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Quantum Mechanics
Directly observing electrons in the atom is impossible, the electron is
so small that observing it changes its behavior
The quantum-mechanical model explains the manner electrons exist
and behave in atoms
The model also helps us understand and predict the properties of
atoms that are directly related to the behavior of the electrons
Why study EMR?
Scientists determined in the early 20th
century that the position and
momentum of an electron can be
accurately described by wave
equations
The Nature of Light
The electromagnetic radiation composed of perpendicular oscillating
waves, one for the electric field and one for the magnetic field
All electromagnetic waves move through space at the same constant
speed of 3.00 108 m/s. This velocity is represented by ‘c’.
The Wavelength
The peak-to-peak distance is called the wavelength. The
wavelength is represented by the symbol .
Wavelength is usually expressed in units of meters, centimeters
or nanometers (1 nm = 10 – 9 m) (also Angstroms=1x10-10m)
Blue light (high energy) has shorter wavelengths and red light
has longer wavelengths (low energy)
The Energy and the Wavelength
The Frequency
Frequency () is the number of waves that pass any
reference point per unit of time or waves/time.
Frequency is measured in
hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 s-1
The frequency can be calculated
from the velocity and the and the
wavelength of the radiation.
λ
cv
Different colors are attributed to the difference in wavelengths of light,
and the magnitude of brightness is directly proportional to the amplitude.
The Amplitude
Amplitude is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave
to the peak or trough. Amplitude affects the intensity or the
brightness of the radiation.
http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/introduction/introductionWaves.html
The color of light is determined by
its wavelength or frequency.
When an object absorbs some
of the wavelengths of white
light while reflecting others, it
appears colored, the observed
color is predominantly the
colors reflected.
An object appears red because it is predominantly reflecting red
light while absorbing most other colors.
The Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into regions according to
the wavelengths or the frequency of the radiation.
The Nature of Matter
End of the 19th century---Matter was
composed of particles and Energy was
composed of waves…right??
BUT
There was a problem that classical physics
couldn’t explain- that a glowing hot object
doesn’t emit UV radiation as expected……
In 1900 the German scientist Max Planck
proposed that the electromagnetic
radiation could be viewed as a stream of
tiny energy packets or quanta we now
call photons. He proposed that there is
a minimum amount of energy that can be
gained or lost by an atom
The Photons
Max Plank
(1858 – 1947)
The Photoelectric effect
Another dilemma in classical physics….
The Photoelectric Effect
It was observed that many metals emit electrons when a light shines
on their surface, this effect is called the Photoelectric Effect.
The classic wave theory attributed the photoelectric effect to the light
energy being transferred to the electron.
According to this theory, if the wavelength of light is made shorter
(higher energy) more electrons should be ejected
If a dim light was used there would be a lag time before electrons
were emitted
In experiments with the photoelectric effect, it was observed that there
was a maximum wavelength for electrons to be emitted called the
threshold frequency (regardless of the intensity).
It was also observed that high frequency light with a dim source
caused electron emission without any lag time
Einstein (1879 – 1955)
Einstein to the rescue……..
Explaimed Photoelectric Effect--
Radiant energy striking the metal
surface behaves not as a wave but as
a stream of tiny packets of energy.
Einstein (1879 – 1955)
The Energy of the Electromagnetic Radiation
Planck proposed, and Einstein
confirmed, that the energy of a photon
is proportional to its frequency.
E = h
Where is h is the Plank’s constant
and it equals = 6.626 × 10– 34 J s
This means that both electrons and electromagnetic radiation
can be represented as either waves (E) or particles (h).
Ground State and The Excited State
Atoms when exposed to electromagnetic radiation, they emit the
absorbed energy in the form of light as electrons return to a lower state.
Spectrum of ordinary white light
The visible spectrum of white light is called a continuous
spectrum, because it contains continuous distribution of all colors.
The origin of atomic line spectra is the movement of electrons between quantized energy levels
The visible line spectrum of excited hydrogen atoms consists of four
lines, from indigo at 410 nm to red at 656 nm (not a continuous
spectrum)> Each of these wavelengths represents a specific energy
transition as excited electrons move from excited states to lower energy
states
Oxygen spectrum
More examples of atomic spectra
Neon spectrum
The Energy Levels Are Quantized
Atomic line spectra tell us that when an excited atom loses energy,
not just any arbitrary amount can be lost.
This is possible if the electron is restricted to certain energy levels.
The energy of the electron is said to be quantized.
(a) Continuous energy level
(b) The energy level are
quantized.
Connected the spectra of hydrogen, and the
quantum ideas of Einstein and Planck, to explain
that single electron of hydrogen could occupy only
certain energy states
The Bohr Model
Niels Bohr(1885 -1962)
AN electron would remain in its lowest energy state until otherwise
disturbed.
The first theoretical model that successfully
accounted for the Rydberg equation was proposed
in 1913 by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr.
The Bohr Model
Niels Bohr(1885 -1962)
Bohr proposed that the electrons moved around the nucleus is
fixed paths or orbits much like the planets move around the sun.
Neils Bohr proposed that the electrons could only have very specific amounts of energy-- fixed amounts, quantized
The electrons traveled in orbits that were a fixed distance from the nucleus therefore the energy of the electron was proportional the distance the orbital was from the nucleus.
When energy is
added to an electron,
it is promoted to a
orbit further away
from the nucleus
Electrons emit radiation when they “jump” from an orbit with higher energy down to an orbit with lower energy . For example they give off violet EMR when jumping from the 5 th energy level to the more stable 2nd.
Electrons emit radiation when they “jump” from an orbit with higher energy down to an orbit with lower energy . For example they give off violet EMR when jumping from the 5 th energy level to the more stable 2nd.
Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom
Bohr explained the line spectrum of hydrogen . The energies of emitted light are equal to the differences between the energy state of an electron jumping from an outer orbits and an inner orbit into which it can move
Rydberg equation
The Rydberg equation is used to calculate the energy changes when electrons are promoted to higher energy levels and subsequently fall back to the lower energy levels
In general, the line spectrum of an element is rather complicated.
The line spectrum of hydrogen, with a single electron, is the simplest.
The Rydberg equation can be used to calculated
energy levels associated with the spectral lines of
hydrogen.:
E= -2.178 x 10-18 J Z2
n2
Bohr’s calculation of the energy levels of a hydrogen atom
–energy of a particular energy level
n= Energy level
The Rydberg constant, R, is an empirical constant with a value of
-2.178 x 10-18 J/atom
Z= nuclear charge aka the number of protons
Rydberg equation
Energy changes during transitions are proportional to (atomic #). This means that if an electron is promoted from for example level 1 to level 5 in a species that has less protons in the nucleus the same transition for a species with more protons would be more difficult. This is because the protons in the nucleus are attracting the electron to the lower energy level and more energy is required to promote them.
Calculate the energy of the n=3 state of the H atom in joules perAtom
-2.421x10-19J
Calculating the delta energy between two quantized orbits
Example Problem 1: Calculate the energy involved when an electron transitions from n=1 to n=3.
+1.936 x 10─18 J NOTE: energy is positive, therefore process is endothermic, energy is required for the transition transition an absorption process!
Calculate the energy involved for an electron to transition from n=5 to n=2 for an atom of hydrogen. Does this represent absorption or emission?
Calculate the wavelength of light observed for the transition in the previous problem.
The Lyman series of spectral lines for the H atom occurs in theultraviolet region. They arise from transitions from higher levelsto n=1. Calculate the frequency and wavelength of the leastenergetic line in this series.
Answer:E = -Rhc (1/1 2 1/22) = -2.179x10-18J/atom (1/1 – 1/4) = -1.634x10-18JE = hν ν = 1.634x10-18 / 6.626x10-34Js = 2.466x1015Hzλ = c/ν = 3.00x108m/s / 2.466x1015Hz = 1.216x10-7m = 121.6nm