Radiographic evaluation of two Early Classic elites from ...nystromk/Docs/Nystrom et... · from the Early Classic period of Copan (ca. AD 400–600): K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’,

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 15: 196–207 (2005)Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/oa.769

Radiographic Evaluationof TwoEarlyClassic Elites fromCopan,Honduras

K. C. NYSTROM,a* J. E. BUIKSTRAaAND E. M. BRAUNSTEINb

a Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USAb Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 and Department

of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA

ABSTRACT The paper describes the results of a radiographic evaluation of two elite individuals from theEarly Classic period of Copan, Honduras; K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’, founder of the Early ClassicDynasty at Copan; and the principal individual recovered from the Motmot tomb. There weretwo primary goals: (1) the description of previously undocumented pathological processes;and (2) the evaluation of individual-specific forms of pathology and activity-related changessuch as disuse atrophy. Despite suffering from a number of blunt force insults, K’inich YaxK’uk’ Mo’s cortical and trabecular bone thickness appears normal, indicating that the skeletalelements did not suffer from disuse atrophy concomitant following injury. Additionally, weexamined the Motmot individual for: (1) evidence of bone thinning, either associated withreduced activity levels or pathology; (2) evidence of a parry fracture to her right forearm; and(3) the evaluation of a possible fracture to the right humerus near the surgical neck. In sum,despite her gracile appearance, we concluded that Motmot did not suffer from cortical bonethinning due to disease process or reduced activity levels, and that the right forearm parryfracture was the only sign of blunt force trauma. Copyright � 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Palaeoradiography; Copan; blunt force trauma; Polaroid film

Introduction

Physical anthropologists working with ancienthuman remains from the Americas are usuallypresented with skeletons that have no identitybeyond an archaeologically derived culturalaffiliation. The ancient Maya are an exception,however, as hieroglyphic texts and iconographydocument history and therefore there is thepossibility of connecting skeletal remains tohistorical figures. The research project describedinvolves such an instance. It informs us on thereconstruction of Early Classic Maya lifeways,and includes a detailed radiographic analysis ofblunt force trauma. Radiographic technology was

implemented to add detail to interpretationsderived from the gross evaluation of pathology.The project goals included: (1) the documentingof pathological processes that may not have anexternally visible manifestation; and (2) theassessment of changes in bone structure conco-mitant with trauma which may be evidence ofindividual-specific forms of pathology and activ-ity-related changes such as disuse atrophy.Observations were made on two elite individualsfrom the Early Classic period of Copan (ca. AD400–600): K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’, founder of theEarly Classic Dynasty at Copan; and the princi-pal individual recovered from the Motmot tomb.

The site of Copan is located near the south-eastern limit of the Maya region in modern dayHonduras (Figure 1). The chronology of Copancan be divided into three periods. The Proto-classic, or Predynastic period, is characterised by

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 3 September 2003Revised 1 March 2004Accepted 6 April 2004

* Correspondence to: Department of Anthropology, University ofNew Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.e-mail: [email protected]

the Bijac ceramic phase and dates to ca. AD 100–400. The Early Classic period of Copan is definedby the Acbi ceramic phase (ca. AD 400–600) andincluded the reigns of the first ten rulers ofCopan. The Late Classic period at Copan isdefined by the Coner ceramic phase (ca. AD600–850). The skeletal remains of the two eliteindividuals analysed in the current study date tothe Early Classic period.

The urban centre of Copan is situated withinthe largest of a series of alluvial pockets carvedby the Copan River. The Principal Group repre-sents the remains of the Classic Maya politycapital and consists of plazas to the north and aseries of superimposed structures to the south. Aballcourt and Structure 10L-26 (Temple of theHieroglyphic Stairway) demark these north andsouth components. The elevated Acropolis isdivided into two enclosed courts by Structure10L-25 and Structure 10L-16. The latter is thehighest point in the Principal Group and repre-

sents a pivotal period in the history of theAcropolis (Canuto et al., 2004).

The Hunal Tomb (Burial 95-2) is located in theearliest levels of the Acropolis (Structure 10L-16). Stratigraphic, ceramic and epigraphic evi-dence all date the Hunal Tomb to ca. AD 400–450 (Bell et al., 2004). The tomb and its remainswere disturbed by human activity, seismic eventsand water infiltration, yet the remains appear tohave rested initially upon a fine reed mat andwere accompanied by a number of shell and jadeornaments, bone implements and ceramics (Bellet al., 2004). The remains have been attributed toK’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’, founder of the EarlyClassic Dynasty of Copan. K’inich Yax K’uk’Mo’ is said to have arrived and consolidatedpolitical power within the Copan Valley in AD426 (Schele, 1986; Stuart and Schele, 1986;Sharer, 1997; Sharer et al., 1999).

Excavations below Structure 10L-26 (Fash et al.,2004) revealed other Early Classic period burials,including the Motmot Tomb. The principal inter-ment in theMotmot tomb (Burial 37-8) was that ofa seated young female. The tomb was capped witha circular marker inscribed with iconography thatsuggests it was constructed during the reign ofRuler 2, the son and successor of K’inich Yax K’uk’Mo’ (Fash et al., 2004). The tomb was reopenedand there is evidence for the use of fire and theinclusion of at least two more skulls (Fash et al.,2004). Based upon the material found in associa-tion with the remains, the young woman may havebeen a day-keeper, an individual associated withdivination and curing (Fash et al., 2004).

In addition to the goals stated above, therewere three goals that specifically dealt with ourevaluation of the Motmot individual: (1) identi-fication of evidence for bone thinning, eitherassociated with reduced activity levels or pathol-ogy; (2) an evaluation of a parry fracture of herright forearm; and (3) evaluation of a minorasymmetry of the proximal humeri as possibleevidence for a fracture of the right humerus at thesurgical neck.

Previous research

There are few reports of blunt force traumaamong the Maya, especially in reference to the

Figure1. Copanand its regional context.

Copan Radiography 197

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 15: 196–207 (2005)

elites. Saul & Saul (1997) reported blunt forcetrauma rates from the PreClassic site of Cuello.Most fractures were observed on skeletal remainsrecovered from the Chicanel phase of the site(400 BC–AD 25), which consisted of two differ-ent contexts; the first consisted of two massburials of only male individuals, while the secondcontext was residential. Examples of healedtrauma in the former sample includes malaligned‘parry’ fractures of the left radius and ulna, Collesfractures of the distal left radius, a fractured footphalanx, and finally a fractured left capitate andlunate (Saul & Saul, 1997). Based upon the higherfrequency of fractures in the Chicanel males, Saul& Saul (1997) suggested that these individualswere at an unusually high risk of such trauma,perhaps through combat or sports, althoughwhether this was by virtue of their social statusor sex is unclear (Saul & Saul, 1997: 43).

Armstrong (1989) examined 275 adult Colo-nial burials from Tipu, and found relatively lowrates of trauma, with three examples of parryfractures. While there was some suggestion thatsome of the trauma from the Tipu sample was dueto violence, in general trauma frequencyincreased gradually with age, and Armstrongconcluded that most of the fractures appear tohave been the result of accidents. These burials,however, do not seem to represent an elitesection of the population (Cohen et al., 1997).

Whittington (1989: 363–5) reported obser-ving only one example of a parry fracture fromhis analysis of Classic period (AD 400–950) low-status individuals from Copan. Furthermore, hestated that only one other parry fracture has beenreported for ancient Maya materials.

In a recent study, Buikstra et al. (2004) docu-mented remarkable evidence of blunt forcetrauma among elite individuals from an EarlyClassic period context at Copan. Here, we extendthat investigation, which was limited to grossobservations, to include radiographic assessmentof pathology for K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ and theprincipal interment within the Motmot tomb.

Materials and methods: radiography

Radiographs were taken using a Soyee ProductsInc. portable veterinary x-ray unit. Safety proce-

dures, including protective lead aprons andresearcher isolation, were followed to reduceradiation exposure. Given the logistics of theresearch locales, including both a laboratory set-ting (Motmot interment 37-8) and tunnels setwithin the Copan Acropolis (K’inich Yax K’uk’Mo’), the use of conventional radiographic filmwas infeasible. Instead of conventional film,800 � 1000 sheets of 800 ISO Polapan 803 Polaroidfilm, a black-and-white photographic film, wereused. Polaroid film has advantages over conven-tional radiographic film when dealing with fieldconditions (Conlogue & Nelson, 1999), includinginstant assessment of exposure and positioning,and sharp, positive images (Figure 2a and b). Itsdisadvantages, however, include the limited sizeof the film, which at times necessitated multipleexposures to capture the full length of long bones.Despite these caveats the use of Polaroid film waschosen. Exposures were generally set at 80 kV/15mA and the focal film distance was approxi-mately 100 cm (40 inches) above the level of thefilm. Power fluctuations within both the labora-tory and tunnels made it difficult to maintain theselevels, therefore exposure times varied from under10 seconds for thin bones such as ribs andscapulae, to 35 seconds for cranial and longbones. As such, care must also be taken whenassessing differences in radiodensity between ele-ments that were exposed on different films. Thisconcern, however, will only affect the interpreta-tion of a single figure in this research. All otherfigures consist of single exposures. Another obsta-cle encountered during the research was cinnabarthat had been applied to the bones prior todeposition. Cinnabar, a naturally occurring formof mercury, is radiodense and at times was soubiquitous on the skeletal elements that theresulting radiographs had no diagnostic power.One of the authors, EMB, a radiologist from theMayo Clinic, while not involved in the actualexposure of the films, reviewed the radiographs.

Radiographic assessment of pathology

K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ interment

Standard osteological methods concluded thatthe Hunal tomb contained a single set of partially

198 K. C. Nystrom, J. E. Buikstra and E. M. Braunstein


disarticulated remains of an adult male (Buikstraet al., 2004.) Application of the newly-developedtransition method (Milner et al., 2000; Boldsenet al., 2002) indicates that K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’lived well past his fifth decade (Buikstra et al.,2004).

The most impressive physical evidence of life-style for K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ derives from ananalysis of blunt force trauma that had beensustained during his adulthood (Buikstra et al.,2004). He had suffered a ‘parry’ or ‘nightstick’fracture to both bones of the right forearm

(Figure 3a and b). It is generally postulated thatsuch fractures result from a direct blow to theforearm when the arm is pronated and raised indefence to shield the face (Merbs, 1989; Perryet al., 1995; Galloway, 1999).

The fact that both fractures were not reducedis clear based on both gross examination andradiographic assessment (Figure 3a and b). Thefragments of the right radius reunited and theresultant bony callus is well-organised and inte-grated, indicating that the fracture was stabilisedand that the healing process was inactive at thetime of death. The distal shaft was displacedproximally and healed in a position that shor-tened the bone by approximately 1 cm (Figure 3aand b). The left radius measures 246mm, whilethe right radius measures approximately 236mm.Despite the fracture and the healed malalign-ment, cortical bone thickness of the right radiusappears unaffected. In fact, in comparison to theunaffected left radius (Figure 4), the right radiusappears more radiodense. While this may be aresult of the osteoblastic activity associated withhealing, the distal half of the diaphysis is denserthan the corresponding section on the left radius.While the right radial head suffered a smallamount of post-depositional damage, a line ofreactive bone along the margin of the head isvisible. The distal epiphysis also demonstratesthe development of radiodense arthritic bone(Figure 3a and b). This emargination is probablydue to altered patterns of compressive and tensileloadings, perhaps to compensate for the com-plete ulna separation.

The fragments of the ulna did not reunite(Figure 3a and b). Interestingly, while there isarthritic lipping grossly visible throughoutthe elbow, wrist and hand, an indication thatthe insult did not result in complete disuse of thelimb, the two fragments of the ulna are radiolu-cent compared with the denser radial fragments.The absence of trabecular bone in the distalportion is probably due to post-mortem perfora-tion of the diaphysis, evident radiographically asa radiolucent oval shape near the metaphysis.

The thorax suffered a significant amount ofrestructuring, the apparent result of blunt forcetrauma. The caudal portion of the gladiolus wasdepressed, causing the superior portion to projectventrally and displacing the articulation to the

Figure 2. (a) Medial-lateral and (b) anterior-posterior radiographs

of Motmot’s cranium.



dorsal surface of the gladiolus. Radiographically,both the inferior margin of the manubrium andthe superior margin of the gladiolus demonstrateareas of radiodense bone, probably the result ofthis modified articulation (Figure 5b). The infer-ior portion of the gladiolus has suffered consider-

able post-depositional damage and is alsoobscured radiographically by cinnabar.

More than likely related to the above restruc-turing, the articulations between the manubriumand the clavicles were altered, forming new articu-lar facets more laterally on the clavicles. There is

Figure 3. (a) Anterior-posterior radiograph of right radius and ulna and (b) medial-lateral radiograph of right radius and ulna.The white

arrowpoints to a post-depositional radiolucencyon theulnaasnoted in text. Blackarrowspoint to areas of reactive bone asnoted in text.

Figure 4. Anterior-posterior radiograph of left radius and ulna.



an exuberant cartilaginous ossification, which maybe due simply to their greater frequency in olderindividuals, but may also be related to alteredarticulations following trauma. Radiographicevaluation of the sternal articular surfaces on themanubrium is hampered by the presence of cin-nabar (Figure 5b). Grossly, both sternal ends areexpanded, with the right being coarsened irregu-larly, appearing more disorganised and radiodensethan the left (Figure 6a and b).

The most unusual example of blunt forcetrauma evident in K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ involvedthe left shoulder. The superior third of theglenoid fossa and the coracoid process of thescapula separated from the remainder of the bone(Figures 7 and 8). The fracture was not reduced,and the bone segments never united. FromFigures 7 and 8, we can see that the rim of theglenoid fossa appears disorganised. Upon grossexamination (Buikstra et al., 2004) it was notedthat there were marked arthritic changes at theshoulder, including pronounced lipping of thehumerus and eburnation of the inferior third ofthe humeral head, probably due to post-traumaticosteoarthritic development.

Figure 5. (a) Photograph of sternum (white arrow marks area of

thinning as noted in text) and (b) anterior-posterior radiograph of

sternum (black arrow marks formation of radiodense bone at al-

teredmanubriumand gladiolus articulation as noted in text).

Figure 6. (a) Superior-inferior and (b) anterior-posterior radio-

graphs of right and left clavicles.

Figure 7. (a) Anterior-posterior radiograph and (b) medial-lateral

radiograph of left scapula. Arrows mark areas of disorganised

bone on glenoid fossa.



The K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ skeleton also dis-plays a number of other, less radical, blunt forceinjuries (Buikstra et al., 2004). The right fifthmetacarpal demonstrates morphological changesconcomitant with an unreduced fracture. Basedon the degree of integration and organisation atthe fracture site, the injury was not activelyremodelling at death.

Other grossly observed fractures were not soreadily visualised radiographically. One and per-haps as many as three ribs present well-healedfractures; however, given the amount of cinnabarthat remained, it is difficult to observe radio-graphic evidence for these fractures. Grossly,

the posterior aspect of the right parietal displaysevidence of a healed depressed fracture, but wewere unable to visualise the fracture radiographi-cally. The 11th thoracic vertebra is wedged ante-riorly from a compression fracture, whichproduced a 30 to 45 degree kyphosis, but again,given a thick layer of cinnabar, no further refine-ment is possible. Finally, there is a vertical fracturethrough the distal phalanx of the right great toe.

Other disorders documented by Buikstra et al.(2004) were also difficult to assess radiographi-cally, either due to the presence of cinnabar orthe poor quality of the bone which producednon-diagnostic radiographs. Within the spinalcolumn, the joint between the seventh cervicaland first thoracic vertebra is arthritic, withmarked porosity and eburnation of the articularfacets. Rib facets in the lower thoracic region areexpanded and lipped. There are visible differ-ences in bone density between the right and leftmetatarsals (Figure 9). While post-depositionaldamage to the right fourth and fifth metatarsalscould account for this generalised loss of bonedensity, the diaphyses of the second and thirdmetatarsals are intact. The aetiology of this lossof bone density remains equivocal. There are noaccompanying externally visible defects such asincreased porosity or grossly visible leadingedges of infection which might account for theobserved unilateral bone density loss.

The Motmot interment

The primary interment within the Motmot tombis a remarkably well-preserved skeleton of afemale who died during young adulthood. Herremains are notable for their gracility, includingnarrow long bone diaphyses and only slightlydeveloped muscular attachments. Despite hergracile appearance the bones exhibit normalradiographic density. There is no evidence thatthe Motmot individual suffered from osteoporo-sis, osteopenia, or experienced cortical or trabe-cular bone loss due to disuse atrophy.

The Motmot individual suffered a ‘parry’ or‘nightstick’ transverse fracture to her right fore-arm (Figure 10). Cortical and trabecular bonethickness appear normal. The bony callus at theulnar midshaft is well-integrated and was not

Figure 8. Medial-lateral photograph of left scapula demonstrating

the degree to which the glenoid fossa was involved in the separa-

tion of the coracoid process.



actively remodelling at the time of death. Therewas no displacement of the ulnar segments andthe fracture healed in near perfect anatomicalalignment.

Finally, we evaluated the possible fracture atthe surgical neck of the right humerus. Radio-graphically, there was no indication of a fractureline at this site.

Discussion

K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’

As stated in the introduction, the purpose of theradiographic assessment of the skeletal remainsrecovered from the Acropolis at Copan was toenhance and potentially expand the conclusionsbased upon a gross examination of the material.This includes the documentation of previouslyunobserved pathological indicators and therefinement and verification of previously obser-vable indicators. The last includes structural bonychanges that would have been the result ofaltered physiological function, such as disuseatrophy and cortical or trabecular bone thinningor thickening.

It is not possible to define more precisely thetiming or sequence of the traumata beyond thatsuggested by gross evaluation. For K’inich YaxK’uk’ Mo’, in the absence of any epiphysealdislocation due to trauma, it would appear thatthe major injuries to the thorax and upper limbsoccurred after approximately 25 years of age.

Based upon the radiographs it is possible torefine our understanding of potential behaviouraland structural changes due to the traumataobserved in these individuals. We infer from theradiographs that the insult to the right radius ofK’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ did not result in disuseatrophy. Cortical thickness remains normal andthere is gross and radiographic evidence for thedevelopment of arthritic lipping at the articularsurfaces. Interestingly, despite this gross evidenceof arthritic changes associated with the radius, theulna lost a significant amount of its cortical bonethickness. In general, cortical bone density at thissite is low, an indication that it was not subject topressure or irritation resulting from continued use.It is possible that the radius acted as an internalsplint, preventing significant movement at thesite. There is evidence that some contact existedbetween the portions of the ulna based upon thelipping present on both surfaces. Therefore, while

Figure 9. Medial-lateral radiographs of (a) left and (b) right metatarsals.



the radius displays evidence of continued use, theulna appears to have atrophied.

Results from experimental pig and dog longbone ostectomies (Chamay & Tschantz, 1972;Goodship et al., 1979) provide a possible explana-tion for this disparate reaction in cortical bonethickness. Their research indicates that the ren-dering of either the radius or the ulna uselessresults in diaphyseal hypertrophy in the unaf-fected bone. The extension of these results to thecurrent discussion, however, must be tempered.In the experimental pigs and dogs, the radius andulna are weight-bearing bones and therefore aremore susceptible to, and accommodate morerapidly, shifts in compressive and tensile loads.Further experimental data would be needed toinvestigate the same relationship in non-weight-bearing paired long bones.

The behavioural implications that led to thestructural alterations evident in the clavicle andmanubrium present a diagnostic challenge. Theevent that caused these alterations depressed thecaudal portion of the gladiolus, consequentlycausing the superior portion to project ventrally,subsequently displacing the articulation to thedorsal surface of the gladiolus. The same eventprobably affected the sternal articulations of theclavicles. Both clavicular articulations areenlarged, roughened and radiodense. It is possi-ble that the thoracic restructuring may have beenthe result of injuries sustained during a ballgame(Buikstra et al., 2004).

The fractures of the shoulder girdle probablyresulted in radical structural and functionalchanges. The two scapular fragments were suffi-ciently displaced such that they never united.This displacement may have affected the stabilis-ing properties of the ligaments and muscles, andcontinued use of the joint would have preventedthe fragments from healing as a unit. While thisfracture could have disrupted the shoulder’s phy-siology, possibly leading to degenerative changesand paralysis, there is no evidence of disuseatrophy in the left upper limb. Evidence fordisuse atrophy would be a generalised loss ofcortical density, but it is observed from theradiographs that the glenoid fossa continued toserve as a point of articulation (Figure 7). Mod-erate arthritic development in the elbow, wristand hand also indicates that the limb continuedto be used.

Given that there are no size or shape differ-ences between the left and right scapula, it isunlikely that the injury to the left scapula was dueto epiphyseal separation during childhood. Fromthe modern medical literature we know that suchscapular fractures are rare, but may be the resultof high-energy impacts (Rogers, 1982; Neer &Rockwood, 1984; Goss, 1992, 1995; Herscoviciet al., 1992; Zuckerman et al., 1993; Ideberg et al.,1995; Galloway, 1999), such as automobile,pedestrian and motorcycle accidents (Zuckermanet al., 1993: 271; Stephens et al., 1995: 440).Shoulder trauma, rib and clavicle fractures arealso commonly involved in these types of acci-dents (Goss, 1992: 299; Herscovici et al., 1992;Zuckerman et al., 1993: 271; Stephens et al.,1995).

Figure 10. Anterior-posterior radiograph of Motmot individual’s

right forearm.



Buikstra et al. (2004) suggested three plausiblescenarios that may have resulted in the observedpattern of scapular fractures. The first is a directblow to the shoulder, at the point or in the regionof the coracoid process (DePalma, 1983; Neer &Rockwood, 1984). Goss (1995: 270) associatedfractures of the base of the coracoid with directblows to the shoulder in the more violent ‘stick’sports such as lacrosse and hockey. Secondly,this fracture pattern may have resulted from a fallwith the arm adducted, with the shoulder strikingthe ground or another hard surface. Lastly,K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ could have fallen towardthe left with his arm extended and his handoutstretched to break the impact.

All of the fractures evident within the K’inichYax K’uk’ Mo’ remains are either healed, perma-nently in a state of non-union, or are associatedwith arthritic bony development. K’inich YaxK’uk’ Mo’ obviously led a very active and at timesdangerous life. The trauma indicators identifiedabove provide hints as to the nature of his lifebefore his arrival at Copan and his subsequentconsolidation of power. Despite dramatic evi-dence that points to numerous broken bones,he continued an active lifestyle, reaching anestimated age of greater than 50 years. Notonly would his participation in the more prag-matic aspects of kingship be vital (conquest andconsolidation), but his continued participation inthe Maya ballgames would have been an impor-tant aspect in his ascendancy to power and theritual continuation of Maya life and death cycles.

Motmot

Radiographic assessment of epiphyseal closuresupported the young adult age estimate for theMotmot individual. Given this estimate, we canspeculate that the parry fracture suffered by theMotmot individual happened before approxi-mately 25 years of age.

As noted, the skeletal remains of the Motmotinterment are quite gracile, lacking prominentmuscle markings. Based upon the radiographs,cortical and trabecular bone thickness appearsnormal, leading us to conclude that her gracilitywas not due to osteoporosis or osteopenia. Basedupon the calculation of cross-sectional geometric

properties of the humeri, we were able to docu-ment a slight asymmetry in humeral medullaryarea, suggesting a relatively expanded medullaryarea at the midshaft of the right humerus.

Buikstra et al. (2004) report stable isotopicevidence that the principal interment in theMotmot tomb apparently spent her youth furthernorth, in the Central Peten, perhaps aroundTikal. Her presence in a tomb that included aninitial sacrifice and then a subsequent depositionof two human heads indicates that she was animportant personage, perhaps herself an elitepolitical prisoner sacrificed at Copan. Whateverher history, the Motmot individual did suffer asignificant injury to the right forearm. The injuryprobably occurred sometime during late adoles-cence or early adulthood based upon the degreeof healing and her estimated age. It is possiblethat the injury was reduced and splinted, giventhat there is no notable alignment abnormality.Whether this insult was due to violence oraccident, however, must remain speculative.

Conclusions

When used in conjunction, gross and radio-graphic assessment of trauma and pathologicalprocesses greatly enhances our understanding ofpast lifeways. Indeed, dependence on the grossobservation of such processes may hide a vitalpart of the picture. At the simplest level, radio-graphic documentation of skeletal remains mayreveal previously undocumented lesions, trauma,or pathological process. Alternatively, conclu-sions based upon gross examination may berefuted or refined. In the case of the Motmotindividual, we were able to eliminate the possi-bility that she suffered from osteopenia or osteo-porosis, conclusions that could be suggested bygross examination alone. This led to alternativeexplanations that dealt more with behaviour orsocial context. Additionally, for the Motmotindividual, we were able to speculate, basedupon the nature of the healed right ulna, thatthe injury may have been reduced and splinted.While it is not unexpected that ancient peoplepractised first aid, it is significant that palaeo-pathology and palaeoradiography can indirectlydemonstrate treatment.



Structural changes to cortical or trabecularbone can provide important hints in the recon-struction of activity-related shifts in behavioursubsequent to trauma or pathological process.K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ obviously suffered numer-ous insults during his long life. These injuriesprobably altered the physiological function ofthe affected areas, but they do not appear to haveresulted in complete disuse of the affected area.The fracture to the right radius did not adverselyaffect cortical bone thickness, yet at the sametime the ulna appears to have lost cortical bonethickness.

From experimental data, researchers haveshown that hypertrophic compensation canoccur in paired bones (Chamay & Tschantz,1972; Goodship et al., 1979), although theseresults need to be extended to non-weight-bearing limbs. Arthritic development at the cor-responding elbow and wrist indicate continueduse of the arm. Furthermore, calculation of cross-sectional geometric property from orthogonalradiographs (Biknevicius & Ruff, 1992) indicatesthat the humeri experienced subtle mechanicalalteration following trauma. The results suggestthat despite the fracture of both right forearmbones, K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ retained near nor-mal use of the arm. While loss of cortical bone ispositively correlated with age (Ruff & Jones,1981), bone loss in the right humerus was accel-erated relative to the left humerus. At the sametime, cortical bone was redistributed away fromthe neutral axis of the long bone in order tomaintain mechanical integrity.

In conjunction with the gross evaluation, wewere able to further our understanding of thebehavioural implications behind such trauma.The unique suite of trauma evident on K’inichYax K’uk’ Mo’ increases our understanding of anc-ient Maya lifeways in general, and of the nature ofelite social behaviour at Copan in particular.

Acknowledgements

Funding for the original osteological analysis ofthe remains came from the National GeographicSociety, the National Science Foundation, andTexas A&M University. Permission for the studyhas been granted by Oscar Cruz and the Instituto

de Hondureno de Antropologıa y Historia and byRobert Sharer, William Fash and Barbara Fash ofthe Copan Acropolis Project. The assistance ofEllen Bell, Marcello Canuto, Lynn Grant, Chris-topher Powell, David Sedat and Loa Traxler hasbeen essential to the success of the project. Theradiographic portion of the research was madepossible by funding from FAMSI and the AhauFoundation. We would also like to thank threeanonymous reviewers for their comments whichhave greatly improved this manuscript. KCNwould like to thank Jerry Conlogue, RonaldBeckett and Rick Carlton for exposing him topalaeoradiography.

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Radiographic evaluation of two Early Classic elites from ...nystromk/Docs/Nystrom et... · from the Early Classic period of Copan (ca. AD 400–600): K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’,