Quantum Pulse - 2nd Edition - Download

7/31/2019 Quantum Pulse - 2nd Edition - Download

1/15

QUANTUM

PULSEcan Einstein be ever wrong?

more $400 million to save just 5 millisecond?

strings so dense and so long that it can fuel time travel

robots that can target individual cells

and more

2nd

EDITIONYOUR FORTNIGHTLY NEWSLETTER OF ADVANCED THOUGHTS


2/15

EDITORS NOTE

God gave us 100 billion neurons, making our brain one of the most powerful and mysterious creations in the universe. We dontunderstand a lot of things about our brain. We dont know why

we do some of the basic things we do, like sleep. Contrary to what you believe that we sleep when we are tired, an MRI of the brain has shown scientists that the brain is more active when we

sleep, which is quite mysterious. Dreams are even more mysterious. We dont know why we laugh. There is nothing in evolution that can explain why we laugh. But we do!

With 100 billion neurons at our disposal, what do we do? Do we actively seek knowledge? To know our place in the universe? I mean, why are we here? In a universe spanning 15 billion light

years across, there are billions of galaxies and trillions of stars. For some unknown reason, we are on a planet that is at the optimum distance from the sun that makes our planet not-too-hot-

not-too-cold for life to survive. Not only that, the reality we perceive, the world we see, its a world we see with our senses that is within a specific range.

For specifically, our ears can hear between 20Hz-20000Hz. Our eyes can see only a certain part of the electromagnetic spectrum, from blue to red. Our skin can only feel if a stimulant is above a

critical point. Same goes for our nose and tongue, because we can only smell or taste something if what we are smelling or tasting goes above a certain parts-in-million point.

Thats our world. Imagine if we could see ultraviolet rays. Wouldnt the world be very different? What if the atoms of our body vibrate at a higher frequency? We could literally walk through

walls (if their atoms vibrated at a lower frequency).

The big question is, why do we see what we see?

Why is life like the way it is? Why isnt it different? Why are we in the universe? Are we alive so that we can work 5 days a week and pick up a paycheck at the end of the month? Do we live so

that our meaning of life is directly translated to how much we earn, how much we have?

I guess its all about perception. Its how we see life. I see life as an opportunity to learn, to question and observe. A friend of mine, when he saw what I was doing asked me, What makes you

an authority to make this newsletter? To give people information about nanotechnology? Are you an expert?

I thought about it for a little while. After all, I am not a scientists. Hell, I work in advertising where my primary job is to annoy people during movie breaks. But, the things I am giving on this

newsletter, I am not making it up. I am compiling it from various, reputed sources who are experts on these topics.

So I looked at my friend and told him, Mind your own business.

One thing I have learned in life is this, the moment you start to create something, so many obstacles just pop up. But the moment you start to destroy something, there will always be someone

to help you.

I wanted to create something that people will remember and think, Hey, I learnt something from that.

Thats my only goal.

As to why this newsletter is free, thats another story. After all, the same friend asked me, Why are you working on something that does not pay?Few might understand why.


3/15

CONTENTS

TINY ROBOTS IN YOUR BLOOD FACT OR FICTION?

WAS EINSTEIN WRONG?

FIBER-OPTIC TRANSATLANTIC CABLE COULD SAVE MILLISECONDS, MILLIONS BY SPEEDING DATA TO STOCK TRADERS

COSMIC STRINGS CAN FUEL TIME TRAVEL

WORMHOLES - THE EXHAUST END OF A BLACK HOLE (HYPOTHETICALLY)

THE CELL THAT CAN BE ANY CELL

ACCELERATING EXPANSION - THE MYSTERIOUS UNIVERSE

10 OF THE BIGGEST LIES IN HISTORY
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4/15

TINY ROBOTS IN YOUR BLOOD FACT OR FICTION?

Imagine going to the doctor to get treatment for a persistent fever. Instead of giving you a pill or a shot,

the doctor refers you to a special medical team which implants a tiny robot into your bloodstream. The

robot detects the cause of your fever, travels to the appropriate system and provides a dose of

medication directly to the infected area.

Surprisingly, we're not that far off from seeing devices like this actually used in medical procedures.

They're called nanorobots and engineering teams around the world are working to design robots that will

eventually be used to treat everything from hemophilia to cancer.

Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometre, i.e.

billionth of a meter. More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the still largely theoretical nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and

building nanorobots. Nanorobots are typically devices ranging in size from 0.1-10 micrometres and constructed of nanoscale or molecular

components.

As you can imagine, the challenges facing engineers are daunting. A viable nanorobot has to be small and agile enough to navigate through the human circulatory system, an incredibly complex

network of veins and arteries. The robot must also have the capacity to carry medication or miniature tools. Assuming the nanorobot isn't meant to stay in the patient forever, it also has to be able

to make its way out of the host.

Potential applications for nanorobotics in medicine include early diagnosis and targeted drug-delivery for cancer, biomedical instrumentation surgery, pharmacokinetics monitoring of diabetes, and

health care. In such plans, future medical nanotechnology is expected to employ nanorobots injected into the patient to perform work at a cellular level. Such nanorobots intended for use inmedicine should be non-replicating, as replication would needlessly increase device complexity, reduce reliability, and interfere with the medical mission.

Nanotechnology provides a wide range of new technologies for developing

customized solutions that optimize the delivery of pharmaceutical products. Today,

harmful side effects of treatments such as chemotherapy are commonly a result of

drug delivery methods that don't pinpoint their intended target cells accurately.

Researchers at Harvard and MIT, however, have been able to attach special RNA

strands, measuring nearly 10 nm in diameter, to nano-particles, filling them with a

chemotherapy drug. These RNA strands are attracted to cancer cells. When the

nanoparticle encounters a cancer cell, it adheres to it, and releases the drug into the

cancer cell.This directed method of drug delivery has great potential for treating

cancer patients while avoiding negative effects (commonly associated with improper

drug delivery).

Another useful application of nanorobots is assisting in the repair of tissue cells

alongside white blood cells. The recruitment of inflammatory cells or white blood to the affected area is the first response of tissues to injury.

Because of their small size nanorobots could attach themselves to the surface of recruited white cells, to squeeze their way out through the

walls of blood vessels and arrive at the injury site, where they can assist in the tissue repair process. Certain substances could possibly be

utilized to accelerate the recovery.

The science behind this mechanism is quite complex. Passage of cells across the blood endothelium, a process known as transmigration, is a mechanism involving engagement of cell surface

receptors to adhesion molecules, active force exertion and dilation of the vessel walls and physical deformation of the migrating cells. By attaching themselves to migrating inflammatory cells, the

robots can in effect hitch a ride across the blood vessels, bypassing the need for a complex transmigration mechanism of their own.


5/15

WAS EINSTEIN WRONG?

Einstein gave us a universal speed limit; the speed of light. Nothing in the universe can travel faster than light. Or can it?

It seems that in the weird world of quantum physics, two linked particles can share a single fate, even when theyre miles apart. To illustrate, lets put two

linked particles in two different places, such as Tokyo and Florida. Changing even one property of the particle in Florida immediately changes the properties

of the particles in Tokyo, and that too, with no time delay. As you know, if time is zero, then speed becomes infinite, which means Einstein was wrong.

This phenomenon is known as quantum entanglement, or as Einstein put it, the spooky effect of particles.

It was previously thought that this effect was limited to distance, but the latest mathematics is showing that this effect could also bind particles across time.

If their proposal can be tested, it could help process information in quantum computers and test physicists basic understand ing of the universe.

You can send your quantum state into the future without traversing the middle time, said quantum physicist S. Jay Olson of Australias University of Queensland, lead author of the new study.

In ordinary entanglement, two particles (usually electrons or photons) are so intimately bound that they share one quantum state spin, momentum and a host of other variables between

them. One particle always knows what the other is doing. Make a measurement on one member of an entangled pair, and the other changes immediately.

Physicists have figured out how to use entanglement to encrypt messages in uncrackable codes and build ultrafast computers. Entanglement can also help transmit encyclopedias worth of

information from one place to another using only a few atoms, a protocol called quantum teleportation.

In a new paper posted on the physics preprint website arXiv.org, Olson and Queensland colleague Timothy Ralph perform the math to show how these same tricks can send quantum messages not

only from place to place, but from the past to the future. The equations involved defy simple mathematical explanation, but are intuitive: If its impossible to describe one particle w ithout includingthe other, this logically extends to time as well as space. If you use our timelike entanglement, you find that [a quantum message] moves in time, while skipping over the intermediate points,

Olson said. There really is no difference mathematically. Whatever you can do with ordinary entanglement, you should be able to do with timelike entanglement.

Olson explained them with a Star Trekanalogy. In one episode, beam me up teleportation expert Scotty is stranded on a distant planet with limited air supply. To survive, Scotty freezes himself in

the transporter, awaiting rescue. When the Enterprise arrives decades later, Scotty steps out of the machine without having aged a day. Its not time travel as you would ordinarily think of it,

where its like,poof!Youre in the future, Olson said. But you get to skip the intervening time.

According to quantum physicist Ivette Fuentes of the University of Nottingham, who saw Olson and Ralph present the work at a conference, its one of the most interesting results published in

the last year. It stimulated our imaginations, said Fuentes. We know entanglement is a resource and we can do very interesting things with it, like quantum telepo rtation and quantum

cryptography. We might be able to exploit this new entanglement to do interesting things.

One such interesting thing could involve storing information in black holes, said physicist Jorma Louko, also of the University of Nottingham. They show that you can use the vacuum, that no-

particle state, to store a lot of information in just a couple of atoms, and recover that info from other atoms later on, Louko said. The details of that have not been worked out, but I can foreseethat the ideas that these authors use could be adapted to the black hole context.

Entanglement in time could also be used to investigate as-yet-untested fundamentals of particle physics. In the 1970s, physicist Bill Unruh predicted that, if a spaceship accelerates through the

empty space of a vacuum, particles should appear to pop out of the void. Particles carry energy, so they would be, in effect, a warm bath. Wave a thermometer outside, and it would record a

positive temperature.

Called the Unruh effect, this is a solid prediction of quantum field theory. Its never been observed, however, as a spaceship would have to accelerate at as-yet-unrealistic speeds to generate an

effect large enough to be testable. But because timelike entanglement also involves particles emerging from vacuums, it could be used to conduct more convenient searches, relying on time rather

than space.

Finding the Unruh effect would provide support for quantum field theory. But it might be even more exciting not to see the effect, Olson said. It would be more of a shocking result, Olson said. If

you didnt see it, something would be very wrong with our understanding.


6/15

FIBER-OPTIC TRANSATLANTIC CABLE COULD SAVE MILLISECONDS, MILLIONS BY SPEEDING DATA TO STOCK TRADERS

Traders used to all buy and sell stocks in the same crowded room. Everyone received information at the same time, and the first guy to shout or

signal got the sale. Today, using algorithms that exploit slightly different prices changing at slightly different speeds, and computers connected

to exclusive fiber-optic lines that can buy and sell stocks within fractions of a second, high-frequency traders are able to buy low and sell slightly

higher in virtually the same instant.

A couple of milliseconds can roll out to a $20-million difference in [a traders] account at the end of the month, says Nigel Bayliff, the CEO of

Huawei Marine Networks, one of the companies laying down superfast fiber-optic lines.

Companies like Bayliffs are looking for ways to shave time, and the easiest method is to build a more direct route. Last year, Mississippi-based

Spread Networks opened a shorter connection between New York and Chicago that saved about three milliseconds and was estimated to have

cost $300 million to develop. Huawei is working with another company, Hibernia Atlantic, to lay the first transatlantic fiber-optic submarine

cable in a decade, a $400-million-plus project that will save traders five milliseconds.

To do this, Hibernia is laying nearly 3,000 miles of cable across the Grand Banks off Canada and the North Atlantic, a shorter route that most companies have avoided because it traverses relatively

shallow waters. Undersea-cable companies prefer to work at greater depths; they can just drop naked cable down to the ocean floor. At less than a mile deep, though, they must bury armored

cable to protect it from ship anchors, fishing t rawls, dredging gear, and attacks from sharks, which are drawn to the lines electricity.

For all the money Hibernia and its clients will make from a 60-millisecond trip across the Atlantic, the installation will be slow. Crews on two ships, the Sovereign and the Cable Innovator, will deploy

24-ton ploughs to cut a trench up to six feet into the seabed, into which they will lay the cable. The top speed is about one mile an hour.

Each ship is outfitted with a dynamic positioning system that keeps it in place while laying cable, regardless of currents or winds. If something gets in the way, such as another submarine cable, the

crews will use a remotely operated vehicle equipped with a pair of high-pressure water swords to break apart sediment. The ROV then uses a mechanical arm to bury the new cable underneath

the obstacle and into the temporarily softened earth. The seabed always throws up something unexpected, says Stuart Wilson, the manager of cable-route engineering for Global Marine

Systems, the company installing the Hibernia line.

Hibernia says its cable will go live next year, connecting it to Hibernias Global Financial Network, which has fiber optics running 15,000 miles between financial centers from Chicago to Frankfurt.

But the New York-to-London line could be the companys biggest draw, providing a competitive advantage of just five millisecondsabout the amount of time it takes a bee to flap its wings.
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7/15

COSMIC STRINGS CAN FUEL TIME TRAVEL

A team of physicists and astronomers from the University of Sussex and Imperial College London have uncovered hints that there may be cosmic strings -

lines of pure mass-energy - stretching across the entire Universe.

Cosmic strings are predicted by high energy physics theories, including superstring theory. This is based on the idea that particles are not just little

points, but tiny vibrating bits of string Cosmic strings are predicted to have extraordinary amounts of mass - perhaps as much as the mass of the Sun -

packed into each metre of a tube whose width is less a billion billionth of the size of an atom.

According to big bang theory, for the first 10 - 43 seconds of the universe's life, all the forces of nature existed as one superforce. The universe was all

energy, no matter. Physicists call this symmetry. In the next tiny ticks of time individual forces appeared -- first gravity, then the strong nuclear force --

ending the symmetry state. Within minutes elementary particles and atomic nuclei had formed. But it took another 700,000 years for the first atoms to

form.

Early theories proposed that matter began to lump together as the universe cooled, ultimately forming stars and galaxies. But this didn't seem right to

some scientists. There hadn't really been enough time for all that to happen. Also, the cosmic background radiation discovered in 1965, considered a

virtual echo of the big bang, was completely uniform throughout the sky, ruling out the notion that irregularities in the initial bang could account for the distribution of matter. Why then is the

universe so inconsistent, with some places jammed with matter and others apparently empty?

In 1976, physicist Thomas Kibble was working on mathematical models of that fraction of a second when individual forces were taking shape out of the "superforce." His model suggested that the

rapid cooling after the explosion of the universe caused flaws that were stringlike -- not unlike the cracks formed when water freezes into ice. Kibble described these as slender strands (skinnier

than a proton) of very concentrated mass-energy. These cosmic strings could stretch the length of the universe. A piece of this string only 1.6 kilometers long would weigh more than the earth.

Others have added to the theory: That symmetry still exists within strings. That strings evolve when vibrations cause part of a string to snap off, so that now strings of any size may exist. It is

thought that strings oscillate near the speed of light and give off gravitational waves (predicted by Einstein's theory ofgeneral relativity), ripples in space-time. They have a finite lifespan, since by

vibrating and giving off energy, they ultimately disappear. Perhaps there are none left. In any case, they would be widely dispersed through the universe.

Wild as they seem, cosmic strings could solve some of the questions about how an irregular universe came from a uniformly

exploding plasma. Strings could be a form of dark matter which attracted matter to cohere. Other weird things in the universe, such

as long sheetlike groups of galaxies or the "Great Attractor" toward which the Milky Way and other galaxies are drawn, as well as vast

expanses of emptiness, may be explained by gravitational or magnetic fields caused by cosmic strings.

These strings may weave throughout the entire universe, thinner than an atom and under immense pressure. Naturally, this means

they'd pack quite a gravitational pull on anything that passes near them, enabling objects attached to a cosmic string to travel at

incredible speeds and benefit from time dilation. By pulling two cosmic strings close together or stretching one string close to a black

hole, it might be possible to warp space-time enough to create what's called a closed

timelike curve.

Using the gravity produced by the two cosmic strings (or the string and black hole), a

spaceship theoretically could propel itself into the past. To do this, it would loop around the

cosmic strings.

Quantum strings are highly speculative, however. Gott himself said that in order to travel back in time even one year, it would take a loop of string that

contained half the mass-energy of an entire galaxy. In other words, you'd have to split half the atoms in the galaxy to power your time machine. And, as

with any time machine, you couldn't go back farther than the point at which the time machine was created.
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8/15

WORMHOLES - THE EXHAUST END OF A BLACK HOLE (HYPOTHETICALLY)

Wormholes are solutions to the Einstein field equations for gravity that act as "tunnels," connecting points in space-time in such a way that the t rip between

the points through the wormhole could take much less time than the trip through normal space.

The first wormhole-like solutions were found by studying the mathematical solution for black holes. There it was found that the solution lent itself to an

extension whose geometric interpretation was that oftwo copies of the black hole geometry connected by a "throat" (known as an E instein-Rosen bridge). The

throat is a dynamical object attached to the two holes that pinches off extremely quickly into a narrow link between them.

Theorists have since found other wormhole solutions; these solutions connect various types of geometry on either mouth of the wormhole. One amazing

aspect of wormholes is that because they can behave as "shortcuts" in space-time, they must allow for backwards time travel! This property goes back to the

usual statement that if one could travel faster than light, that would imply that we could communicate with the past.

Needless to say, this possibility is a disturbing one; time t ravel would allow for a variety of paradoxical situations, such as

going back into the past and killing your grandfather before your father was born (the grandfather paradox). The question

now arises of whether it would be possible to actually construct a wormhole and move it around in such a way that it would

become a usable time machine.

Wormhole geometries are inherently unstable. The only material that can be used to stabilize them against pinching off is

material having negative energy density, at least in some reference frame. No classical matter can do this, but it is possible

that quantum fluctuations in various fields might be able to.

Stephen Hawking conjectured that while wormholes might be created, they cannot be used for time travel; even with

exotic matter stabilizing the wormhole against its own instabilities, he argued, inserting a particle into it will destabilize it

quickly enough to prevent its use. This is known as the Chronology Protection Conjecture.

Wormholes are great theoretical fun, and are seemingly valid solutions of the Einstein equations. There is, however, no

experimental evidence for them. This should not stop any budding science-fiction writers from using them as needed!

At present, space-time wormholes are only theoretical constructs derived from general relativity; there is no experimental evidence for their existence. Nevertheless, theoretical physicists study

the mathematical properties of space-times containing wormholes because of their unusual properties. Study of such strange geometries can help better distinguish the boundaries of behavior

permitted in the theory of general relativity, and also possibly provide insights into effects related to quantum gravity.

A wormhole has two mouths connected by a "throat," and provides a path that a traveler could follow to a distant point. The path through the wormhole is topologically distinct from other routes

one could follow to the same destination.

What is meant by topologically distinct? If an ant wished to crawl from one side of an apple to another, there are many possible paths on the surface connecting the starting point to the

destination. These paths are not distinct topologically: a piece of elastic string fixed at the starting and ending points, and lying along one such path, could be slid and stretched over the surface to

lie along any other such path. Now imagine that the a nt instead crawls through a wormhole in the apple. A piece of string passing through the wormhole cannot be smoothly moved in such a way

as to lie along one of the surface paths (or through another wormhole with the same end points but different route).


9/15

THE CELL THAT CAN BE ANY CELL

Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth. In addition, in many

tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing essentially without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person or animal is still

alive. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized

function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell.

Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types by two important characteristics. First, they are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves

through cell division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity. Second, under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to

become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions. In some organs, such as the gut and bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair

and replace worn out or damaged tissues. In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special

conditions.

Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells from animals and humans: embryonic stem cells and non-embryonic "somatic"

or "adult" stem cells. The functions and characteristics of these cells will be explained in this document. Scientists discovered ways to derive embryonic stem cells from early mouse embryos nearly

30 years ago, in 1981. The detailed study of the biology of mouse stem cells led to the discovery, in 1998, of a method to derive stem cells from human embryos and grow the cells in the laboratory.

These cells are called human embryonic stem cells. The embryos used in these studies were created for reproductive purposes through in vitro fertilization procedures. When they were no longer

needed for that purpose, they were donated for research with the informed consent of the donor.

In 2006, researchers made another breakthrough by identifying conditions that would allow some specialized adult cells to be "reprogrammed" genetically to

assume a stem cell-like state. This new type of stem cell, called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).

Stem cells are important for living organisms for many reasons. In the 3- to 5-day-old embryo, called a blastocyst, the inner cells give rise to the entire body

of the organism, including all of the many specialized cell types and organs such as the heart, lung, skin, sperm, eggs and other tissues. In some adult tissues,

such as bone marrow, muscle, and brain, discrete populations of adult stem cells generate replacements for cells that are los t through normal wear and tear,

injury, or disease.

Given their unique regenerative abilities, stem cells offer new potentials for treating diseases such as diabetes, and heart disease. However, much work remains to be done in the laboratory and

the clinic to understand how to use these cells for cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is also referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine.

Laboratory studies of stem cells enable scientists to learn about the cells essential properties and what makes them different from specialized cell types. Scientists are already using stem cells in

the laboratory to screen new drugs and to develop model systems to study normal growth and identify the causes of birth defects.

Research on stem cells continues to advance knowledge about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. Stem cell research is

one of the most fascinating areas of contemporary biology, but, as with many expanding fields of scientific inquiry, research on stem cells raises scientific questions as rapidly as it generates newdiscoveries.

The scope for patients to be treated with their own stem cells has been boosted by discovery of drug regimes that liberate specific types of stem cells from the bone marrow. The discovery could

lead to simple new treatments to accelerate repair of broken bones and ligaments, or damaged cardiac tissue following heart attacks.

Instead of injecting patients with stem cells from donors, embryos or stem cell banks, doctors could simply inject the drugs and the patients would produce the cells themselves. This would avoid

complications of tissue rejection and sidestep ethical objections to using stem cells originating from embryos. "It's promoting self-healing," says Sara Rankin of Imperial College London, and a

member of the team that discovered the stem-cell liberating effects. "We're simply boosting what's going on naturally."

It has been previously possible to promote the release of stem cells that develop into blood cells. Now, for the first time, stem cells have been liberated that regenerate other tissues, such as bone

and blood vessels, widening options for treatment.
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10/15

ACCELERATING EXPANSION - THE MYSTERIOUS UNIVERSE

What goes up must come down. Few on Earth would argue with the fundamental law of gravity. But the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to three scientists who uncovered a dark side of

the force.

New Nobel laureates Saul Perlmutter and Adam Riess of the U.S. and Brian Schmidt of

Australia contributed to the discovery that the universe is not only expanding but also

speeding up.

The finding led to the now widely accepted theory of dark energy, a mysterious force

that repels gravity. Measurements show that dark energy accounts for about 74

percent of the substance of the universe.

But more than a decade after the Nobel-worthy find, scientists are still trying to pin

down exactly what dark energy is and thus solve what some experts call "the most

profound problem" in modern physics. Until dark energy, physicists were convinced

that gravity should be causing the expansion rate of the universe to slow.

"When I throw my keys up in the air, the gravity of the Earth makes them slow down

and return to me," said Mario Livio, a theoretical physicist at the Space Telescope

Science Institute (STScI) in Maryland, said during the Decade of Dark Energy

Symposium, held in 2008.

But by studying the light from distant supernovae, astronomers saw that the

supernovae's host galaxies are flying away from each other at increasing speed.

The observation that the universe's expansion rate is actually speeding up, Livio said, is

as if "the keys suddenly went straight up toward the ceiling."

So far, one of the biggest challenges for dark energy researchers is marrying

observations to theory. "We have two known, totally unsatisfactory explanations," said Michael Turner, a cosmologist at the University of Chicago.

One possibility is there is no dark energy, and gravity works differently than scientists think. But "physicists are conservative. We don't want to throw away our theory of gravity when we might be

able to patch it up," Nobel co-winner Riess, an STScI cosmologist, told National Geographic News. "Basically it all comes down to the fact that there's one relatively simple equation we work with to

describe the universe," Riess said. "Because we see this extra effect, we can either blame it on the left-hand side of the equation and say we don't understand gravity, or we can blame it on the

right-hand side and say there's this extra stuff."

The extra stuffand a leading contender for explaining dark energyis quantum vacuum energy.

The idea is tied to quantum mechanics, which predicts that even in the vacuum of space, particles are constantly winking in and out of existence, generating energy. The trick is that no one has

been able to unify the math used in quantum mechanics, which describes the physics of the very small, with the equations in general relativity, which deal with large-scale interactions.

"The two theories use two different sets of rule books, [and] we've always known that these two books are incompatible," Riess said. Unfortunately, "dark energy is one of the few cases in nature

that really requires us to [somehow] use both sets of rules."

To help solve the riddle, NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy had planned to conduct the Joint Dark Energy Mission (JDEM), the first program specifically designed to study dark energy.

But in the National Research Council's 2010 Decadal Survey, JDEM wasn't recommended for funding. Instead the NRC ranked the Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST)slated to launch in

2020as the best mission to settle essential questions in both dark energy and exoplanet research.

In the meantime, current NASA missions have already played a key role in measuring dark energy, said Michael Salamon, program scientist for NASA's Physics of the Cosmos program.


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"For one, the Hubble Space Telescope has weighed in on dark energy by virtue of the measurements of supernovae," Salamon said. Researchers first observed accelerated expansion by studying

Type Ia supernovaethe explosive deaths of white dwarf stars.

Astronomers know that each Type Ia explosion has about the same

brightness.

As light from the most distant explosions travels toward Earth, it is

stretched by the universe's expansion so that it appears red, a

phenomenon known as redshift. The higher the redshift, the longerlight has been traveling and the farther back in t ime the supernova

occurred.

Examining as many supernovae as possible can help researchers

measure how fast galaxies are moving away from one another.

Supernovae studies have allowed scientists to see that dark energy

has been impacting galaxies since as far back as nine billion years ago.

Other groups are looking for even earlier clues in the cosmic

microwave background, the leftover radiation from the big bang,

believed to have occurred about 13.7 billion years ago.

In 2003 NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe produced the

first full map of the early microwave sky in unprecedented detail.

Essentially looking back in time, WMAP revealed tiny ripples in density

that were the seeds of today's galaxies, Licia Verde, an astrophysicist

at the Institute of Space Sciences in Bellaterra, Spain, said during the

2008 symposium.

"This is a cosmic symphony. You are really seeing sound, [and] the

sound can help you understand how the instrument was made," Verde said. And in 2005 astronomers found that sound waves rippling through the primordial plasma 400,000 years after the big

bang had left imprints in modern nearby galaxies.

These so-called baryon acoustic oscillations offer another yardstick for measuring the expansion rate of the universe over time and putting limits on the value of dark energy.

Ultimately it will take data from a combination of methods to help unravel the mystery, the experts said. "The name of the game is to take more measurements over the expansion history of the

universe, make each of them more precise, and tighten the model for understanding how dark energy works," STScI's Riess said.

A key goal of experiments is to measure the ratio of energy density to pressure in the universe, denoted by the letter w. This value tells physicists "what kind of gravity a material haswhether it's

repulsive or attractiveand how strong it is," Riess said. "If [dark energy] is vacuum energy, then wwill be -1 always and precisely," a find that would match quantum predictions with general

relativity.

Otherwise, it might be time to rewrite the rules.

Lawrence Krauss, a theoretical physicist at Arizona State University, noted at the STScI symposium that most observations currently show the value for was pretty close to -1. For theorists, he

quipped, "measuring w is therefore not going to tell us anything we don't know already." But "new windows show us new surprises. You have to do what you can do, because you don't know

where the answer's going to come from."


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10 OF THE BIGGEST LIES IN HISTORY

According to myth, a young George Washington confessed to cutting down a cherry tree by proclaiming, "I cannot tell a lie." The story is testament to how much respect Americans have for their

cherished first president and honesty in general. Unfortunately, in the annals of history it seems there are 10 dishonest scoundrels for every honorable hero like Washington. Supposedly, the truth

can set you free. But for many, deceit holds the key to money, fame, revenge or power, and these prove all too tempting. In history, this has often resulted in elaborate hoaxes, perjuries, and

forgeries that had enormous ripple effects. Without further ado, let's delve into one of the oldest and most successful lies on record.

10. The Trojan Horse

If all is fair in love and war, this might be the most forgivable of the big lies. When the Trojan Paris absconded with Helen, wife of the Spartan king, war exploded. It had been raging for 10 long

years when the Trojans believed they had finally overcome the Greeks. Little did they know, the Greeks had another trick up their sleeves.

In a stroke ofgenius, the Greeks built an enormous wooden horse with a hollow belly in which men could hide. After the Greeks convinced their foes that this structure was a peace offering, the

Trojans happily accepted it and brought the horse within their fortified city. That night, as the Trojans slept, Greeks hidden inside snuck out the trap door. Then, they proceeded to slaughter and

decisively defeat the Trojans.

This was unquestionably one of the biggest and most successful tricks known to history -- that is, if it's true. Homer mentions the occurrence in "The Iliad," and Virgil extrapolates the story in "The

Aeneid." Evidence suggests that Troy itself existed, giving some validity to Homer's tales, and scholars have long been investigating how historically accurate these details are. One theory behind

the Trojan horse comes from historian Michael Wood, who proposes that it was merely a battering ram in the shape of a horse that infiltrated the city.

In any case, the story has won a permanent place in the Western imagination as a warning to beware of enemies bearing gifts.

9. Han van Meegeren's Vermeer Forgeries

This lie resulted from a classic case of wanting to please the critics. Han van Meegeren was an artist who felt underappreciated and thought he could trick art experts into admitting his genius.

In the early 20th century, scholars were squabbling about whether the great Vermeer had painted a series of works depicting biblical scenes. Van Meegeren pounced on this opportunity and set to

work carefully forging one such disputed work, "The Disciples at Emmaus." With tireless attention to detail, he faked the cracks and aged hardness of a centuries-old painting. He intentionally

played on the confirmation bias of critics who wanted to believe that Vermeer painted these scenes. It worked: Experts hailed the painting as authentic, and van Meegeren made out like a bandit

producing and selling more fake Vermeers. Greed apparently overcame his desire for praise, as he decided not to out himself.

However, van Meegeren, who was working in the 1930s and '40s, made one major mistake. He sold a painting to a prominent member of the Nazi party in Germany. After the war, Allies considered

him a conspirator for selling a "national treasure" to the enemy [source: Wilson]. In a curious change of events, van Meegeren had to paint for his freedom. In order to help prove that the painting

was no national treasure, he forged another in the presence of authorities.

He escaped with a light sentence of one year in prison, but van Meegeren died of a heart attack two months after his trial.

8. Bernie Madoff's Ponzi Scheme

When Bernie Madoff admitted that his investment firm was "just one big lie," it was an understatement [source: Esposito]. In 2008, he confessed to having conned about $50 billion from investors

who trusted him with their savings. Madoff used the formula of a Ponzi scheme to keep up the fraud for more than a decade.

This classic lie is named after the notorious Charles Ponzi, who used the ploy in the early 20th century. It works like this: A schemer promises investors great returns, but instead of investing the

money, he keeps some for himself and uses the funds from new investments to pay off earlier investors.

Madoff may not have invented this lie, but he took it to new lengths. For one, he made a record amount of money from the scheme. But he was also able to keep it going much longer than most

Ponzi schemers. Usually, the scam falls apart quickly because it requires the schemer to constantly find more and more investors. It was also an especially shocking lie because Madoff, as a former

chairman ofNASDAQ, had been an accomplished and respected expert in the financial field. Compare this to Chares Ponzi, who was a petty ex-con by the time he launched his scheme.
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7. Anna Anderson, Alias Anastasia

With the onslaught of the Russian Revolution, the existence of a royal family was intolerable to the Bolsheviks. In 1918, they massacred the royal Romanov family -- Czar Nicholas II, his wife, son

and four daughters -- to ensure that no legitimate heir could later resurface and rally the public for support.

Soon, rumors floated around that certain members of the royal family had escaped and survived. As one might expect, claimants came out of the woodwork. "Anna Anderson" was the most

famous. In 1920, Anderson was admitted to a hospital after attempting suicide and confessed that she was Princess Anastasia, the youngest daughter of the royal family. She stood out from other

claimants because she held a certain resemblance to and surprising knowledge of the Russian family and life at court.

Although a few relatives and acquaintances who'd known Anastasia believed Anderson, most didn't. By 1927, an alleged former roommate of Anderson claimed that her name was FranziskaSchanzkowska, not Anna and certainly not Anastasia. This didn't stop Anderson from indulging in celebrity and attempting to cash in on a royal inheritance. She ultimately lost her case in the legal

proceedings that dragged on for decades, but she stuck to her story until her death in 1984. Years later, upon the discovery of what proved to be the remains of the royal family, DNA tests

confirmed her to be a fake. In 2009, experts were able to finally confirm that all remains have been found and that no family member escaped execution in 1918.

6. Titus Oates and the Plot to Kill Charles II

By the time he fabricated his notorious plot, Titus Oates already had a history of deception and general knavery. He'd been expelled from some of England's finest schools as well as the navy. Oates

was even convicted of perjury and escaped imprisonment. But his biggest lie was still ahead of him.

Raised Protestant by an Anabaptist preacher, Oates entered Cambridge as a young man to study for Anglican orders. After misconduct got him dismissed from his Anglican post, he started

associating with Catholic circles and feigned conversion [source: Butler]. With the encouragement of fellow anti-Catholic Israel Tonge, Oates infiltrated enemy territory by entering a Catholic

seminary. In fact, he entered two seminaries -- both of which expelled him. But it hardly mattered. By this time, he had gathered enough inside information and names to wreak enormous havoc.

In 1678, Oates concocted and pretended to uncover a plot in which the Jesuits were planning to murder King Charles II. The idea was that they wanted to replace Charles with his Catholic brother,

James. What ensued was a three-year panic that fueled anti-Catholic sentiment and resulted in the executions of about 35 people.

After Charles died in 1685, James became king and had Oates tried for perjury. Oates was convicted, pilloried and imprisoned. He only spent a few years in jail, however, as the Glorious Revolution

swept through England in 1688. Without James in power, Oates got off with a pardon and a pension.

5. Piltdown Man

After Charles Darwin published his revolutionary "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, scientists scrambled to find fossil evidence of extinct human ancestors. They sought these so-called "missing

links" to fill in the gaps on the timeline of human evolution. When archaeologist Charles Dawson unearthed what he thought was a missing link in 1910, what he really found was one of the biggest

hoaxes in history.

The discovery was the Piltdown man, pieces of a skull and jaw with molars located in the Piltdown quarry in Sussex, England. Dawson brought his discovery to prominent paleontologist ArthurSmith Woodward, who touted its authenticity to his dying day.

Although the discovery gained world renown, the lie behind Piltdown man slowly and steadily unraveled. In the ensuing decades, other major discoveries suggested Piltdown man didn't fit in the

story of human evolution. By the 1950s, tests revealed that the skull was only 600 years old and the jaw came from an orangutan. Some knowledgeable person apparently manipulated these

pieces, including filing down and staining the teeth.

The scientific world had been duped. So who was behind the fraud? Many suspects have surfaced, including Dawson himself. Today, most signs point to Martin A. C. Hinton, a museum volunteer at

the time of the discovery. A trunk bearing his initials contained bones that were stained in exactly the same way the Piltdown fossils were. Perhaps he was out to embarrass his boss, Arthur Smith

Woodward, who refused to give him a weekly salary.

4. The Dreyfus Affair

Like the conspiracy invented by Titus Oates, this scandal was built on a lie that dramatically affected national politics and was perpetuated for years by hatred. Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish officer inthe French Army in the late 19th century when he was accused of a treasonous crime: selling military secrets to Germany.
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After his highly publicized trial, authorities sentenced him to life imprisonment on Devils Island, and anti-Semitic groups used him as an example of unpatriotic Jews. However, suspicions arose that

the incriminating letters were in fact forged and that a Maj. Esterhazy was the real culprit. When French authorities suppressed these accusations, the novelist Emile Zola stepped up to accuse the

army of a vast cover-up.

The scandal exploded into a fight between so-called Dreyfusards, who wanted to see the case reopened, and anti-Dreyfusards, who didn't. On both sides, the debate became less about Dreyfus'

innocence and more about the principle. During the dramatic 12-year controversy, many violent anti-Semitic riots broke out and political allegiances shifted as Dreyfusards called for reform.

After Maj. Hubert Joseph Henry admitted to forging key documents and committed suicide, a newly elected Cabinet finally reopened the case. The court found Dreyfus guilty again; however, he

soon received a pardon from the president. A few years later, a civilian court of appeals found Dreyfus innocent, and he went on to have a distinguished army career and fought with honor in World

War I. Meanwhile, the scandal had changed the face of politics in France.

3. Clinton/Lewinsky Affair

In January 1998, citizen journalist Matt Drudge reported a sensational story that turned out to be true. The president of the United States, Bill Clinton, had an affair with a White House intern,

Monica Lewinsky. As suspicions mounted, Clinton publicly denied the allegations. As if this lie weren't big enough, it turned out that Clinton had lied under oath about the affair as well -- which was

perjury and grounds for impeachment.

Here's how the truth came out. Paula Jones was an Arkansas state employee when then-governor Clinton allegedly propositioned her. She later sued him for sexual harassment. In an effort to

prove that Clinton had a pattern of such behavior, lawyers set out to expose his sexual affairs. They found Linda Tripp, a former White House secretary and confidant of Lewinsky. Tripp recorded

telephone conversations in which Lewinsky talked of her affair with Clinton. Lawyers then probed Clinton with specific questions and cornered him into denying the affair under oath.

During the highly publicized scandal, prosecutor Kenneth Starr subpoenaed Clinton, who finally admitted to the relationship. Based on Starr's report, the House of Representatives voted to impeach

Clinton for not only perjury but obstruction of justice. Despite the scandal, Clinton maintained relatively high approval ratings from the American public, and the Senate acquitted him of thecharges. However, in the eyes of many Americans, his legacy remained tarnished.

2. Watergate

Two decades before the Clinton scandal, another U.S. president was caught in a web of lies, and the controversy had devastating effects on the country as a whole.

In the summer before President Richard Nixon's successful re-election to a second term, five men were caught breaking into the Democratic National Committee headquarters, housed in the

Watergate Hotel. As details emerged over the next year, it became clear that officials close to Nixon gave the orders to the burglars, perhaps to plant wiretaps on the phones there. The question

soon became about whether Nixon knew of, covered up or even ordered the break-in.

In response to mounting suspicions, Nixon denied allegations that he knew anything and proclaimed, "I am not a crook." This lie came back to haunt him. When it was revealed that private White

House conversations about the matter were recorded, the investigative committee subpoenaed the tapes. Nixon's refusal on the basis of "executive privilege" brought the matter to the U.S.Supreme Court, which ruled that he had to relinquish the tapes.

The tapes were exactly the smoking gun needed to implicate Nixon in the cover-up of the scandal. They revealed that he obviously knew more about the matter than he claimed. Upon the initiation

of impeachment proceedings, Nixon gave up and resigned from office. The scandal left a lasting scar on the American political scene and helped usher Washington outsider Jimmy Carter into the

presidency a few years later.

1. The Big Lie: Nazi Propaganda

By the time Nazism arose in Germany in the 1930s, anti-Semitism was nothing new -- not by a long shot. The Jewish people had suffered a long history of prejudice and persecution. And although

Nazis perpetuated centuries-old lies, this time those lies would have their most devastating effects. Like never before, anti-Semitism was manifested in a sweeping national policy known as "the

Final Solution," which sought to eliminate Jews from the face of the Earth.
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To accomplish this, Adolf Hitler and his minister ofpropaganda, Joseph Goebbels, launched a massive campaign to convince the German people that the Jews were their enemies. Having taken over

the press, they spread lies blaming Jews for all of Germany's problems, including the loss ofWorld War I. One outrageous lie dating back to the Middle Ages claimed that Jews engaged in the ritual

killings of Christian children and used their blood in the unleavened bread eaten at Passover.

Using Jews as the scapegoat, Hitler and his cronies orchestrated what they called "the big lie." This theory states that no matter how big the lie is (or more precisely, because it's so big), people wi ll

believe it if you repeat it enough. Everyone tells small lies, Hitler reasoned, but few have the guts to tell colossal lies. Because a big l ie is so unlikely, people will come to accept it.

This theory helps us understand so many of the lies throughout history.

Compiled, designed and written by Asifur Rahman Khan.

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