14-Nov-17

1

Ayodele S. Jegede E-Mail: sayjegede@yahoo.com, sayjegede@gmail.com

Outline

Objective

Learning outcome

Introduction

Qualitative research design

Qualitative data collection techniques

14-Nov-17

2

Objective

To familiarize participant with the importance of qualitative data in biomedical research.

To develop their skills for conducting Qualitative research.

To stimulate their interest in the use of Qualitative Methods (QM) as a useful tool for biomedical research.

Learning Outcomes

Participants have adequate knowledge of the different approaches of qualitative research design

Participants have adequate knowledge of the different approaches of qualitative data collection techniques

14-Nov-17

3

What is Qualitative Research?

Although there is still some debate, the general consensus is that qualitative research is a naturalistic, interpretative approach concerned with understanding the meanings which people attach to actions, decisions, beliefs, values etc. within their social world, and understanding the mental mapping process that respondents use to make sense of and interpret the world around them (Ritchie and

Lewis)

Qualitative research can: describe or provide further understanding of a subject and its contextual

setting;

provide explanation of reasons and associations;

evaluate effectiveness;

aid the development of theories or strategies

Design The Qualitative Research

Design

An initial focus (problem, phenomenon, question)

Phases of the study (background, entry, exploration, closure)

Plan for identifying setting and data sources

Plan and logistics for data collection and analysis

Plan for ensuring trustworthiness (Whitt, 1991)

Selecting Research Participants The goal is to get the deepest

possible understanding of the setting being studied

Requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

It is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied

Utilizes purposive sampling

14-Nov-17

4

•Sample size is always determined by the analysis. It is part of the design and so is influenced by the nature of the inquiry, quality of the informants, the quality of the data.

•The researcher is looking for saturation—the point at which there are no new cases coming from each new participant and redundant information keeps coming up.

•This must be differentiated from participant saturation where the researcher cannot drag anything new out of the umpteenth interview with that particular person.

Sources of Qualitative Data Primary sources:

Ethnography

In-depth interviews

Key informant interviews

Participant and non-participant observations

Interviews (e.g. semi-structured and narrative)

Focus groups

Case studies (typically involving multiple methods of data collection)

Life histories

Secondary sources: Media texts (e.g. television programmes, newspaper reports)

Diaries, letters, other oral and visual artefacts

Responses to open-ended questions in surveys

Published studies and the “grey literature”

14-Nov-17

5

Ethnographic Approach: Research Complex Situations Holistically

What is Ethnography

Most closely associated with

anthropology, but also sociology

Ethnography is an approach for

developing understandings of the

everyday activities of people in

local settings

Ethnography’s Project: enable

conversations across social and

cultural boundaries between

people quite different from one

another

Us trying to understand our

customers

Principles and Methods of Ethnography

Principles Holism

focus on relations among activities and not on single tasks or single isolated individuals

everything connected to everything else

Natives’ point(s) of view

how people see their own worlds

opportunity to engage with customers

Study people in their native habitats

e.g., home, office, school, library, hospital, community...

Methods

In-depth interviews in context

Observation Participant-observation

Non-participant observation

Intensive interactions

14-Nov-17

6

Medicine, money, and… as field equipment

Advantages

Deeper, more nuanced

understandings

More ecological validity

Represent what’s really going on in some everyday setting

What’s meaningful to people

(disconnect between e.g., survey questions... and how people think about things)

Respect for complexity of human

activity

Design for human needs; reflect

users’ own issues and everyday

problems

Cheaper to do it right the first time

considering the cost of launching a new product

Disadvantages

Seeing the world in a single grain of sand

comparative work needed

build from multiple cases

Ethnography in a mobile, distributed world

it’s easier when the natives sit still, but we have to modify our methods and perspectives...

14-Nov-17

7

Participatory Observation

Researcher participate actively in

the activities of the group being studied

Researchers may decide to be an overt participatory observer,

they declare their true identity and purposes

covert participant observer, their status as researchers is not disclosed

Most of the time “researchers

choose to be partially open but do not provide those being studied with the full story” (Haralambos & Holborn, 1995)

Non-participatory Observation

Unlike participant observation, researchers do

not take active part in the activities of the studied group

Observation can be covert overt

Useful because there are some social situations where the presence of an observer is prohibited, or is not likely to be allowed Some treatment procedures

Even when observation is allowed, the presence

of the researcher may alter the behaviour of those being observed to such an extent that the data are not that valid

In some situations, the longer the researcher observes, the more likely those being studied are to forget about his/her presence and the more likely they are to act naturally

“Doctors left Carlos McIntosh’s abdomen open after surgery,

anticipating they would have to operate again on the 18-

year-old, who was near death after being shot twice”

14-Nov-17

8

In-depth Interview (IDI)

In-depth interviews (IDI)

unstructured interview

conversation

interviewer does not strictly adhere to the interview guide or predetermined questions

usually conducted with purposively selected individuals among a studied category

Key Informant Interview

A person with unique skills or professional background on the issue being evaluated

A person who is knowledgeable about the project and participants

Someone who can help you better understand the project participants, their backgrounds, behaviors, and attitudes and any language or culturally relevant considerations

Discussion between an individual respondent and an interviewer

Can be via telephone or face-to-face

Can range from informal chats to highly structured discussions

Should be planned in advance

Can have varying formats and approach

14-Nov-17

9

Purpose of Key Informant Interview

Collect qualitative, in-depth information from a wide range of people

Collect information about a pressing issue or problem in the community

Understand beliefs and motivations

Understand sensitive topics

Get the story behind a participant’s experiences

Types of Key Informant Interview

Informal, conversational interview

General, guided interview

Standardized, open-ended interview

Closed, fixed-response interview

Advantages

Provides in-depth and rich information about a topic

Gives an opportunity to explore causes of problems

Relatively easy and inexpensive

Allows interviewer to be flexible in administering interview

Permits personal contact and provides an opportunity to build or strengthen relationships with important community stakeholders

Allows interviewer to clarify information

Can be used with all groups

Disadvantages

Conducting many interviews can be time consuming

Relationship between evaluator and informants may influence responses

Interviewee may distort information through biases

May overlook perspectives of community members who are less visible

Difficult to generalize results to larger population

Volume of information is large and may be difficult to analyze

14-Nov-17

10

Case Study e.g. Street Violence

A case study involves an in-depth study of a single example of a phenomenon

Thus, a case study could involve the study of a single institution, community, social group, or individual person, a particular historical event, or a single social action e.g. street violence

Life History: August Comte 1798 - 1857

Life histories are particular types of

case study, where the whole study concerns one individual’s life (Haralambos and Holborn, 1995)

They can be carried out using a number of methods but the most frequently used method is extended unstructured interviews

In fact, some life histories make considerable use of personal documents like diary

14-Nov-17

11

Focus Group Discussion

Consists of homogenous

population

A face-to-face round table-like sitting arrangement

Discussion is guided by a moderator assisted by a note taker

It involves use of tape/video

Allows a comprehensive view of community wide problem

Moderating FGD/Conducting In-depth/Key Informant Interviews

Building rapport

Warm-up [Ice Breaking]

In-depth discussion - probe

Ending the discussion – recap and clarify issues

14-Nov-17

12

Attributes of a Good Moderator/Note Taker

Good listener

Flexibility

Ability to manage group dynamics

Unbiased

HOW CAN WE DO THESE?

14-Nov-17

13

Interviewer skills

– Knowledgeable on the subject matter

– Comfortable with meeting and talking to new people

– Ability to concentrate and engage attention while taking notes

– Flexible

– Attentive to non-verbal cues

– Strong communication skills

– Good listener

– Comfortable with silence

– Able to balance between formal and casual talk

Techniques for Collecting Qualitative Data

14-Nov-17

14

Location Interview should be in a place…

Provides privacy

No distractions and easy to hear

Comfortable

Non-threatening environment

Easily accessible for respondent

Where there will be no interruptions

Asking questions

Prepare a discussion guide that contains important topics and questions

Consider the sequence of questions Introductory Key Probing

Ask some fact questions first and then follow with questions that ask about opinions and

beliefs Design questions to yield in-depth information

Ask about the present before the past or future Closing questions should allow respondents to provide any other information or

recommendations

14-Nov-17

15

Tips for asking questions

Keep questions open-ended

Ask neutral questions

Ask questions one at a time

Make sure the wording is clear

Be careful with “why” questions

Use probing questions such as:

“Can you give me examples”

“What changes have you noticed”

Conducting an effective interview

Setting the environment

Communicating the questions clearly and consistently

Recording the interview

Staying on track

14-Nov-17

16

Setting the environment

Establish rapport with an introduction

Be sensitive to interviewee’s responses, attitudes, and beliefs

Show sincere interest in the person beyond just getting the information

Do not interrupt

Remain “tuned in” to the interviewees responses

Begin with questions least in-depth

Communicate questions clearly and consistently

Give same explanations and directions to each respondent

Try to read the questions in the same way for each respondent

Make sure every question is asked

Do not show personal feelings about the questions or expected response

Provide transitions in major topics

14-Nov-17

17

Staying on track

Keep interviewee’s attention on the question being asked

Probe for further information

Review interview guide to make sure all questions were discussed

Thank the interviewer at the end and leave on a positive note

Taking notes

Options: -Interviewer or assistant facilitator

-Audio or video taping

-Combination of note-taking and tape recording

Tips:

-Record main ideas, key phrases

-Don’t allow note-taking to disrupt the flow of conversation

-Fill in gaps immediately after the interview

14-Nov-17

18

After the interview

Make sure the tape recorder worked

Make any extra notes on those you’ve already taken

Write observations made during the interview

Record any surprises during the interview

Send a thank you note

Incentive

Monetary

Non-monetery

14-Nov-17

19

Ethical Norms Guiding Report Writing

Multiple side of the story must be told

Ensure that there is no harm to participants from the report

Report the data in participant’s own words

Describe the context of your interaction and discuss the role you played

Selected References

Boeije, H. R. (2009) Analysis in Qualitative Research Sage Publishers ISBN: 9781847870070

Haralambos & Holborn (2008) Sociology: themes and perspectives. Harper Collins Pub.

Hancock B., Windridge K., and Ockleford E. (2007) An Introduction to Qualitative Research. The NIHR RDS EM / YH.

Glaser BG, Strauss AL. (1966). The purpose and credibility of qualitative research Nursing Research.Winter;15(1):56-61

Hancock B., Windridge K., and Ockleford E. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. The NIHR RDS EM / YH, 2007(Last updated; 2009). www.rds-eastmidlands.nihr.ac.uk. [Accessed: Tuesday 18 February, 2014]

Jegede AS (2005) “Analysis of Qualitative data.” In Olayinka AI., Taiwo VO., Raji-Oyelade A & Farai I. P. (eds.) Methodology of Basic and Applied Research 1nd Edn. 113 – 131.

Mack N, Woodsong C, Macqueen K. M, Guest G & Namey E (2005) Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Ccollector’s Field Guide. Family Health International. http://www.fhi.org [Accessed: Tuesday 18 February, 2014]

Smith, J. A., Flowers, P. & Larkin, M (2009) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research Sage Publishers ISBN: 9781412908344 http://www.uk.sagepub.com/books/Book227528?

Wodak, R & Meyer, M (2009) Methods for Critical Discourse Analysis Second Edition March 2009 Sage Publishers ISBN 9781847874559

NATASHA MACK, CYNTHIAWOODSONG KATHLEEN M.MACQUEEN , GREG GUEST • EMILY NAME. YResearch Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide

14-Nov-17

20