Qualitative Methods for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene … · Qualitative Methods for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene ... Scientific Method Confirmatory/top-down: ... –Use caution with this

Qualitative Methods for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene

(WaSH) and Health

Vidya Venkataramanan

©2015 The Water Institute

Objectives

• Understand the purpose of qualitative research methods

• Compare qualitative and quantitative methods

• Understand the strengths and limitations of qualitative methods

• Learn about the basic data collection methods of qualitative research


WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?


First, a few questions…

What kind of study would you design to research these questions?

• How do communities cope with lack of access to clean water?• How do communities perceive the importance of sanitation?• Why do water systems fail? • Why do community WaSH committees not meet regularly?• Why don’t people pay their water bills?• Why do hygiene behavior change approaches work well in some

communities but not in others?• How do different stakeholders perceive the strengths and

weaknesses of a particular WaSH project?


What is qualitative research?

• Explores perspectives and behavior of study populations

• Helps explore the “why” and “how”

• In-depth understanding of a particular situation or group of people– experiences, behaviors,

beliefs, opinions

• “Data” = words, not numbers


Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods

Criteria Quantitative Methods Qualitative Methods

PurposeTest hypothesis, look at cause & effect, make predictions

Understand social interactions incommunity, or individual motivations

Sample size Large and random sample Smaller and purposive sample

Data Collection

Numbers, categories Words, images, or objects

Data Analysis

Identify statistical relationships Identify patterns, features, themes


Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods

Criteria Quantitative Methods Qualitative Methods

Objectivity vs.Subjectivity

Objectivity is critical Subjectivity is expected

Scientific Method Confirmatory/top-down: test hypothesis with data

Exploratory/bottom–up: generate hypothesis & theory from data

Presentingfindings

Use tables and figures as evidence; generate descriptive statistics, correlations, regressions

Use direct quotes as evidence; narrative report by themes, with rich, contextual descriptions

Quality Measured with validity/reliability tests; depends largely on measurement tools

Measured with credibility, neutrality, consistency, and transferability, depends on skill and rigor of researcher


When do you use qualitative methods?

1. Exploratory/formative research:

– To explore a phenomenon (when there is no theory on how X relates to Y)

2. Along-side or after quantitative surveys

– Explain quantitative findings

3. Separate case study

– To describe and analyze particular phenomena

– Compare approaches across cases


Strengths of qualitative research

• Help explain complex phenomena that require in-depth and detailed descriptions

• Flexible and iterative

• Can conduct cross-case comparisons

• Can describe contextual, cultural, factors

• Can explain different perspectives


Limitations of qualitative research

• Data collection and data analysis very time intensive

• Difficult to make systematic comparisons because of subjectivity

• Results can be influenced more easily by researcher’s biases: requires “reflexivity”


Limitations of qualitative research

• More difficult to generalize findings to a broader population

• Quality depends on skills of researcher/data collector; cannot “validate” studies in a quantitative manner

– Some agreed upon techniques exist to ensure quality


QUALITATIVE METHODS


Qualitative methods and tools

Methods

• Observation– Structured / unstructured

– Direct / indirect

• Focus group discussions (FGD)

• In-depth interviews (IDI)– Structured

– Semi-Structured

– Unstructured

Tools

• Checklists

• Field notes

• Interview guides

• Focus group guides


Sampling in qualitative research

• Define your sampling frame

• Purposive sampling: snowball, quota, convenience sampling

Source: Health Services Research Methods: http://www.hsrmethods.org/Glossary/Terms/S/Snowball%20Sampling.aspx


1. Observation

• Structured observation: – Checklists common in WASH M&E

– Examples:• Observe school children’s handwashing behavior

• Observe cleanliness and hygiene of latrine

• Walk with people to water source to measure distance, time, and weight of containers

• Unstructured participant observation:– ethnographic method using detailed field notes

– Example: observe community hand pump at different times of day


2. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

• Conduct FGDs when you want to understand:

– issues of a broader concern to a group

– group behavior regarding a specific topic

– cultural dynamics in a community

• Useful for formative research©2015 The Water Institute



• 1-2 hour meetings with a specific group of people

• No more than 4-8 participants

• Topic should be focused -- too broad loses value

• Data collection team: 1-2 notetakers + experienced moderator (ideal)

• FGD guide: 5-10 open-ended questions with probes/prompts



• Strengths: – Quick way to understand perspectives of many people

in one shot

– Can save time and money compared to individual interviews

• Limitations– Hard to organize

– Hard to control and manage the group

– Participants may feel pressure to agree with dominant view

– Harder to analyze than individual interviews


3. In-depth interviews (IDIs)

• Conduct IDIs when you want to understand:

– individual perspectives

– Get rich and complex detail about a topic

UnstructuredSemi-

structuredStructured



• Ideally individual interviews

• 30 minutes to 2 hours

• Use open-ended questions, with prompts/probes



• Strengths: – Learn great detail about one person's experience.– “Key informants” can shed light on community/group's

perspectives, but in more detail than FGD.– Can help discover other aspects of your research/evaluation

question without necessarily expecting it.

• Limitations– Time consuming– Depend on respondent’s ability to communicate well on one

occasion– If large data collection team, hard to ensure consistency in semi-

structured interviews– Need to conduct sufficient number of interviews to be confident

that interviews represent views of community and not only individual.


Comparison of qualitative methods

ObservationFocus GroupDiscussions (FGDs)

In-depth Interviews (IDIs)

Ideal for…Observing behavior/practices

Understanding group level perspectives and dynamics

Understanding individual perspectives

Tools• Checklists• Field notes

• Focus group guides

• Interview guides

Main strengthDeeper insight into social interaction

Gain multiple perspectives in one interaction

Get rich in-depth perspectives of a respondent

Main limitation Time consumingAnswers might be biased due to peer pressure

Views may not always represent the larger group


Structuring questions in IDI/FGD guide

• Open-ended questions• Do not ask leading questions

– e.g. “Do you think it is shameful to defecate in the open?”

• Example: 4-stage sequence

1. Ask one main question: “What is your opinion about defecating in the open?”

2. Follow-up question: “Why do you feel this way?”3. Probe: “Please tell me more.” “Can you give me an example so I

can better understand what you mean?”4. Prompt: (if mentioned) “You mentioned your neighbors. How do

you think others in your community feel about this?”


Best Practices in Data Collection

• Test or pilot your interview questions in advance

• Always get permission – informed consent and ensure confidentiality

• Audio-record interviews and focus group discussions

– Ensures you do not miss any data

– Lets you have a conversation instead of only taking notes



• Start with general, open-ended questions about person’s background

• Tailor/adapt your interview by judging your respondents and your environment– Long interviews not necessarily = good interviews

– Always be aware of your role as an interviewer vis-à-vis your data collection environment – potential for bias?

• “Triangulate” your data: get information from multiple sources



• Summarize and reflect on your interviews at the end of each day

• Always review your notes at the end of each day, and be prepared to modify your process

• Observe when “data reach saturation”


Analysis: Best Practice

• Transcribe recordings

• Review all transcripts closely alongside recordings to ensure accuracy

• Use Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) to analyze transcripts and field notes

• Atlas.ti, Nvivo, Dedoose, QDA Miner, etc.


Analysis: Practical Considerations

• Not always possible/practical to transcribe

• Not enough budget or time

• Solution: take detailed notes by listening to recordings and use these notes in lieu of transcripts

• Not always possible/practical to use CAQDAS

• Not enough budget

• Solution: analyze by hand (as it was done for decades!)


Basic approach to analysis

• Look for common threads, emerging themes and patterns in data

• Compare and contrast experiences, perspectives, opinions

• Summarize, “code,” develop matrices

• “Code” data, and re-code and re-code

– Deductive and/or inductive

– Descriptive and analytical


Analysis process

• Read the transcripts or notes over

• Codes: ‘tags’ that describe words, sentences, or paragraphs– Multiple rounds of coding

– Inductive coding: start with a blank slate

– Deductive coding: develop list of codes beforehand using codebook

• Organize codes into sub-categories and look at relationships to identify themes/patterns

• Organize using matrix


Analysis process

• Example quote from transcript:

– “I am unable to afford chlorine tablets to purify my water, but I would really like to use them.”

– Possible codes: "purification" "financial challenge" "desire/demand"


Example of matrix

Themes

Case Background Perspectiveon water source

Latrine use Main Challenges

Interview 1 Village chief Positive Uses own latrine Financial: [quote from interview]

Interview 2 Community leader

Negative Open defecation Logistical: [quote from interview]

Interview 3 Farmer Neutral Sometimes uses neighbor’s latrine; otherwise OD

Financial: [quote from interview]


Presenting your findings

• Organize findings by themes– Describe findings – what did people say?

– Interpret – what does this mean?

– Discuss implications– why does this matter?

• Be careful not to conclude or generalize beyond what is possible

• Use direct quotes to illustrate your points

• “Member-checking” can be a useful way to ensure quality– Do your respondents concur with your findings?

– Use caution with this approach if analyzing perspectives


Ensuring Quality of Data

Criteria What does this mean? How can we ensure this?

Credibility Confidence in 'truth' of findings

• Spending sufficient time on data collection

• Triangulation• Member checking / debriefing*• Working in a team

Neutrality Extent to which findings are shaped by respondents and not researcher’s bias/ interest

• Triangulation• Reflexivity• External Audit*• Working in a team

ConsistencyYour findings could be repeated (given that conditions/context don’t change)

• External Audit*

Transferability Your findings can be applied to other contexts

• Thick description of findings and context

Adapted from: Lincoln, YS. & Guba, EG. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.


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Qualitative Methods for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene … · Qualitative Methods for Water, Sanitation, Hygiene ... Scientific Method Confirmatory/top-down: ... –Use caution with this