot be distinguished from those that are occurringevery day spontaneously or caused by other carcinogenicchemicals. About 400 000 deaths occur from cancers inthe U.S. each year, or about 15 to 20 per 10 000 people.We can infer an effect from radiation only if the totaln-mber of cancers (or of a particular type of cancer) isircreased oy an amount we can detect. Valid com-parisons are made even more difficult because somepopulation groups h&ve Vighe- normal rates of cancerthan others. This may be 4<ue Jo differences in the waythey live and the possible carcinogens in their environ-ment. Cancer also occurs more often in older people thanin younger people. Thus, to detect increases in effects, acomparison (or control) group that is the same as theexposed group is necessary.

This all leads to the fact that there have been no directmeasurements of increased cancer for low-level radiationexposures (1000-5000 mrem). Data exist only for muchhigher exposures (100 000 mrem and above delivered ina short time). Thus, scientists have estimated risks for thelower doses by assuming that any dose results in someeffect (no threshold for effect) and that the relationbetween the ~niation dose and the effect (cancer) islinear. That is, for each doubling of the dose there will be

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a doubling of the effect. This is an assumption that isgenerally believed to provide an overestimate of anyeffects. In fact, many scientists are now using a morecomplex mathematical relation between dose and effectthat estimates risks at 2 to 10 times lower than the valuesgiven in this report.

Second, another characteristic of cancer or geneticeffects from any cause is that they are statistical innature. That is, not all of the individuals will be affected.Rather, a few individuals in the population will get canceror have genetic defects and the remainder will not beaffected. Therefore, we express the risk as the likelynumber of effects in a given population. For example, 30cancers per million people means we expect 30 cancersout of this group of 1 000 000 people, but cannot tellwhich of the 30 will get cancer. Or, this example couldalso be stated that an average individual in that popula-tion has a risk of cancer of 30 chances in a million.

Cancers of many types can result from radiation orother carcinogens. These cancers do not occur for someperiod of time after exposure, usually 5 to 25 years. Thisperiod of time is called the latent period. For example,there is information from the Japanese survivors that thelatent period for the first leukemia to appear is 1 to 4years. The risk of leukemia is limited to about 25 yearsafter the exposure. After this time, the risk of leukemiagoes down to the normal incidence. For other cancers,the latent period is longpf, about 10 to 20 years. How-ever, information is incomplete.

Estimates have been made of the number of cancersthat could result from a given radiation exposure, usingthe data for humans. These estimates generally areconsidered to be high because of the use of the linear, no-threshold assumption in extrapolating from the highlevels at which people actually were exposed. In spite ofthis, these estimates are useful for illustrating the amountof additional cancer that could be induced in a populationexposed to radiation (or conversely, the chance that anindividual exposed to radiation will get cancer).

The estimates of health effects risks given in this reportwere based on the factors recommended by the NationalAcademy of Science and the International Commissionon Radiological Protection. Multiplying an estimateddose by the appropriate risk factor gives an estimate ofthe probability of injury to the individual as a result ofthat exposure. The risk factors used are

For uniform whole-body doseCancer mortality 0.0000001 per mrem

whole body,

For specific organ dosesLung cancer

Bone cancer

0.0000002 per mremto lung,

0.000000005 permrem to bone.

As an example, a whole-body dose of 10 mrem per yearwould be estimated to add a risk of cancer morta'";y tothe exposed individual of one chance in u million(1/1 000 000) per year of exposure.

Such risk estimates must be placed in appropriatecontexts to be useful as a decision-making tool. A usefulcomparison is an estimate of the risk that can beattributed to natural background radiation. Radiationfrom various natural external and internal sources resultsin exactly the same types of interactions with body tissuesas that from so-called "manmade" radioactivity. Thus,the risks from a given dose are the same regardless of thesource.

Natural background radiation for people in the LosAlamos, New Mexico, area consists of the externalpenetrating dose from cosmic and terrestrial sources,cosmic neutron radiation, and self-irradiation from natu-ral isotopes in the body. These sources give a combinedwhole-body dose averaging about 158 mrem per year.This can be interpreted using the ICRP risk factors torepresent a contribution to the risk of cancer mortality of15 chances in a million for each year of exposure or a riskof 8 chances in 10 000 for 50 years of exposure tonatural background radiation. As perspective, the overallU.S. population lifetime risk of mortality fro.v cancerinduced by all causes is currently estimated at about 2chances in 10.

B. Genetic Effects

One of the concerns of many people is the possibleeffect of their exposure to radiation on future children. Aneffect on the reproductive cells of the body that can beinherited by children is called a genetic effect and thechange itself is called a mutation. Many of these muta-tions are unnoticeable or barely noticeable.

There is no information based on human exposure thatwill allow an estimate of the risk of mutations. Thus, datafrom animals such as fruit flies and mice, along withknown abnormalities in human births and general knowl-edge of genetics, have been used to arrive at an estimateof the risks. Careful study of the survivors of theHiroshima and Nagasaki bombs and their descendents

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has shown that these estimates are reasonable. Theinformation available is not sufficient to provide a preciseestimate, but a range of values will illustrate the magni-tude of the risk.

About 10% of all births are estimated tc have someform of genetic mutation. These range in importancefrom the trivial, such as a change in eye color, to theserious, such as a stillbirth or a deformity in the body ofthe child. Exposure to 1000 mrem of radiation during thechildbearing years is estimated to result in 6 to 100additional changes per million births in the first genera-tion. This may be compared with the 100 000 estimatedto occur in the same group without above-backgroundradiation. Continued exposure to 1000 mrem for genera-tion after generation is estimated to eventually lead to 10to 150 additional births with genetic mutations permillion births. If the actual radiation received is higher orlower, the numbers given above will change in propor-tion.

C. Effects on the Fetus

You will often see signs in the x-ray departments ofhospitals asking women to see the doctor if they havereason to believe they are pregnant. The reason is that thefetus, particularly in the first three months, is especiallysensitive to radiation and may be damaged if exposed toexcessive radiation. The doctor, therefore, may wish tore-evaluate his procedure.

Animal information on single exposures to radiationindicates that some changes detectable by sophisticatedtests have occurred with a few rems. At present, nospecific relationship between dose and the likelihood ofdamage has been developed. Because of this and therelatively low doses attributable to residual contaminants,no estimates of effects were made in this report.

VIII. STANDARDS FOR EXPOSURE TO RADIA-TION

There are a number of organizations that providestandards or regulations governing the amount of radia-tion people should receive. Voluntary standards, or re-commendations, are provided by the International Com-mission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and the U.S.National Council on Radiation Protection and Measure-ments (NCRP). These are both groups of scientistsknowledgeable about radiation who study the available

data and recommend appropriate limitations on themaximum amount of exposure that should be received.They also make recommendations on appropriate equip-ment arid procedures. Their recommendations are non-binding but have been accepted by many of the regula-tory agencies.

The principal regulatory agencies in the U.S., whichprovide regulations on radiation exposure, are the Envi-ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the NuclearRegulatory Commission (NRC). Other agencies thatprovide regulations in their own areas of interest includethe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and theOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA).

The EPA is the lead agency in the sense that it providesbasic guidance to be used by all Federal agencies. TheEPA has the responsibility to provide general environ-mental standards for the Nuclear Regulatory Com-mission and specific responsibilities to produce standardsunder the Clean Air Act, the Clear Water Act, and theResources Recovery and Conservation Act. The EPAhas adopted a policy of setting standards at as low a levelas is believed economically feasible. For this reason, theEPA standards are frequently lower than those from theICRP or the NCRP.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission provides regula-tions to cover nuclear reactors and all products as-sociated with reactors, including the radioactive materialsused for medicine. Because the Nuclear RegulatoryCommission does not regulate natural radioactivematerials or x rays, the states have taken responsibility,usually using the recommendations of the NCRP.

The standards and regulations, or guides, fall into twgeneral categories: (1) the primary radiation protectionstandards and (2) the secondary standards for intake ofradioactive materials. Within each category there aregenerally two sets of values, one applicable to occupa-tionally exposed persons and the second applicable tomembers of the public. All comparisons in this report aremade with the standards appropriate for the generalpublic.

An important principle in all radiation protectionrecommendations and regulations is that the amount ofradiation received by people should be kept as far belowthe actual dose limit as is reasonably achievable. That is,the goal of a radiation protection program is not to seethat everyone is kept at or just below the limits; instead,the goal is to see that working conditions and practices

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are such that both the workers and the public receive thesmallest amount of radiation that can practically beachieved.

A. Primary Radiation Protection Standards

Primary radiation protection standards give limits fortotal exposure to external and internal radiation for thewhole body or for specific organs. The standards, orupper limits, for the public are basically one-tenth of thevalues permitted for occupationally exposed workers.The standards apply to increments of exposure in addi-tion to natural background and in addition to medicalexposures.

The upper limit adopted by all Federal agencies,including the Department of Energy, for whole-bodyradiation to an individual member of the public is 500millirem per year. For average radiation doses to anexposed population, the Federal Radiation Council(which has been incorporated into the EPA) recom-mended that the average exposure to that portion of thepopulation receiving the highest annual dose be limited to170 millirem in addition to natural or medical radiationexposure. (This average limit was set to minimize poten-tial genetic damage and was derived from a limit of 5000millirem over 30 years for large populations.)

The basic radiation standards as used by the Depart-ment of Energy are shown in Table E-III. These includeboth whole-body limits and specific organ limits. TheEPA has proposed Federal guidance for exposure totransuranium elements, also shown in Table E-III.

A final word about these standards and their meaningis appropriate. Exposure to more radiation thanpermitted by the standards is not analogous to steppingoff a cliff. That is, there is no sharp line between dosescausing excessive harm and doses causing little or noharm. The opposite situation is true for many chemicalpoisons. An additional exposure of 1 millirem increases aperson's risk to cancer or genetic mutation by the sameamount whether it is a millirem of background radiation,the first millirem above background radiation, or the firstmillirem above the 500 millirem limit.

All of the doses evaluated in this radiological surveyunder current conditions of land use were small fractionsof those permitted above natural background andmedical exposure by the DOE Radiation ProtectionStandards. The highest dose, from the unlikely circum-stance of a full-year occupancy of a small portion of theformer waste treatment plant site, was estimated at about

12% of the standard. All other doses were less than 2% ofthe standard.

For projected possible land use conditions, the max-imum dose estimates were for hypothetical home gar-deners in one of the canyon areas (about 1.5% of thestandard) and construction workers (about 6% of thestandard). Continuous exposure to resuspended dust inthe canyons was estimated to result in less than 1.3% ofthe EPA proposed guidance for persons exposed totransuranium elements in the general environment.

The various doses evaluated are summarized inChapter 1 and described more completely in Chapter 5,Sections II and III.

B. Secondary Standards for Intake of RadioactiveMaterials

Secondary standards to be used in control of exposureby limiting the intake of radioactive materials are calcu-lated from the primary standards using knowledge of thefate of the particular radioactive material in the body andthe time it remains in individual organs. These standardsare estimated for ingestion of water and inhalation of air.They are expressed as concentrations and are generallycalculated so that the doses received from internal radio-activity will not exceed the primary standard underconditions of continuous exposure to the contaminants inair or water.

The assumption of continuous inhalation of air oringestion of water, upon which the secondary limits arebased, leads to a problem in their use. A frequentmisinterpretation is that the secondary standards rep-resent maximum concentrations to which a person can beexposed regardless of the time of exposure. This is nottrue. The total intake of radioactivity determines the dosereceived, not the particular concentration in air or waterat any given time. The secondary standards are calcu-lated as annual averages. Thus, a person could beexposed to 10 times the secondary standard concentra-tion for a week and receive only about 20% of the annualintake permitted by the secondary standard.

The secondary standards account for the fact thatsome radioactive materials have a short half-life or arerapidly eliminated from the body. Tritium is eliminatedfrom the body with a half-life of 12 to \'. days. Thus, theradiation received from a single drink at the secondarylimit will be only a fraction of the annual limit that iscalculated for continuous intake. Another example, plu-tonium, which is very well retained in the body and has a

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TABLE E-in

STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

DOE Radiation Protection Standards forExternal and Internal Exposures

Individuals and Population Groupsin Uncontrolled Areas

Type of Exposure

Annual Dose Equivalent orDose Commitment

Whole body, gonads, or bone

Other organs

Based on Dose toIndividuals at Points of

Maximum Probable Exposure

0.5 rem(or 500 mrem)

1.5 rem(or 1500 mrem)

Bused on an AverageDose to a Suitable Sampleof the Exposed Population

0.17 rem(or 170 mrem)

0.5 mrem(or 500 mrem)

EPA Maximum Contaminant Levels from NaturalInterim Primary Drinking Water Regulation

Isotope Media Concentration

Gross Alpha(including *"Ra butexcluding radon and uranium)

Water 15 pCi/l

long half-life, will reach the annual radiation limit onlyafter continuous inhalation or ingestion at the secondarylimits for 50 years. Thus, intake at or above this limit fordays, weeks, or even months will not result in reaching oreven approaching the primary standard dose limit.

The secondary standards are usually stated as concen-trations of radioactivity in air or in water, as defined inSection V.B of this Appendix. The values used forcomparison in this report are presented in Table E-III.The DOE secondary standards are called Concentration

Guides. Thf EPA secondary standards for drinkingwater are called Maximum Contaminant Levels, and forairborne transuranics are called Derived Air Concentra-tions. None of the relevant secondary standards wasexceeded by any measured or theoretically estimatedconcentrations. Evaluations in the radiological surveywere carried through to estimates of doses to permitcomparison with the primary standards. Accordingly, noemphasis was placed on comparisons with the secondarystandards.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Natural and Background Radiation in the U.S.

D. T. Oakley, "Natural Radiation Exposure in the UnitedStates," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reportORP/SID721 (June 1972).

A. W. Klement, Jr., C. R. Miller, R. P. Minx, and B.Shleien, "Estimates of Ionizing Radiation Doses in theUnited States 1960-2000," U.S. Environmental Protec-tion Agency report ORP/CSD 72-1 (August 1972).

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measure-ments, "Natural Background Radiation in the UnitedStates." NCRP report No. 45 (November 1975).

Sources and Effects of P jdiation

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects ofAtomic Radiation, "Sources and Effects of IonizingRadiation, 1977 Repcit to the General Assembly,"United Nations Publication E.77.IX.1 (1977).

M. Eisenbud, Environmental Radioactivity, 2nd ed.(Academic Press, New York, 1973).

International Commission on Radiological Protection,Annals of the ICRP, Vol. 1, No. 3, ICRP Publication 26,Pergamon Press, New York (1977).

Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radia-tions, National Research CouncU, The Effects on Popula-tions of Exposures to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation:1980, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.(1980).

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