Rachael Wix - Dissertation

How the UK Print Media Represent Islam and Muslims through Online News

Articles on Terrorist Attacks

Being an Independent Study submitted in part fulfilment of the examination

requirements for the award of

BA (Hons) Journalism

By

Rachael Wix

April 2016

Word count: 10,686

Table of Contents

1

Chapter 1 Introduction 7

1.1 Objectives of the Analysis 9

Chapter 2 Literature Review 11

2.1 Backlash 11

2.2 Muslim Blame 12

2.3 Threat to the West 13

2.4 Islamophobia: 14

2.4.1 Backwards Culture 15

2.4.2 Islamic Extremism 16

Chapter 3 Methodology 18

3.1 Thematic Analysis 18

3.2 Themes 19

3.3 Qualitative Methods 19

Chapter 4 Analysis 21

4.1 Findings 23

4.2 Backlash 24

4.3 Islamic Extremism 28

4.4 Muslim Blame 32

4.5 Threat to the West 37

4.6 Backwards Culture 42

Chapter 5 Conclusion 48

References 51

Bibliography 59

Abstract

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The term 'terrorism' has become the dominant framework for understanding illegitimate

political violence (Stampnitzky, 2013, 4). However, terrorism is an extremely broad subject,

and therefore this research project focuses on controversial Islamic terrorism. The two

essential ingredients of terrorism are its violence and its political or social motive (Sandler,

2014, 1). Despite the common attributes of terrorism, Islamic terrorism bases its ideology at

the heart of Islam, justifying the use of violence in the name of religion. Terrorists tend to

employ shockingly violent acts, such as beheadings, downing of commercial airlines,

bombings in public markets, and armed attacks in public places, to intimidate an audience

(Sandler, 2014, 1). Islamic terrorism across the world has led to tensions between the Middle

East and the West, through targeting Westerners as victims in violent acts committed by

Muslims. Islamic terrorist attacks carry the threat of leading to backlashes against the Muslim

population, with Westerners blaming Muslim individuals for attacks carried out by radical

Islamists. Despite radical Islamists not representing the faith of Islam, the media will

commonly manipulate news reports to represent Islam and Muslims within a certain

discourse.

The London Bombings:

On Thursday 7 July 2005, Mohammed Sidique Khan, Shehzad Tanweer, Germaine Lindsay

and Hasib Hussain waged terror on the streets of London after detonating four suicide bombs.

Three of these bombs were detonated on different trains travelling through the London

Underground, beginning around 8:50am. Liverpool Street, Edgware Road, Kings Cross and

Russell Square station were all affected. An hour following these attacks, another bomb is

detonated on a double-decker bus in Tavistock Square.

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These attacks killed 52 people, and injured over 700 in total. However, when information

emerged that the suspects of these attacks were Islamic extremists, the West were reminded

of the horror in New York four years previously. After further investigation, it was confirmed

that the suspects of the London bombings were Muslim British citizens. This information has

caused large debate amongst society of whether Muslims and the Muslim faith should be

tolerated within the United Kingdom, as British Muslims have committed atrocities on their

home soil.

An attack such as this has heightened tensions between Muslim communities and the British

public, as the media's stress on the terrorists' British citizenships has questioned whether

Muslims can be trusted within a society of a completely different culture. Therefore, this case

study is a strong candidate to portray how the UK media represent Muslims and Islam

following a terrorist attack.

Woolwich Murder: Lee Rigby:

Eight years after the atrocities of the London bombings, Islam converts Michael Adebolajo

and Michael Adebowale were shot down and arrested by police after hacking a man to death

near the Royal Artillery Barracks in Woolwich, London. The attack was committed in the

middle of a street on the afternoon of Wednesday 22 May 2013.

A shocking factor of this attack was video footage that emerged from witnesses, in which the

attackers state they committed this murder in order to avenge Muslims killed by the British

Armed Forces. Media reports following the attack stated that the victim was Lee Rigby, a

British Army soldier, causing uproar amongst the public.

4

Both Adebolajo and Adebowale are British citizens of Nigerian descent, who were brought

up Christian by their families before converting to Islam. The result of two Muslim men

murdering an innocent British soldier led to discussions on Islamic radicalisation, and why

British Muslims are becoming radicalised. From this, a bigger threat to Western society

emerged through British Muslims becoming radicalised by Islamic and Jihadist groups in

order to carry out terrorism in the name of Islam. Therefore, the media has reflected this

threat within news reports of terrorist attacks in order to heighten anxieties across society

against Muslims.

Paris Attacks:

The development of Islamic terrorism has created a threatening enemy to the West, the

Islamic State, otherwise known as ISIS. On the evening of Friday 13 November 2015, three

groups of Islamic extremists committed several attacks across the city of Paris in areas

including the State de France, the Bataclan theatre and central Paris. Cafes and restaurants

were shot at, whilst attacks at the State de France interrupted an international game between

Germany and France, with French president François Hollande in the audience.

Concert-goers at the Bataclan theatre where thrown into a terror zone when terrorists stormed

the venue and began shooting into the crowd. American band 'Eagles of Death Metal' were

performing to an audience of 1,500 people at the venue that evening. On Saturday 14

November, ISIS claimed responsibility for the attacks, with Hollande stating these attacks

were carried out with help from inside France. However, the discovery of two passports from

Syria and Egypt next to two suspects of the attacks has also caused worldwide debate.

5

The recent migrant crisis across Europe has dominated the headlines recently, with numbers

of refugees fleeing to the United Kingdom rising. News reports have shown refugee camps

set up in Calais, with desperate individuals jumping onto lorries heading to Britain. However,

the discovery of a Syrian and an Egyptian passport has questioned whether the attackers have

infiltrated France through a migrant route. Manipulating this into news reports has broadened

the targets of terrorism within the news, to those fleeing conflict in the Middle East as well as

innocent Muslims. Again this suggests audiences will consume news reports at face value and

therefore consume a misleading concept of events, creating resentment against Muslims and

refugees at the possibility they are potential terrorists.

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Chapter One

Introduction

Terrorism is a term that is used regularly in today's society. Despite many believing they

understand the concept behind terrorism, scholars would argue that it is a very broad term,

and that those involved in terrorism would not label themselves as terrorists.

Terrorist attacks have been carried out all over the world since violence has been a platform

to challenge politics. Attacks cause world-wide panic, challenge governments and even

influence conflicts across multiple countries. However, since the attack carried out in New

York on September 11 2001, where two passenger airliners were hijacked and crashed into

the Twin Towers by Islamic extremists, Islamic terrorism has dominated the world. This

terrorism is explained as attacks carried out by Muslim groups and individuals, who use

Islamic motivations to justify their actions.

However, the UK media commonly manipulate reports in order to influence public opinions

on these events. It is very typical that these Islamic attacks will include a huge focus on the

religion and culture of the terrorists themselves – Muslims who follow the religion of Islam –

to create the negative ideology that all Muslims are terrorists. An increase in Islamophobia

was reflected through how the media addressed and stereotyped the Muslim population.

However, even though some media outlets will portray Islam and Muslims positively to help

to prevent Islamophobia, many others portray them negatively by adopting harmful Islamic

media stereotypes.

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Misleading news reports can have an extremely dangerous effect on minority groups such as

the Muslim community within the United Kingdom. Previous research on this topic has

described the UK media as 'Islamophobic', preaching a dislike to those who are perceived to

follow the Islamic religion. The occurrence of Islamic terrorist attacks gives the media a

window to 'educate' the public of the event. However, many media platforms use this to their

advantage to publish information that will enrage the British public, making them believe that

Muslims are a threat due to attacks being carried out in the name of Islam.

The media must understand their position in society to carry out ethical reporting in order to

prevent tensions rising between the British Muslim community and the British public. On the

other hand, due to the media possessing such a powerful role in society, it is easy to

manipulate news reports in order to influence certain political stances within the public. A

negative reaction from the public is more likely to occur if the report is written through a

negative discourse. Stressing the negative concepts of the Muslim community (such as

Muslims being responsible for mass killings and attacks) is likely to receive a negative

representation of this community in the eyes of the public.

This research project adopts the stance that the UK media represent the religion of Islam and

the Muslim community negatively. As the news is a popular platform for public debate, it

assists with the construction of public opinion. By presenting Islam and Muslims as negative,

the media are contributing to Islamophobic sentiments within UK society, establishing this as

a normal, tolerable behaviour. Therefore, this project will conduct research into how the UK

media present Islam and Muslims negatively, through the use of thematic analysis.

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Objectives of the analysis:

My aim for this research is to establish whether themes used within news articles reinforce a

negative perception of Muslims and Islam. I am aware that multiple British newspapers carry

a reputation of containing misleading or false information in order to satisfy a common

ideology in their readership. Therefore, I must analyse different newspapers that carry

different political agendas, in order to conclude whether political agenda plays a role in the

discourse used within these reports.

Furthermore, I aim to establish whether the media portray positive or negative representation

in news reports, and if this has a physical effect on minority groups. Alienating minority

groups from the British public can be extremely harmful, and can cause a social and cultural

divide. Despite the United Kingdom being historically influenced by social class, the

introduction of different cultures can pose as a threat to traditional British values, leading to

further alienation and resentment. For example, the current refugee crisis holds a divide

between banishing refugees from the UK to protect our welfare system and values, and

assisting the refugees to achieve a better, safer way of life. It is an argument between

compassion for human beings from a different culture, and protecting traditional British

values.

In addition to this, it can be argued that the underlying resentment of the Muslim community

helps to reinforce negative publicity from the press. It is wrong to ignore the social divide

between the British public and minority groups, however the press can play on this issue to

exacerbate the problem. The more negative publicity that the Muslim community receives

means that more members of the public will believe the ideology that they are dangerous, and

9

therefore should not be accepted in Britain. One aim of this research is to consider whether it

is the concept of a foreign religion that poses the biggest risk within news reports. Religion

belongs to the private realm of the individual conscience, the place of worship, and the home.

If made public, religion threatens to unleash dissension and division (Gottschalk and

Greenberg, 2008, 93).

Overall, I will be analysing the thematic tools used within media reports, and whether these

tools uncover a deeper meaning to the report than what is taken at face value. This is to

highlight unethical practices within media reporting, in order to solve the social and cultural

issues that divide the British public. It is essential that the media understand how harmful

misleading and biased reporting can be, and how discourse used within stories should be

considered to prevent a backlash to minority groups. This research will assist in concluding

whether the UK media can be described as Islamophobic, and how effective their role is in

society for portraying minority groups.

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

Backlash:

The idea of a backlash is one very close to those from the Muslim community. After an event

such as terrorist attacks, the public aim their anger and resentment towards those who follow

the same faith as the terrorists – Muslims. However, these occur in different circumstances

and therefore understanding the context backlashes appear in is key. Backlashes are an angry

reaction from a large group of individuals (Oxford Paperback Dictionary & Thesaurus, 2009,

62).

In research conducted to assist with understanding the use of violence within Islam, M.

Cherif Bassiouni explains the result of backlashes against Muslims. "Muslims have felt

alienated, rejected, and discriminated against by the West."(Bassiouni, 2015, 645) Hate

crimes are a certain result of backlashes, and therefore these crimes lead to the alienation of

minority groups. Backlashes following terrorist attacks are generally targeted at Muslims due

to their common link to Islam. It can be argued that these links suggest backlashes due to the

fear of Islam and Muslims, combined with the anger and resentment felt by the public.

Furthermore, hate crimes can reinforce the alienation of minority groups due to extending the

divide from the British public through the use of violence. Githens-Mazer and Lambert

explore the effects of hate crimes against Muslims within their research. Hate crimes have

detrimental effects on Muslims, "the issue of serious anti-Muslim hate crimes […] cause

death and serious, permanent injuries to victims, major suffering to their families and fear and

tensions in communities."(Githens-Mazer and Lambert, 2010, 20) The effects of hate crimes

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on communities is clear representation of a backlash, using violence to portray a negative

reaction. However, these hate crimes usually follow the events of terrorist attacks. The

predictability of backlashes following attacks becomes a key focus within the media,

stressing the alienation of Muslims leading to their victimisation by the public. These

ideologies however stem from those uneducated about the Islamic faith and the legitimate

beliefs. In conclusion, the idea of backlashes against Muslims is key within the media when

reporting terrorist attacks.

Muslim Blame:

The media's tendency to pinpoint Muslims as the suspects of terrorist attacks has created the

ideology that Muslims are to blame for global terrorism. A key factor of this aspect is the

introduction of Islamophobia, resulting in Muslims becoming targets of hate crimes for

actions carried out by extremists. However, the media plays a huge role in this portrayal of

Muslims, manipulating public perception to believe that Muslims are a threat as they are

categorised as extremists. El-Sayed El-Aswad's research into the images of Muslims after

9/11 supports this theory of media pinning blame, stating "much Western scholarship and

mainstream media have portrayed Muslims in terms of global terrorism, Islamic jihadism,

fanatic Islamism, fundamentalism, fascism and authoritarianism”(el-Aswad, 2013, 41). These

links between Muslims and terrorism enable members of the public to adopt the ideology that

Muslims are to blame for terrorism, therefore alienating Muslims from British culture.

Furthermore, Allen (2001) highlights practises of the media using inappropriate terms of

extremist, fundamentalist, fanatic and terrorist within reports of terrorist attacks carried out

by Muslims. Even though Muslims carried out the attack of 9/11, stressing this factor in news

reports validates the belief that Muslims are to blame for terrorist attacks, as they are referred

12

to as fundamentalists within new articles. Therefore, focusing on Muslim blame within new

articles reinforces this ideology within the public’s social practises.

Threat to the West:

It can be argued that the ‘Islamic threat to the West’ has stemmed from the media

‘scaremongering’ – producing and distributing alarming or worrying news. However, there

are multiple aspects that influence the ideology of this threat.

Firstly, White et al (2012) state in their research “media critics and some social psychologists

imply that media exposure may cause threat, which mediates the impact of media coverage

on prejudice.”(White et al, 2012, 3056). This supports the scaremongering theory that the

media manipulate reports in order to trigger fear within audiences, creating prejudice towards

minority groups from British citizens. Furthermore, (White et al, 2012) state that Muslims are

perceived as a threat due to an ‘inability’ to adapt to the British way of life, and therefore are

perceived as a threat due to a difference in culture.

Elizabeth Poole (2002) supports this theory, as her research based on the events of 9/11

suggests that the media presents Muslims as outsiders and aggressors. She explains the

mistake of linking Muslims to terrorism as “all Muslim acts interpreted as extreme are then

constituted as fundamentalism, which is then linked to terrorism.”(Poole, 2002, 46) Through

the use of discourse analysis, Poole (2002) explains the media’s tendency to commonly link

reports of terrorism with Muslims. This link carries the potential for individuals to render all

Muslims as terrorists, creating an anxiety throughout the Western world.

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Islamophobia:

Due to Islamophobia being a vast range of ideologies, it is difficult to categorise it as a

whole. Due to this difficulty of categorising a variety of research under the title of

Islamophobia, I will outline various sources that cover different aspects of this theme.

Following on from the theme of alienation, Saeed (2007) conducted research into the

representation of Islam and Muslims in the media through Islamophobia. Islamophobia is a

common theme within media reports when focusing on minority Muslim groups. Tahir Abbas

(2001) describes Islamophobia as “the fear or dread of Islam and/or Muslims…Although the

term is of relatively recent coinage, the idea is a well-established tradition in European

history.”(Abbas, 2001, 249).

Saeed (2007) suggests that Islamophobia stems from the alienation that Muslims experience,

stating “British Muslims are portrayed as an ‘alien other’ within the media. It suggests that

this misrepresentation can be linked to the development of a ‘racism’…Islamophobia that has

its roots in cultural representation of the ‘other’.”(Saeed, 2007, 443). Saeed’s (2007) research

suggests that the media interpret racism and Islamophobia into news reports to create a public

anxiety towards the Muslim community. As a community that is commonly misunderstood

by the British public, the media can use this to their advantage to publish misleading

information in news reports. However, Islamophobia is a difficult theme, as it is mainly

associated with the far-right, and therefore cannot be categorised within the general public.

Despite this, Allen (2001) argues that the media are not completely to blame for

Islamophobia, however “it is the most accessible and indiscriminate disseminator of such

ideas in our global environment.” (Allen, 2001, p.2).

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Taking the Daily Mail as an example, Allen (2001) explains that the UK media will reiterate

beliefs at the heart of Islamophobia in headlines and report content. This manipulation

therefore has the effect on the British public of perceiving Muslims as traitors to British

culture and British religion.

a) ‘Backwards culture’ and alienation:

Western Europeans and Americans have long taken Arabs, and Muslims in general, as one of

the most prominent examples of social, political, moral, and religious backwardness, if not

regression (Gottschalk and Greenberg, 2008, 81). Studies conducted by researchers on Islam

and Muslim representation mention the theory of Muslims and their ‘inability’ to adapt to

Western culture. Elgamri (2008) believes that this is due to the oil boom in some Arab

Muslim countries during the 1970s: “It is believed that this new wealth led Muslims to turn

their backs on Western culture, and to assert the position and importance of Islam in non-

Islamic societies.” (Elgamri, 2008, p.41). However, Elgamri (2008) argues these theories

occur due to the Western belief that Islam has inherent characteristics that reinforce the

differences between the Western world and the Islamic world. This supports the publics’

common belief of Muslim domination, and that Islam is a religion forced upon individuals

and therefore a threat to British Culture. Poole (2002) supports this theory, stating that events

such as the Gulf War and the introduction of halal meat to British schools has pushed the

world of Islam into the media spotlight. By pushing Islam into the media spotlight, Muslims

have therefore attempted to preserve their culture from media humiliation, to which Poole

(2002) describes is “interpreted as separatism, a threat to ‘traditional British’ values.” (Poole,

2002, p.22).

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These theories question whether it is the culture or the Islamic religion that is seen as a threat

by the British press and public. Poole (2002) explains that the more Muslims try to preserve

their national identity and culture, the more they are excluded and alienated by British

society. This exclusion and alienation is then reinforced by the media reporting, as

discrimination is a common theme within news reports focusing on Muslims and Islam. “The

media contribute to the material practices of discrimination through their discursive practices,

which normalise attitudes towards problematized groups…” (Poole, 2002, p.21).

b) Islamic extremism:

According to the BBC, “the government defines extremism as vocal or active opposition to

fundamental British values, including democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty and

mutual respect and tolerance of different faiths and beliefs”(Casciani, 2014), and that Islamic

extremism is an ideology that accuses the West of perpetrating a war on Islam. Elzain

Elgamri (2008) pins this blame on the western media, and the misleading information in

broadsheet reporting: “…The West is often accused of portraying Islam as a single

monolithic entity, conflating militant Islam with mainstream Islam, and of viewing Islam as

the new enemy and threat…”(Elgamri, 2008, 39 ) This is a very interesting theory, as

modern news stories reporting on Muslims and Islam will commonly create the link between

Islam and militant Islam such as the Islamic State (ISIS). The BBC define ISIS as a jihadist

group that “burst on to the international scene in 2014 when it seized large swathes of

territory in Syria and Iraq. It has become notorious for its brutality, including mass killings,

abductions and beheadings.” (BBC, 2015). The common link between Muslims and the

Islamic State within the media creates the assumption that Muslims follow the beliefs of ISIS,

therefore creating tensions due to the perception of Muslims being a threat to the West.

16

However, Elgamri (2008) states that the Western attitude is needed in order for the West to

assert its power over the Muslim world and construct its own identity. Elgamri (2008) argues

the print media are a huge influence in societies’ perceptions on minority groups and events.

Poole (2002) supports this theory, stating that the media focus on Islam has ‘politicised’ the

religion, creating Islamic fundamentalism that is mainly linked to Islamic extremism. By

categorising all Muslims as Islamic fundamentalists, the media will only reinforce the

ideology that Muslims are a threat to the Western world, creating more tensions between

British society and minority groups. This issue is highlighted within research carried out on

the press and social media reaction to the case of Lee Rigby.

McEnery, McGlashan and Love (2015) conducted a study that used critical discourse analysis

(CDA) to analyse the reaction to the murder of Lee Rigby through social media (Twitter) and

the UK press. McEnery, McGlashan and Love (2015) explain that the press focus on the

religious motives of Lee Rigby's murderers, even though the representation of the murderers

does not root their attack clearly in the religion of Islam as a whole. This is a problem

because "extremists are identified as a problem, as is the version of Islam that they

espouse."(McEnery et al, 2015, 250). This research supports the issue of the UK media only

focusing of certain aspects of terrorist attacks to report – for example, the religion that the

terrorists themselves follow. Stressing that Lee Rigby's murderers were repeating the word

'Allah' within their speech after the attack can lead to the public believing that there is a link

between Islam and extremism, as the religion of Islam is forcing these men to commit these

attacks. Therefore, the UK media focusing on the religious motives behind terrorist attacks

can contribute to the widespread belief that all Muslims are Islamic extremists.

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Chapter Three

Methodology

Thematic Analysis:

Representation of minority groups such as Muslims requires a method that can explain in

depth why specific themes are used within text discourse. Therefore, I have adopted the

thematic analysis method. Thematic analysis is a qualitative method that reports, identifies

and analyses themes within data, such as news reports. Using thematic analysis can establish

how society power relations are created and reinforced through the use of themes, therefore

distinguishing the representation portrayed within news reports. One aim of this analysis is to

understand the use of themes and how this creates ideologies that are produced within social

interaction.

A common feature of thematic analysis is questioning how themes are implemented to

produce social practices within the public. The aim of this research is to establish what

themes emerge within news reports to create either positive or negative representation. It is

crucial within this analysis to question whether the themes used has an effect on the public’s

ideologies and opinions on a certain subject. However, this analysis will consist of

identifying the themes covered within the literature review across all newspaper sources, to

conclude whether negative representation is apparent.

Thematic analysis relies on coding information in order to highlight common themes within

data. This analysis focuses on a deductive approach, where the theme development and

coding of sources are directed by existing ideas (those covered in the literature review).

Thematic analysis involves examining codes and data to identify broader patterns of

meaning, in order to present it as a representation.

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Themes:

Thematic analysis has been chosen as the analysis method for this dissertation, as it will offer

an explanation of why certain themes are used within news reports of Islamic terrorist

attacks, i.e. because it depicts a certain representation of Islam and Muslims. This research

will also highlight how social structures and culture help to shape the themes used within

news reports. The results of this method should highlight profound codes of meaning across

the data analysed, in order to produce themes.

As this method focuses on the occurrence of themes within data, the notion of a theme must

be examined. A theme refers to a common pattern of meaning within a source. However, it is

essential to establish the content of these themes. From taking the deductive approach,

existing ideas have already been noted within the literature review in order to form a base for

the themes predicted within the data. Therefore, the themes stem from references categorized

together from the data to produce a specific meaning. Previous research within this field has

assisted to predict patterns within media reports of terrorist attacks.

Qualitative methods and data collection:

Thematic analysis as a research method will result in collecting qualitative data. Qualitative

data explains the way people think and feel, assisting with the concept of representation.

Therefore, it is appropriate data to present how people think and feel about Muslims and

Islam through reading news articles on terrorist attacks.

Data will be collected through an analysis of 50 news articles published within a week after

three terrorist attacks: the 7/7 London Bombings (Thursday 7 July, 2005), the murder of Lee

Rigby (Woolwich Attack, Wednesday 22 May, 2013) and the November Paris attacks (Friday

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13 November, 2015). These articles are all online based, and cover The Sun, The Daily Mail

and The Guardian. These articles have all been collected through keyword searching. For

example, the keyword search for the London bombings was '7/7 bombings', the Lee Rigby

attack keywords were 'Woolwich attack' and the Paris keywords were 'Paris attacks'.

However, it is crucial to state that not all newspapers within this analysis published articles

focused on these attacks every day during the week following. Despite this, the use of

thematic analysis will highlight the use of negative themes within each newspaper. Choosing

a variety of UK news publications can establish whether there is a particular newspaper that

consistently represents Muslims and Islam in a particular way, and whether representation

differs across all three publications. This will assist in highlighting the different practices

adopted by these publications in order to portray events such as these attacks. Online based

articles have been used within this research project, due to the vast majority of news

consumers that now access news on the internet rather than from physical copies.

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Chapter Four

Analysis

Thematic analysis consists of examining and recording patterns and themes within data.

Through the use of qualitative data software Nvivo, I will be able to highlight reoccurring

themes within the news articles collected

The first step to this analysis is the use of a word frequency query. As this research project

considers the representation of Islam and Muslims, key words will form the basis for a word

frequency query. Thematic analysis relies on themes within context through the use of

coding, and therefore the query was programmed to search both keywords ‘Muslim’ and

‘Islam’ in a broad context, in order to understand what is being said when the key words are

used.

Each individual reference to the keywords was then coded and saved as a ‘node’ (a recurring

theme within context). If more than one reference to a keyword carried the same theme as

previous references, it would be collectively coded under a pre-existing node. Coding is

essential in order to establish prominent themes within the data collected, to highlight key

representations of Muslims and Islam.

After coding all references to Muslims and Islam across all three publications, five

reoccurring themes received results. These themes include those considered in the literature

review, which received multiple references within multiple sources.

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These themes consist of:

Backlash

Backwards Culture

Islamic Extremism

Muslim Blame

Threat to the West

In my findings I will discuss the nature of these themes, and how they apply to the data

analysed within this project.

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Findings

All three newspapers within this analysis carry themes that represent Muslim and Islam

negatively. All themes considered within this analysis carry negative representation,

portraying Islam and Muslims as a backwards culture that pose a threat to Western society

through the belief that the religion of Islam justifies the mass killings of innocent civilians in

terrorist attacks.

The revision of these themes and the context they appear in gives an insight into how

information within news reports is consumed and processed by members of society in order

to create personal perception.

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Backlash:

A backlash is describes as an angry reaction from a large group of individuals (Oxford

Paperback Dictionary & Thesaurus, 2009, 62) after a political or social development.

Terrorist attacks put extreme strain on governments and society across the world, creating

violent backlashes to members of the Muslim population. Seventeen newspaper articles

included the theme of a backlash, consisting of twenty-nine references.

The Daily Mail:

The Daily Mail is the most negative newspaper in regards to the theme of backlash, receiving

a total of twelve references.

----

1. Claiming most Muslims support that view, the ‘preacher’ […] he implied that the

killing was the result of British prejudice and racism towards young Muslims.

(Malone, 2013).

----

2. Choudary insisted that ‘persecution’ of Muslims prompted attacks against Western

targets. (Malone, 2013).

----

3. In a chilling rant captured on camera, the knife-wielding man declared: 'The only

reason we have killed this man today is because Muslims are dying daily by British

soldiers.’'(Martin et al, 2013).

----

These references within The Daily Mail include the theme of backlash through attacks

occurring due to the persecution Muslims face from the West. This can be considered as

24

negative, due to Anjem Choudary – a British Muslim activist who formed the Islamist

organisation al-Muhajiroun – creating tensions within British society through suggesting the

West are to blame for these attacks. Backlash is apparent within these references, as

Choudary is advising (from a jihadi terrorist perspective) that the West’s conflicts with

Muslims and the Middle East has led to a violent backlash in the form of a severe terrorist

attack. However, this in turn can cause a backlash from British society, as many do not

believe that the persecution of Muslims should lead to the deaths of hundreds of innocent

people.

The Guardian:

The Guardian received eleven references relevant to the theme of backlash. The Guardian

makes two references in regards to terrorist attacks being carried out as a backlash to Muslim

persecution to the West.

----

1. Muslim community leaders and law enforcement sources said they were alert to the

danger of a violent backlash following the attack, a fear heightened by Woolwich's

past history of racial tensions.(Dodd et al, 2013).

-----2. Some Muslims have expressed anger at the arrests, claiming their communities were

being unfairly picked on. (Morris, 2005).

----3. The Guardian has learned that, since Thursday's bombings, police have recorded 300

hate crime incidents, including the killing of a man in Nottingham after anti-Muslim

abuse was reportedly shouted at him. (Jeffery, 2005).

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----

The Guardian also represents the Muslim population negatively through the recurring use of

the theme of backlash. The majority of references focus on the backlash against Muslims

themselves, rather than the backlash tensions between the West and Middle East. On the

other hand, reference two above explores the theme of backlash through Muslims being

targeted as terrorism suspects. However, this can have a detrimental effect on ideology,

reinforcing the belief that all terrorists are of Muslim faith, leading to an increase in

discrimination and hate crimes (as highlighted within references one and three). References

one and three report on a backlash consisting of violence, including the murder of a Muslim

man in Nottingham. These references highlight the dangers of creating a backlash against

minority groups, however it also reinforces the ideology that Muslims are to blame and

therefore become victims to society’s anger at terrorist attacks.

The Sun:

The Sun received six references to backlash in total, consisting of references with direct links

to far-right extremist parties, and the lack of Muslims creating a backlash.

----

1. EDL leader Tommy Robinson, who headed a group of around 250 men, ranted:

“They’re chopping our soldiers’ heads off. This is Islam. That’s what we’ve seen

today.”

“Our next generation are being taught through schools that Islam is a religion of peace.”

“It’s not. It never has been. What you saw today is Islam”. (The Sun, 2013).

----

26

2. In 2007 when National Front supporting Neil Macgregor threatened

to blow up Scotland’s biggest mosque and kidnap and behead one

Muslim a week on the internet until every mosque was shut down

there was no backlash from the Muslim community. (The Sun,

2013).

----

3. Just 24 hours before the massacre in Paris he painted for me and others a shockingly

gloomy picture of the Muslim troubles ahead. (Mackenzie, 2015).

----

The Sun takes on a very different angle of backlash through the representation of Muslims

and Islam. Firstly, two far-right parties are mentioned: the English Defence League (EDL)

and the National Front party. Far-right groups are known to carry anti-Muslim and anti-

immigration ideologies, and therefore this gives the context a negative angle. Including

quotes from EDL’s leader, The Sun are reinforcing anti-Muslim ideologies in the articles

published following terrorist attacks. Reinforcing anti-Muslim ideologies through far-right

groups can act as a catalyst for hate crimes, as the publication is including information

about the religion of Islam from an extremist group who preach false facts and

discrimination. Including this information within terrorist attack articles creates the

dangerous possibility of categorising ordinary Muslims with extremist Muslims, leading

all Muslims to become victims of violent backlashes.

27

Islamic Extremism:

Islamic extremism is clearly one of the main focuses in news reports covering terrorist

attacks. This is because these acts of terrorism stem from individuals with extremist views.

Sixteen newspaper articles contained the theme of Islamic Extremism, resulting in twenty-

nine references.

The Daily Mail:

The Daily Mail received the largest number of references to the theme of Islamic Extremism.

Twenty references were found overall for this publication, however the themes of extremism

differ between news reports. The references found consider the links between Muslims and

extreme groups, violent Muslim behaviour, Muslim domination and radicalisation.

----

1. Choudary stopped drinking and womanising; grew a beard and started wearing black

robes. He was ‘radicalised’ — deciding Islamic extremism was the answer to his

problems and vowing to convert as many others as possible. (Malone, 2013)

----

2. It said: ‘Three Muslim prisoners took an officer hostage in an office. Their demands

indicated they supported radical Islamist extremism. (Doyle, 2013).

----

3. Mr Khan, a Muslim, revealed he was worried his two teenage daughters could be

lured to fight for Islamic State in Syria after reading radical tracts on the web.

28

And he said he had grown up with people who in adult life had turned to Islamic extremism –

and who had even ‘acted’ on it in ‘terrible ways’. (Martin and Chorley, 2015).

----

The Daily Mail’s reports of terrorist attacks contribute towards a nation-wide fear of the

Muslim population. As suggested, The Daily Mail do not state the difference between

extreme Muslims and ordinary Muslims. Therefore, the reporting of certain events creates the

stigma that all Muslims are a threat to Western society due to the violent and worrying

actions of extremists justifying their actions through the religion of Islam. On the contrary,

The Daily Mail stress several times within news reports that extremist groups such as ISIS

use tactics of recruiting British Muslims in order to radicalise them for the terrorist cause.

Using the quote in regards to Islamic Extremism from Muslim MP Sadiq Khan, The Daily

Mail are reinforcing the ideology that Muslim extremists are attempting to dominate and

terrorise Western society by recruiting British Muslim citizens. This ideology in turn creates

society’s rejection of Muslims due to the ‘threat’ that their religion and culture brings to

British values and culture. In brief, The Daily Mail represent Muslims and Islam negatively to

the British public through the dangerous links to Islamic Extremism and the actions of

terrorists.

The Guardian:

The Guardian’s response to Islamic Extremism received seven references. While this is the

case, The Guardian’s reports carrying the theme of Islamic Extremism only apply to

references to extremist groups such as al-Muhajiroun and ISIS.

----

29

1. The message of Muslim persecution is perpetuated by al-Muhajiroun, the Islamist

group fronted by the radical Luton-based cleric Anjem Choudary... (Doward, 2013).

----

2. The alleged mastermind of the Paris attacks that killed at least 129 people has been

named as the leader of an Islamic State (Isis) cell who was sought by police earlier

this year and is the target of Wednesday’s police operation north of Paris. (Halliday

and Bucks, 2015).

----

3. He is known to have spent time fighting alongside Islamic State in Syria, arriving in

the war torn country in January this year. He was known to security forces after

appearing in an Isis video at the wheel of a car transporting mutilated bodies to a mass

grave. (Graham-Harrison and Halliday, 2015).

----

The low number of references from The Guardian compared to The Daily Mail can suggest

the consideration of ethics when reporting on terrorist attacks. When discussing Islamic

Extremism, The Guardian do not make a direct link between Muslims and extremism, but

rather highlight the source of extremism in the individuals carrying out the attacks. This is

significant to the representation of Muslims and Islam, as the publication is stating that

terrorists are radicalised by extremist groups rather than ordinary Muslims who follow the

religion of Islam. Therefore, the blame is taken away from Muslims, decreasing the risk of a

backlash, and moving the focus to extremist groups themselves.

30

The Sun:

The Sun plays a small role in the representation of Islam and Muslims through Islamic

Extremism. Across all sources analysed, The Sun received two references to extremism

within news articles.

----

1. AN Islamic academic who says suicide bombings are justified will preach to young

Muslims in London at a conference funded by British taxpayers, The Sun can reveal.

(The Sun, 2005).

----

2. The “co-ordinated” attacks came just hours after the news that a US drone strike had

taken out IS executioner Jihadi John. (Wells and Soodin, 2015)

----

The Sun can still be argued to represent Islam and Muslims negatively. Firstly, the

newspaper states that an Islamic academic justifies suicide bombings. This statement has

the potential to create anger towards Muslims within society, as The Sun are suggesting

that the academic believes the reason behind Paris’ suicide bombings was legitimate and

justifies the massacre of innocent people. More importantly, members of the public may

perceive this statement as a representation of Islamic beliefs, resulting in the ideology that

terrorism is at the heart of Islam. Secondly, The Sun describes how the Paris attacks

followed the death of Jihadi John, suggesting the attacks are a result of a backlash against

the West. Despite the attack being the possible result of a backlash, the public may still

feel resentment against the Muslim population, believing that these drone strikes are

effective because they are exterminating the threat to the West – terrorists.

31

Muslim Blame

Muslim blame is an important theme to cover within this analysis, in order to consider

whether media outlets place full blame on the Muslim population for terrorist attacks. Placing

blame on this vulnerable minority group heightens tensions within society, creating further

alienation and rejection of foreign cultures in Britain due to the perceived threat they bring.

Twenty-six references to Muslim blame were found across sixteen newspaper articles.

The Daily Mail:

The Daily Mail places the most blame on Muslims for attacks, receiving eighteen references.

However, interestingly enough The Daily Mail place blame directly to the Muslim

community for not standing up against extremists.

----

1. The ambush and stabbing of a soldier close to an army barracks is an unprecedented

Islamic attack on mainland Britain. (Martin et al, 2013)

----

2. The hostage takers are understood not to have been convicted of terror-related

offences, but officials confirmed they were Muslim – raising the possibility they were

radicalised behind bars. (Doyle, 2013)

----

3. As the non-Muslim world rages and weeps, the vast majority of Muslims appear

content to keep their heads down and say nothing. Either out of genuine fear, or, if

one was being less generous, out of tacit support for what ISIS stand for. (Morgan,

2015).

32

----

Firstly, the publication refers to the case of Lee Rigby as an ‘Islamic attack of Mainland

Britain’ (Martin et al, 2013). By describing the attack as ‘Islamic’ rather than Islamic

Extremism, The Daily Mail are categorising all Muslims together, placing ordinary Muslims

in the same category as extremists who carry out attacks. This reinforces the ideology that

Muslims support the actions of terrorists, and want to see a war against the West.

Secondly, by stating that the offenders that took a prison officer as ‘Muslim’ creates further

negative representation. Despite this not being linked to a terrorist attack directly, The Daily

Mail are playing a key role in representing Muslim individuals as violent and dangerous.

Furthermore, the article suggests that the offenders were radicalised behind bars, again

perceiving Muslims as a threat to Western society.

However, the final reference places blame in the context of the lack of Muslims condemning

ISIS and terrorist attacks, suggesting that this is because Muslims believe the actions of ISIS

to be justified. This reference reinforces the ideology that Muslims ‘sympathise’ with

extremists, and therefore do not condemn attacks as they believe they are justified, posing

Muslims and Islam as a threat.

The Guardian:

In contrast, The Guardian take an almost backseat approach when placing blame on Muslims.

This publication received seven references across six articles.

----

33

1. A gang of white mercenaries was hired by al-Qaida to carry out the attacks. The

suspects could be "clean skins" - Muslims from the Balkans with no previous links to

terrorist groups and able to avoid security checks. (Ward, 2005).

----

2. The second question - the identity of the bombers - is harder to answer. When local

right-wingers destroyed a government building in Oklahoma 10 years ago, pundits

instinctively, and wrongly, blamed Muslim bombers. That said, the prime suspects for

last week's atrocity must be radical Islamic militants. (Burke, 2005).

----

3. France has a large pool of alienated, angry, frustrated young Muslim men, and there

have long been many informal networks of extremists, violent and non-violent. Most

are oriented towards sending people to Syria, however, not attacking at home. (Burke,

2015).

----

Firstly, The Guardian states how well-known extremist group al-Qaida - a global militant

Islamic organisation responsible for the events of September 11, 2001 – hired white soldiers

to carry out attacks. The statement then leads to claiming the suspects of the London

bombings to be Muslims with no previous links to terrorism. These statements support the

argument that terrorists do not have to become radical Islamists in order to carry out terrorist

attacks, and therefore any Muslim is a potential terrorist threat to the West.

Furthermore, the publication states the incorrect blame on Muslim bombers to a right-wing

attack on a government building in Oklahoma ten years ago. However, the article leads on to

state the suspects must be connected with Islamic militants. Connecting both keywords

34

‘Muslim’ and ‘radical Islamic militants’ in the same context, audiences may easily

misinterpret this information to believe that Muslims are to blame for the London Bombings,

as it is Muslims justifying violence with religion.

Again, the third reference suggests the suspects of the recent Paris attacks to be Muslim,

describing France as containing angry and frustrated young Muslim men and informal

extremist networks. This reference uses negative discourse to describe a vulnerable minority

group, presenting them as dangerous individuals who are susceptible to radical Islam and

terrorism.

The Sun:When placing blame on Muslims, The Sun only included one reference across all articles.

However, this reference is used within a very negative discourse, placing full blame at the

Muslim community.

----

1. As news of the murder emerged, Whitehall sources were quoted describing the

attackers as being “of Muslim appearance”. (Nanjiani, 2013).

----

Despite the author of this article arguing that extremists come from all races and religions,

including this information within a news article places direct blame on Muslim

individuals. However, it is hard to tell exactly what ‘Muslim appearance’ consists of, and

whether perceptions of a Muslim appearance differs across members of society. That

aside, this reference carries with it the perception that Muslims are a threat, as the author

is reporting the events of Lee Rigby’s murder and explaining the attacks as of ‘Muslim

35

appearance’. This use of discourse targets Muslims directly, causing nationwide anger and

attacks against Muslims.

36

Threat to the West

The ideology that Muslims and Islam carry a threat to Western society is a crucial theme

within this research project. It explores how Muslims and Islam are reported within news

media, and how this is perceived as a threat by the West. Poole (2002) highlights the issue of

Muslims and Islam being portrayed as a ‘problem’ in Western society, and how the media has

represented Muslims as outsiders and aggressors during terrorist attacks. Twenty-four

references were found linking to the theme of a threat, across fourteen articles.

The Daily Mail:

The Daily Mail received twelve references across six sources, suggesting that Muslims are

trying to dominate Britain through population and radicalisation of British Muslim citizens.

----

1. He believes Muslim immigrants will eventually out-breed the native British

population, pointing out that Medina in Saudi Arabia once had just 200 Muslim

inhabitants, but went on to become the second city of Islam. (Malone, 2013)

----

2. But, despite the pledges by major search engines that they do pull incendiary videos

from their sites, hundreds of Islamist propaganda videos can easily be found by

impressionable young British Muslim men through simple internet searches. (Martin,

2013).

----

37

3. There is only one problem with this preposterous claim: it is simply not true. For the

preacher is a fan of what is known by Islamic extremists as taqiyya — the telling of

lies to protect their secret, deadly aims. (Malone, 2013)

----

Firstly, The Daily Mail includes two references to a Muslim threat within one source.

However, reference one is the threat of Muslim dominance over the West through

immigration. This negative discourse creates alienation and rejection of Muslim immigrants

due to the belief they have travelled to Britain to ‘out-breed’ the population. Furthermore, the

third reference originates from the same source, highlighting the recurring theme within The

Daily Mail news articles. Reference three states that Islamic preacher Anjem Choudary tells

lies to cover up deadly aims. This can create anxiety through Western society, as it can lead

individuals to believe that all followers of Islam are hiding deadly plans behind a ‘peaceful

religion’.

Secondly, the Muslim threat is portrayed in reference two through links to the recruitment of

British Muslims by extremist groups. The publication refers to young Muslim men as

‘impressionable’, suggesting that British Muslim citizens can easily be influenced by

extremist propaganda online, leading to their radicalisation. Radicalisation is a very difficult

topic to discuss, with a variety of scholars arguing that real Islam followers would not be

influenced by or want to join any extremist Islamic group.

38

The Guardian:

The Guardian consisted of ten references to the theme of a Muslim and Islam threat to the

West over seven articles. However, these references all bear different threats rather than a

recurring aspect.

----

1. A leaked Home Office/Foreign Office dossier claims al-Qaida is recruiting affluent,

middle-class Muslims in British universities and colleges to carry out terrorist attacks

in Britain. (Ward, 2005)

----

2. Bin Laden's attacks aimed to radicalise and mobilise the Islamic world. The purpose

of holing American warships or destroying the Twin Towers was primarily to scare or

damage America, but was also intended to inspire those in the Muslim world who had

hitherto rejected his extremist message. (Burke, 2005)

----

3. Adebolajo, from a Nigerian churchgoing family and who converted to Islam, had

complained of harassment by MI5 in the last three years after he came to the

intelligence agency's attention. (Dodd et al, 2013).

----

Firstly, the Muslim and Islamic threat to the West is apparent through the recruitment of

British Muslims from extremist groups. The Guardian states that extremist groups such as al-

Qaida are recruiting educated British Muslims in order to carry out terrorist attacks across the

West. However, the fear aspect is apparent through the recruitment of British citizens

belonging to the Islamic faith. It poses the question of whether even British born Muslims can

39

be trusted due to them being a number one target for extremist recruitment. Furthermore, this

report reinforces the fear of British born Muslims attacking their homeland in the name of

their faith, questioning whether even British Muslims can be seen as 'fully British'.

Secondly, The Guardian highlights Islam as a threat to the West due to previous terrorist

attacks. Using 9/11 as an example, the publication explains that the 2001 attack in New York

happened in order to 'scare' America through the mass killing of innocent people. However,

the newspaper leads on to state that this attack was also carried out in order to inspire those

from the Muslim community who have since condemned acts of terrorism. Therefore, The

Guardian frames Muslims as individuals who can be easily influenced by terrorism, posing

them as a threat due to the potential of Muslims joining extremist terrorist groups.

Finally, the newspaper poses Muslims and Islam as a threat. The third reference explains that

Adebolajo (one of Lee Rigby's murderers) had come to the attention of intelligence agency

MI5 – the UK's security service. This information poses a threat, through explaining that

Adebolajo was known by the intelligence agency, and was still able to carry out a terrorist

attack. Information such as this can be worrying to the public, due to the UK's intelligence

agency being unable to prevent an attack such as the case of Lee Rigby despite being aware

of one of the suspects. This puts very little faith in the UK government, creating the anxiety

that terrorists are easily able to carry out attacks even if they are known by security services

who are meant to prevent these attacks.

40

The Sun:

In regards to the theme of a Muslim threat to the West, The Sun received two references over

one article, perceiving Muslims and Islam as a threat through Muslim domination.

----

1. In some Sunnis’ hearts these vile gunmen are bringing forward the day of Muslim

domination. Secretly they may look forward to that.

With literally tens of millions of young men potentially heading from the Middle East and

Muslim countries in Africa, our entire nation is at cultural risk. (Mackenzie, 2015)

----

2. As Germany is about to discover, for every one Muslim within two generations they

will have between five and eight in the family. That means if they take two to three

million there could be 24million Muslims by 2035. (Mackenzie, 2015)

----

Firstly, it is crucial to state the importance of the Muslim population within the theme of a

threat. Both references covered above stress the large amounts of Muslims migrating to

the West, suggesting that this is a threat to Western culture and population. Referring to

the Muslim population in Germany, The Sun reinforce anxiety within the British public

through stating that a large Muslim population will ‘destroy’ the Fatherland. This is

because the newspaper view Islam as a backwards culture, and suggest that accepting

more Muslims into the West will risk our cultures and way of life. For those that carry

Islamophobic sentiments, this is the biggest risk of accepting Muslims into the West, as

Muslims are seen as incompatible with British values.

41

Backwards Culture

The representation of Islam and Muslims carries the stigma that they are ‘in able’ to adapt

to Western culture, as many publications refer to the theme of Islam as a backwards

culture, one that does not belong in the West. Backwards culture is apparent through the

stereotype of Muslims and their appearance. Stereotypes are simply descriptions of a

group by outsiders using characteristics understood […] to be shared by all members and

to define them as different from “normal” society (Gottschalk and Greenberg, 2008, 63).

A stereotype of Muslim men relies on the characteristics of the beard and moustache,

kaffiyeh or turban, and brown skin (Gottschalk and Greenberg, 2008, 67). Twenty-two

references to Islam as a backwards culture were found across eleven articles.

The Daily Mail:

The Daily Mail consisted of twelve references across five articles. The theme of a

backwards culture is apparent through the focus on Islamic dress, Islamic beliefs and the

rejection of Muslims from the West.

----

1. Choudary stopped drinking and womanising; grew a beard and started wearing black

robes. He was ‘radicalised’ — deciding Islamic extremism was the answer to his

problems and vowing to convert as many others as possible. (Malone, 2013)

----

42

2. Although many Muslims are well-integrated in the country, a 2013 survey showed

that just 26 percent of French people thought that Islam was compatible with their

society, a sentiment that is compounded by the surging Front National. (Wallis, 2015).

----

3. Once described by a moderate Muslim as the sort of religious leader who ‘sets the

mood music for suicide bombers to dance to’, Choudary wants alcohol banned,

amputations for thieves and adulterers to be stoned to death. (Malone 2013)

----

Firstly, the publication links Islamic dress and radicalisation. The Daily Mail refers again to

preacher Anjem Choudary, however the focus is on his overall appearance. The description

refers to his beard and ‘black robes’, which are an aspect of stereotypical Muslim dress.

However, the wearing of robes is not common within British culture, therefore posing

Choudary as an outsider. The angle of this reference suggests that Choudary’s appearance

shows he has been radicalised. This is dangerous journalism, as members of the public may

believe that this is how radicals dress, leading to the alienation of Muslims who adopt the

same style of dress.

Secondly, The Daily Mail highlights anti-Muslim sentiments through reporting that only 26%

of French citizens believe that Islam is compatible with their society. This is a clear reference

to Islam as a religion that cannot integrate into Western society, leading to alienation and

negative perception of Muslims by members of the public as they believe Islam is not

compatible in the West

43

Finally, Islam as a backwards culture is apparent through the beliefs of Choudary, who is

believed to want to impose Sharia Law in Britain. However, the stress that Choudary wants to

ban alcohol, stone adulterers and amputate thieves is a complete contrast to the punishment of

crimes in Britain. The publication forcing the beliefs of Choudary onto the public is predicted

to cause anger towards the Muslim community, as they are perceived as a population who

want to abolish British values.

The Guardian:

Islam as a backwards culture is common within The Guardian articles, receiving six

references across three sources. Again, Islam as a backwards culture is interpreted through

traditional dress as well as national identity.

----

1. Clutching a placard protesting at a "Crusade against Muslims", Michael Adebolajo

was a striking figure. Dressed in immaculate white robes, the young man's imposing

physical presence made him stand out from the other protesters. (Doward, 2013)

----

2. When they last spoke two months ago, the Muslim convert brushed aside his mother's

concerns about his behaviour and told his mentor that his life had changed for the

better under Islam. In 2008 Adebowale was stabbed in an attack that left another man

dead, in a drugs-related robbery. (Doward, 2013)

----

44

3. Adebolajo did not want to see sharia law imposed in Britain, but thought it more

sensible for someone like him to go and live in a Muslim country, according to the

interviewee. (Urquhart and Dodd, 2013).

----

Firstly, the newspaper refers to Michael Adebolajo’s clothing at a protest as ‘immaculate

white robes’. Even though this is informing the audience of his appearance, it becomes a

stereotype used by Western society. The wearing of robes has now become a key aspect in

‘identifying a Muslim’, as they are perceived to follow a different culture and therefore not

blend in with Western society due to their clothing. Secondly, a referral was made by

Adebolajo claiming how his life had changed for the better under Islam. However, The

Guardian then claims that he was involved in a drugs-related robbery, somewhat suggesting

that he is advocating violence in the name of his faith.

Finally, The Guardian supports Adebolajo’s beliefs to not impose Sharia Law on Britain,

however they describe his want to move to a Muslim country. This may seem harmless,

however it suggests that he wants to move not just because of education, but because his

extremist views are widely accepted in Muslim countries. Furthermore, this reinforces the

belief that Muslim countries are a threat due to the backwards culture of justifying terrorism

with religion. Ideology such as this stems from ignorant negative views towards Muslims,

which leads into the argument of Muslim stereotypes.

The Sun:

The Sun’s theme of backwards culture has an extremely strong link to the theme of a Muslim

threat to the West. Four references were found across three sources.

45

----

1. “Our next generation are being taught through schools that Islam is a religion of

peace.

“It’s not. It never has been. What you saw today is Islam.” (The Sun, 2013)

----

2. In some Sunnis’ hearts these vile gunmen are bringing forward the day of Muslim

domination. Secretly they may look forward to that.

With literally tens of millions of young men potentially heading from the Middle

East and Muslim countries in Africa, our entire nation is at cultural risk.

(Mackenzie, 2015)

----

3. As Germany is about to discover, for every one Muslim within two generations they

will have between five and eight in the family. That means if they take two to three

million there could be 24million Muslims by 2035. (Mackenzie, 2015)

----

The direct link of backwards culture and threat to the west within reports can carry the

potential to influence audiences that Muslims and Islam are more of a cultural threat.

These references reinforce the backwards culture through the population threat, as Muslim

families usually contain more children than British families.

On the other hand, The Sun uses coverage of far-right group the English Defence League

(EDL) to portray Islam as a backwards culture. By stating that the murder of Lee Rigby is

Islam, audiences will believe that the religion of Islam justifies these acts, which is an

46

ideology that does not belong in Britain. Statements such as these portray Islam as an

‘outdated’ extreme culture, which threatens Western society.

47

Conclusion

Islamic terrorism conducted within the West over the last fifteen years has resulted in a media

backlash against Muslims worldwide. News articles that negatively represent Muslims and

Islam typically follow attacks carried out by Islamic extremists. The newsworthiness of Islam

is consistent with previous frameworks of understanding and demonstrates how stories will

only be selected if they fit with an idea of who Muslims are (Poole and Richardson, 2006,

101). Edward Said's Orientalism (1978) is a significant theory for understanding the West's

perception of orient cultures, and how these are perceived as the 'other'.

Negative representation of Muslims and Islam within news articles is apparent through pre-

existing perceptions emphasised within article content. Newspapers tend to use agenda

setting in order to satisfy opinions adopted by their readership, and therefore will play on

these opinions to reinforce an existing negative image of Muslims. Articles analysed within

this research have viewed Islam as a monolithic entity associated with violence, intolerance

and hatred of everything Western (Elgamri, 2008, 214). News coverage of terrorist attacks

however can be argued as observations of events rather than evidence. As Islam is a religion

misunderstood by many in the West, news articles may be written by individuals with little

knowledge of the faith, who manipulate their own personal opinions of Islam into news

articles as it is seen as a 'normal' representation.

It is evident from the thematic analysis conducted, newspapers will use recurring negative

themes within news articles of terrorist attacks in order to construct a negative framework of

Islam and Muslims to the public. Furthermore, the use of negative themes across three

different newspapers creates a consistent sense of fear against the Muslim population, leading

48

to the perception of Islam as a threat to the West. Referring back to agenda-setting,

newspapers follow the trend of covering stories in order to create public awareness on public

issues. Therefore, frequent coverage on terrorist attacks and Muslims within the news

suggests that Islam is a significant issue that needs to be addressed, as information within the

news is considered as more important than other world issues. From this, the ideology of

Islam as a problem emerges within the public through the occurrence of terrorist attacks

carried out by Muslims.

Drawing on these factors, the three newspapers within this analysis mainly focus on the

behaviours, beliefs and appearances of Muslims within news articles covering terrorist

attacks. Despite this, The Daily Mail can be considered as the most harmful newspaper in

regards to negative representation. A link has often been made in an indiscriminate manner

between Islam, terrorism, violence, extremism and fanaticism, by conflating mainstream

Islam with militant Islam (Elgamri, 2008, 216). Due to the media adopting the tendency to

blur the lines between mainstream Islam and militant Islam, audiences can be misled into

believing that there are no differences between the two. Therefore, the violent and backwards

behaviours of militant Islamists becomes a stereotype of mainstream Islam, creating an

overall fear of the entire Muslim population.

An implication to this research project is the reliability of thematic analysis, as themes are

extremely interpretable. However, the coding of information can establish recurring themes

within news articles to present meaning. All themes considered within this project reflect

public opinion of Islam and Muslims, which associate the religion with violence, murder and

49

extremism. Furthermore, orientalism becomes apparent through the media presenting

Muslims as the 'other', a monolithic group who are seen as inferior to the West.

In conclusion, thematic analysis of newspaper articles of terrorist attacks has presented the

media's practises of representing Islam and Muslims negatively through the demonisation of

Islam. Presenting Islam and Muslims as a threatening other that jeopardises British values can

result in an irrational fear, or Islamophobia. Even though all newspapers do not carry out

these practises, the results of negative representation within three different newspapers

establishes the presence of Islamophobia within the media. Previous historical and political

aspects have contributed towards the appearance of Islamophobia, however it is a fear that is

constantly reinforced within newspaper articles.

50

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