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Research paper based on qualitative interviews. Lying, gossip and rumors in the workplace.
Citation preview
Running head: DO WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 1
Do we lie, gossip and spread rumors out of fear?
Quinn McMurtry
Northern Kentucky University
Author Note
All information contained in this article was collected with out any federal, local, corporate or government funding. The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to his friend and classmates that help make the research study possible. The author also grants permission to use this document and the data included; however the document cannot be sold by itself or in combination with other research. All research was IRB approved. The research in this document is believed to be fully accurate and its safety has been fully evaluated, but safety is not guaranteed. Financial payment is not a requirement, but will not be rejected if legitimate payment is offered. Work contained herein is part of my ongoing graduate studies to become a qualified communication researcher.
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 2
Abstract
Gossip, rumors and lies are seemingly ubiquitous. Despite many cultural stigmas, social
influences to mitigate gossiping, rumors and lying, the social phenomenon continues to be
problematic for both private and public social environments. The ability to lie is considered to
be a sign of intelligence. Although some species are capable of deception, humans are the only
beings intelligent enough to lie, gossip or spread rumors. So why do we people lie? Is lying
innately human? Studies have shown that people lie more at work than anywhere else and that
perhaps this uniquely human characteristic is best explained by humans’ most primitive emotion
– fear. Researchers at Northern Kentucky University discovered that fear is perhaps one of the
factors for workplace lying, gossiping and the spreading of rumors. Using qualitative measures
-- one on one interviews that audio recorded, transcribe and values coded, researchers discovered
that fear based job security was a the leading emotion that led to lying in the work environment.
Keywords: gossip, lying, rumors, fear, workplace, self-preservation, cognitive dissonance theory
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 3
Do we lie, gossip and spread rumors due to a primal fear?
Introduction
For centuries humans have lied. In Judeo-Christian societies, lying is believed to be a
moral issue, institutionally discouraged and socially stigmatized. Chinese culture mitigates lying
through Guanxi – or a third eye, and in Japan, truth is categorized by honne and tatemae.
However, none of these systems determine the profound reason as to why humans lie, spread
rumors or gossip. In actuality, why humans lie might be better explained by an innate primal
fear or self-preservation. Seemingly, social systems attempt to curtail lying, gossip or rumors,
but perhaps lying has more to do with early humans’ fear of being eaten alive by a saber-toothed
tiger than it does with ethics or morality.
John M. GroholI (2005), in a recent article entitled Natural Born Liars, Why we lie and
Why we are so good at it, states that “deceit is fundamental to the human condition” (p.1).
Feldman et al (2002) in a study that secretly videotaped people who met a stranger for the first
time, reported that nearly sixty percent of all the people interviewed admitted to initially lying
after reviewing the secretly taped interview. In total, Feldman’s research groups averaged about
2.9 untruths per interview (Feldman et al, 2002).
Generally, psychologists believe the human behavior is determined by cultural and social
experiences, however, evolutionary psychologists believe that human behavior is driven by
instinct and gradual evolutionary changes (Kriel, 2006). Meaning that not all behavior is
fundamentally determined by culture and socialization – biology and evolution may in some
ways influence lying and relational variances of lying such as gossip and rumors.
Van Sand (2003) research study showed a direct link between human behavior and
corporate culture. Proving that instinctual tendencies influence the workplace environment –
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 4
including lying. The deeper question that remains is why this should be the case. Can social
culture or corporate culture supersede primitive proclivities or the survival instinct? In today’s
world, survival is linked directly to economics (Kriel, 2006). Clearly primitive humans
workplace environment involved environmental risks involving both life and death, however
modern day living is seemingly devoid of primitive dangers, such as wild animals or other
hostile tribal groups. In modern day life, it could be reasoned that economic necessity has
replaced or now triggers primitive fears of survival. “Fear” of losing one’s economic means is “a
motivational force” influencing personal behavior and it may be capable of creating “cognitive
dissonance” between “personal and business ethics” (Kriel, 2006 p. 57-58). In other words,
despite personal, cultural or business ethics, economic survival might be primitively linked to
self-preservation, because modern day life is economically driven and the fact that the average
worker simply cannot afford to be without work could result in fear being a significant
motivational force for all individuals (Kriel, 2006).
Fetsinger (1956) states “Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition
which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as “hunger leads to activity
oriented toward hunger reduction” (p.3). Fetsinger (1956) goes on to state that cognitive
dissonance is inherent in human desire to reduce dissonance and will subsequently lie to others
and to themselves, in the attempt to reduce psychological dissonance. Festinger and Carlsmith
(1959) conducted an experiment that involved lying to reduce cognitive dissonance. The results
of the study showed that people experience an attitudinal shift in lying if they find lying helpful
in reducing cognitive dissonance (Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959). In other words, people will
easily lie, if lying reduces cognitive dissonance.
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 5
Ross and Robinson (2000) state that highly self-centered individuals “High
Machiavellians” are more likely to lie in the workplace than “Low Machiavellians” in order to
promote self-interest (p.435). In determining when to lie or not to lie is based on “a greater
ability and willingness to decide whether or not to lie based on a calculation of its costs and
benefits appears to result in greater discriminationas to the object of the lie” (Ross and Robinson,
2000, p.435). In other words, lying in the workplace is typically done on a reward to risk
evaluation. If lying meant perjury or loss of employment subsequently lying is mitigated, but if
lying meant job security or economic benefit, lying is more prevalent.
Argo et al. (2006) found that individuals are more willing to lie to someone they know
than they are with someone they have a relationship with and they are more disposed to lying if
the lies are “self-focused in nature and they are concerned with protecting their self-image and
self-worth” despite “implications of deception” (p.106). Although people may never see a
stranger again, they are still more likely to lie to someone they know than someone they do not
know. According to social comparison theory, people discover information about themselves
(Festinger, 1954) and possibly this information could be threatening or provoke fear (Mussweiler
and Bodenhausen, 2002). Subsequently, people are motivated to lie in order to avoid a “private
self-threat” (Argo et al. 2006, p.9).
Methods
Fourteen graduate students identified fourteen individuals to participate in the Northern
Kentucky University study. In an attempt to explain the qualitative results obtained from
confidential face-to-face interviews with the individuals who work at a variety of industries
ranging from utilities to multi-national corporations. After IRB approval by the Human Subjects
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 6
Committee, individuals were chosen randomly from personal connections to the individual
researchers.
Chosen individuals received a brief description of the project including possible
questions and invited to participate in the study. The project was explained, questions were
answered, and subjects were asked or pleaded with to participate in the study.
Demographic selection was recorded, but not a criterion for selection. A total of 14
patients were invited, and 14 agreed to be interviewed. To my knowledge, no individuals
refused to participate.
Procedure
All interviews were audio recorded. Verbal consent was obtained. With a prepared
interview protocol, graduated students conducted the series of one (1) hour interviews. The
interviews took place in a variety of locations, ranging from private homes to public coffee
shops. All recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim.
Following the guidelines of the interview protocol, interviewers asked participants to
describe their workplace experiences with gossip, rumors and lies. Initially, broad SWOT-type
(strengths, weakness, opportunities and strengths) questions were asked such as “What are some
of the specific strengths of your organization?” Specific verbal prompts were used to invite
further elaboration about individuals who the interviewees “like(d)” or “dislike(d)” and to
elaborate on those individuals who might lie, gossip and/or spread rumors at the workplace.
The sampling method used was random and interviewees received no compensation for
their participation.
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 7
Data Analysis
A content analysis was performed using value coding designating value, beliefs and
attitude. Two communication graduate students, currently working on obtaining their master’s
degree in communication, coded each interview transcript. The two separate transcripts were
reviewed and inductively coded according to the Coding Manual For Qualitative Researchers
and analyzed for relevant data.
During the initial phase of value coding, transcripts were read multiple times, cross
referenced with peer analyzed transcripts of the same interview in an effort to identifying
participant (interviewee) values, beliefs, and attitudes towards rumors, lies and gossip at the
workplace. The resulting coding data were analyzed, compared, and grouped. Initially, value-
coding categories were based on the emic words and phrases, not etic words or phrases. After
initial coding was performed, the transcripts were analyzed and adbuctively reassessed and
additional data was uncovered. During the process of analysis categories were further refined
and meanings redefined and emic categories abductively interpreted by the researcher were
grouped.
According to the organizing professor overseeing the research study, IRB standards and
procedures were met in accordance to ethical and safety standards required for human research
participants.
Results
The study participants ranged in age between 30 and 40 years old. Participants for this
particular analysis were one (1) male and one (1) female.
Both interviewees/participants were Caucasian. Participants’ professional careers
consisted of one logistical planner for a world leading product and marketing manufacturer and
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 8
the other was an MBA educated manager of a local utility. Both participants were college
educated. One participant was married; one was single.
All participants were recruited during the first three months of the graduate level course
COM 687 Qualitative Research Methods offered by Northern Kentucky University.
Results of Interviews
The qualitative data emerging from the interviews of 2 participants were analyzed
according to value coding and the following theme emerged: Fear of losing one’s job or
economic means seems to be a powerful influence instigating lying at the workplace. The
overwhelming sentiment from participants was that the spreading of rumors, gossip and lying are
ubiquitous to social groups.
Initial Domains and Themes
After initial content analysis, the coded interview data yielded two domains for gossip
rumors and lies (see Table 1). Typically, participants categorize gossip and rumors as similar,
however, lying is categorized as being much more severe “…guys like to have fun with it” when
referring to gossip and rumors and “I guess I’m getting them confused for lies whereas lies, lies
come from a different place.”
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 9
Table 1 Lies Gossip & Rumors
Lies Gossip & Rumors
Can be harmless. Associated with personality traits. Lies are more ethically severe than gossip and rumors. Vary in degree of severity. Fear based -- -- --
Socially more acceptable.More playful.
Less damaging. Vary in degrees of severity.Economic fear of losing one’s job or workplace status. Can be harmless. Associated with personality traits. Socially more acceptable.
Workplace Gossip and Rumors Results
The overwhelming emic responses from participants were that the gossip and rumors are
typically a normal part of social interaction at the workplace. Although gossip and rumors are
often distracting and disruptive, generally people believe gossip and rumors to be unavoidable,
less severe, and not as socially stigmatized as lying. Illustrative data are as follow:
It’s not far removed from junior high.
They think it’s fun.
The rumors and the gossip one – another reason why someone may say things like that
would be that they are doing or makes them feel better about their mistakes or things like
that.
It’s really about reaction.
There’s a sense of satisfaction guys get from agitating.
So, you know again there’s some sense of satisfaction that the guys who are gossiping
and spreading rumors get from agitating people.
There’s a sense of camaraderie.
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 10
They kind of never grew out of it.
Workplace Comparison Lying Results
Compared to gossip and rumors, lying, although related logically related, is considered to
be morally and ethically more severe. Subsequently, lying is not condoned or believed to be as
socially acceptable as gossip and rumors. The illustrative data are as follows:
The rumors and the gossip one – another reason why someone may say things like that
would be that you know somehow it justifies the things that they are doing or makes them feel
better about their mistakes or things like that whereas lies… come from a different place.
So it’s not – again it’s not that they are trying to hurt people, it’s just that they don’t
know where to draw the line as readily and that’s just a human fault.
…but in general most gossiping I see is more semi-good natured ribbing to get a
reaction.
Rumors are more fun because you kind of embellish and the guys like to embellish.
Workplace Lies Come from Fear
The results of the content analysis inductively revealed that fear is a motivating factor for
lying in the workplace. Fear emanates from job insecurity, status or position held, and
maintaining status at workplace. The severity of lying appears to have a link to the increased
amount of emotional fear. Abductively, fear and lying appear to have a cause and effect
correlation. Illustrative data are as follows:
Lies come from fear.
And in a way I kind of feel like that to a degree stems from fear, you know. If he feels
Most of the time I feel like it’s they’re protecting their career, their position within the
organization.
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 11
And so I think (lying) it is fear for their position.
So, I feel I don’t really have much motivation to lie, I’m not afraid.
Fear for their position…You know, at least the way I feel like someone else’s success is
their failure.
So, here’s a guy fearful of his career.
I think -- he has these goals and aspirations of being plant manager some day and so I
think that he has some general fears that force him into untruths and he doesn't want the
perception to be that he makes mistakes.
The lies especially in this instance they are coming from fear.
You know the only people that readily lie at work that I'm aware of they tend to do it out
of fear.
I actually find work easier not to lie than other places, you know, because at work I'm not
overly fearful that I'll lose my job.
Discussion
This was a small research study that involved a very limited sample of qualitative
interviews. The data collected is limited and requires further sampling, but nonetheless
the data gives potentially vital clues into further research and methodologies.
The data gathered from the qualitative interview seems to indicate that fear might
play a role in inducing workplace lying. Although fear varies according to a variety of
individual factors, such as personality, conditioning and perhaps cultural traits, fear is
universal. A primal emotion linked to survival, it is only logical to assume that fear
continues to trigger survival fight or flight responses, despite modern society’s efforts to
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 12
mitigate fear. Although it might seem to be an intellectual stretch, there is a possible
connection between a primal fear and workplace lying.
Possible Workplace Fear Mitigation
Corporations currently spend vital funds and resources shaping and molding
corporate culture and human resource procedures and guidelines. Realizing that fear
either economic or status based, manifest itself in workplace lying, might potentially help
lead researchers to creating a more socially cohesive and emotionally non-fearful
workplace environment. Corporations could benefit tremendously from a better
understanding of what motivates their workforces to either lie, gossip or spread rumors.
Removing or controlling lying, gossiping or spreading rumors could potentially
lead to fostering trust, freer ideation and new team building strategies.
Further Research
Further research is required regarding lying, gossip and rumors in the workplace.
Qualitative data acquired during this initial study is valid and could potentially guide
further research into fear based lying. Measuring fear is difficult, if not impossible.
Furthermore, individual differences in human responses to fear vary. Perhaps the next
stage of researching is to design a scientific experiment with controlled variables to
quantify the correlation between fear and workplace lying or either prove or disprove the
hypothesis.
In conclusion, this study could lead researchers to more data and help define and
refine other studies. Potentially, after reviewing the data, further questions will need to
be answered and these questions might lead to a better understanding of the complexity
of understanding lies, gossip and rumors.
DE WE LIE, GOSSIP AND SPREAD RUMORS 13
References
Argo, J., White, K., & Darren, W. (2006). Social Comparison Theory and Deception in the
Interpersonal Exchange of Consumption Information. Journal of Consumer Research,
33(1), 105-130.
Feldman, R., Forrest, J., & Happ, B. (2002). Self-presentation and verbal deception: Do self-
presenters lie more? . Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 24, 163-170.
Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance.
Washington: American Psychological Association.
Groholl, J. (2005, May 1). Natural-Born Liars,Why do we lie, and why are we so good at it?
Because it works. World of Phychology. Retrieved December 1, 2011, from
//psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2005/05/26/natural-born-liars-why-do-we-lie-and-
why-are-we-so-good-at-it-because-it-works/
Kriel, PJ (2006), The relationship of morality, ethics and justice to quality of worklife. DBA
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Ross, W., & Robertson, D. (2000). Lying: The Impact of Decision Context. Business Ethics
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