CHINA FROM THE SELF-STRENGTHENING MOVEMENT TO THE MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT

Why did the Boxer Rising take place? What impact did it have on China?Causes/impact: 12/13 either wayIn part one, attention should be given to background causes, but credits will be given to candidates who can briefly state the nature of the uprising. However, unrelated narrative on the course of development should be marked sparingly. In part two, emphasis should be laid on the immediate effects - how the uprising and its aftermath affected China in the period up to the 1911 Revolution. However, discussion on effects beyond this period would be accepted.

In part one, it is desirable to point out the anti-Manzhu and, eventually, the anti-foreign nature of the Boxer Uprising. The growth of anti-foreign sentiment should be discussed. In explaining this, the candidate should point out the political economic, social and religious effects of foreign encroachment upon China during the 19th century and specially Germany in Shantung in the 1890s. Immediate causes, such as natural disasters, should also be described. Candidates should show why Boxer movement received official sanction in the last years of the 19th century by referring to the return of conservative princes and officials to the court after the failure of the Hundred Days Reform and the policy of blind resistance of the Conservative court.

In discussing the impact, attention should be given to the difference made to China's prestige and status as a result of the allied occupation of Peking and the Russian advance into Manchuria. Candidates should also discuss how the Boxer Protocol infringed upon China's sovereignty and further weakened China's political, military and economic power. Candidates should also describe the reaction by the Manzhu Government - the institution of some half-hearted reforms, the semi-autonomous actions of the south-eastern provinces, and the ways in which both of these factors influenced the 1911 Revolution.

Trace the development and discuss the significance of the Shandong Question from 1895 to 1922.

Development/significance : 15/10At the beginning of the answer candidates should explain how the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5 revealed China's weaknesses and the Powers took advantage of her weakness to demand both economic and territorial concessions. They should then mention how the Shandong Question started with German acquisition of the province in 1898. Candidates should then describe how Japan entered WWI in 1914 and took over all German interests in Shandong. Her position in the province was reinforced by presenting to Yuan Shikai the 21 Demands which prevented the restoration of German rights in Shandong to China at the end of the War. Candidates should also mention that Tuan Chi-jui, in return for a large loan also recognized Japan's position in Shandong in a secret exchange of notes with the Japanese government in 1918. Japan's position was further reinforced by signing secret treaties with Britain, France and Italy in 1917 in which they agreed to support her claims in Shandong at the peace conference. Therefore Japan's position was strong in regard to her claims in Shandong at Versailles Conference 1919. All the Powers gave in on this issue though the Chinese delegates refused to sign the peace treaty. It was not until after the Washington Conference of 1921 that Japan agreed to withdraw from Shandong but to keep the Tsingtao-Tsinan Railway for 15 years. Credit should be given to candidates who could explain why Japan was forced to give up her control over Shandong (i.e. pressure from USA and other western powers, especially Britain).

In part two, candidates should point out that the German occupation of Shandong aroused further strong anti-foreign feeling in China. The Boxer Uprising first started and grew in strength in Shandong. Japan's occupation of the province, the imposition of the 21 Demands and the attitude of the powers at the peace conference aroused strong nationalist feeling in China which mounted to a violent nationalist explosion in the May-Fourth Movement in 1919 which was marked by anti-Japanese boycotts, strikes and demonstrations. The result was a violent reaction against imperialism and an intense drive to end the unequal treaties. In addition, candidates should point out that the shift of the control of Shandong from Germany to Japan during the WWI marked the

rise of Japanese power in China. Japan thus came into conflict with the interests of USA and other Powers especially Britain.

What part did the Late Qing Reform program (1901-1911) play in paving the way for the 1911 Revolution?

The role of Late Qing Reform/other causes : 15/5, with 5 marks for overall assessment. Description of the reform programs without relating them to the 1911 Revolution should be confined to a maximum of 5 marks. Mark up candidates who argue that the reforms (including educational, constitutional and military) helped to create a situation favorable to the growth of a revolutionary movement, and that the nationalization of railways triggered off the revolution in 1911.

To play down the importance of the Reform in leading to the Revolution, candidates may discuss aspects such as

a. deep-rooted and long-standing causes of revolution (e.g. administrative deficiency, economic and financial difficulties, defeats in wars),

b. the role of revolutionaries and overseas Chinese, c. the attitude of foreign powers.

Note: If a candidate emphasized the unimportance of the Reform as a cause of the Revolution and elaborated the importance of other causes, a mark allocation of 5/15 with 5 marks for overall assessment would be appropriate.

Compare the objectives and results of the Hundred Days' Reform (1898) with those of the Late Qing Reform (1901-1911).Objectives/Results 12/13 either wayObjectives:1. Comparison should focus upon the motives of the reformers, and the domestic and external circumstances

leading the reformers to advocate changes.2. Mark up clear indication of a knowledge that one was initiated by Chinese officials and the other by ruling

Manzhus.3. Credit perceptive candidates who infer the objectives from the nature and scope of the reforms.

Results1. Candidates may compare the impact of the two reforms on aspects such as:a. Manzhu ruleb. revolutionary movementc. constitutional movement d. relations with the Powers

Answers that examine only the reasons for the failure of the reforms should be marked cautiously.N.B. 1. Candidates who make comparison in table or note form and NOT in essay form should be confined to a

maximum of 10 marks.2. Unfocused narratives of the reforms with little attempt to draw comparison should NOT be given more

than 8 marks.

What were Dr. Sun Yat-sen's contributions to the revolutionary movement during the late Qing period?

ContributionsCandidates may discuss Dr Sun's contributions in the following aspects:1. advocating and spreading revolutionary ideologies ("Three People's Principles");2. founding revolutionary organizations (e.g. the Hsing-Chung Hui, the Tung-meng Hui) 3. rallying popular support (including secret societies, returned students, overseas Chinese, the New Army);4. raising funds;5. enlisting foreign support (N.B. negotiations with Britain and France in 1911 for the prevention of foreign

loans to the Qing government, and for the recognition of the revolutionary government);6. laying the groundwork for a republican governmentN.B. Candidates who give a mere description of Dr Sun's career without clearly relating it to the revolutionary movement, should NOT score more than 8 marks.

Assess the part played by the Empress Dowager in bringing about the downfall of the Qing Dynasty.

Candidates may begin with an introduction of the Empress's character and views on politics. A good answer would need to discuss her roles in the Hundred Days' Reform, the Boxer Uprising and the Late Qing Reforms, and relate these to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Credit candidates who include some other factors that contributed to the downfall of the Qing Dynasty.

To what extent was the Boxer Uprising brought about by foreign activities in China?

Foreign activities/other factors 10/15 either wayForeign activitiesCandidates should discuss how foreigners' political, economic and missionary activities in China (e.g. the Scramble for Concessions, the seizure of railway and mining rights, missionaries' abuse of their rights) helped to bring about the Boxer Uprising.

Other factorsThese may include the decadence of the Manzhu government, the decline of the traditional economy, natural disasters, etc.

To what extent was the downfall of the Manzhu government the work of revolutionaries?

Work of revolutionaries/other factors10/15 either wayWork of revolutionariesCandidates may discuss the work of Sun Yixian and other revolutionaries in relation to revolutionary organizations, ideologies and programs, fund raising, and popular support for the cause of revolution.Other factorsThese may include a discussion of the political, social and economic conditions during the late Qing period, as well as the government's domestic and foreign policies which generated anti-Manzhu sentiments among different social sectors.

With reference to the period 1895-1911, examine (i) the main features of foreign activities in China, and (ii) China's response to these activities.

Foreign activities/China's response 12/13 either wayForeign activitiesCandidates are expected to point out the main features of foreign activities in China in the period specified, as shown in the scramble for political privileges, economic interests, territorial concessions and missionary rights, etc.

China's responseThis may include the various efforts made to strengthen China and save the country from foreign imperialism (e.g. the Hundred Days' Reform, the Late Qing Reform and the Revolution of 1911), as well as anti-foreign sentiments reflected in anti-missionary riots and the Boxer Uprising, etc.

In what ways did the reforms carried out by the Qing government during the period 1901-11 help to bring about its downfall?

Candidates are expected to give an account of how the economic, political, educational, military and social reforms carried out in the period 1901-11 led to conditions unfavorable to the Qing government. Reference could be made to the resentment of the various social sectors, the growth of a new generation of intellectuals and soldiers inclined to revolutionary ideas.Answers which give a factual description of the late Qing reforms and/or give an account of the reasons for the downfall of the Qing government, should not score more than 8 marks.

Why was there a May Fourth Movement in China? (12 marks)What was the significance of this movement in modern Chinese history?(13 marks)

ReasonsCandidates may explain how internal conditions and foreign relations gave rise to the May Fourth Movement and affected its development in the early Republican period:a. Internal: e.g. disillusionment with political development after 1911; the rising tide of nationalism; changing

social and economic conditions; the influence of the New Cultural Movement.b. External: e.g. Japanese ambitions/activities in China; disillusionment with, and humiliation in, the Paris

Peace Conference which triggered off the May Fourth Incident.

SignificanceCandidates may discuss the significance of the May Fourth Movement with regard to political, social and cultural aspects, as well as in terms of international relations.

Explain why, during the latter half of the nineteenth century, there were anti-foreign feelings among many Chinese people.

The focus should be on reasons, and should relate to China's internal developments (political, social, economic, cultural)and the major issues of its foreign relations (e.g. forced opening of the country; unequal treaties; missionary activities; territorial, economic and political encroachments by foreign countries) in the period specified. Credit candidates who can show the interaction between internal and external factors.

Note: Answers which merely give an indiscriminate account of anti-foreign incidents/ activities, or of foreign aggressions in China, should not score more than 5 marks.

"The 1911 Revolution in China was not a successful revolution." Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.

Candidates may either agree or disagree partly or wholly with the statement. But reasons must be provided. Their arguments may make reference to the achievements of the aims of the 1911 Revolution and to its repercussions on the social, political, economic, diplomatic, and intellectual conditions of China.

Credit candidates who can give a clarification of what they conceive to be a "successful revolution" and elaborate their answer with reference to their clarification.

(a) What were the aims of the Qing government and the Meiji government in carrying out reforms in their respective countries? (10 marks)

(b) How successful were they in achieving those aims? (20 marks)Aims (China/Japan 5/5 marks or 10 marks overall)

Candidates may treat China and Japan individually or collectively. Answers should make reference to the reforms carried out by the two governments circa 1861-1912. The aims of the Qing government may include the following: strengthening the military, enriching the country, maintaining Manzhu rule and the traditional institutions and practices, etc. The aims of the Meiji government may include: strengthening the military, enriching the country, foreign expansion, securing an international position of equality with the powers, etc.

Credit candidates who show an awareness of the priority order given to the various aims, and point out that some of the aims changed or became increasingly expanded with time.

Extent of success (China/Japan 10/10 marks or 20 marks overall)Candidates may treat the two countries individually or collectively. For China, candidates may evaluate the degree of success in achieving the various aims stated in their answer to part (a) of the question by quoting instances from the contents and consequences of the Self-strengthening Movement, the Hundred Days' Reform, and the Late Qing Reform. Similarly, for Japan, candidates may draw on the contents and consequences of the Meiji Reform and discuss the extent to which the various aims stated in their answer to part (a) of the question were achieved.

Credit candidates who illustrate the different degrees of success achieved by the two governments by comparing their respective achievements.

THE RISE OF JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

A) MEIJI MODERNIZATION

What were the major social and economic reforms introduced in Japan from 1870 to 1894? How did they contribute to the transformation of Japan into a modern state?

Reforms/contributions: 15/10Candidates are expected to point out that social and economic reforms introduced in this period were part of the Meiji modernization movement. The major social reforms were the abolition of feudalism and educational reform. The social implications of the abolition of feudalism such as the change in the social and economic status of the various classes should be discussed. Developments in education included sending students abroad, encouraging western learning, compulsory education and a new school system. To offset the economic backwardness of the country and to provide a sound economic basis for the country's defence, western-style industries were sponsored by the government. Such methods as setting up model factories and mines, providing manufacturers with subsidies, capital and technical advice, and selling government establishments to Zaibatsu on an installment basis were adopted. Military industries were given priority, but profit-oriented industries were also encouraged. Industrialization was accompanied by measures for modernizing transport and communication and facilitating both domestic and foreign trade, and the improvement of agricultural methods for increasing agricultural production. Land tax provided the government with regular revenue and served to hasten the end of feudalism.In part two, the major achievements in the social and economic fields should be discussed. The abolition of feudalism dealt a last blow to the rigid social stratification of the feudal society. The new national system of the education brought about a high degree of literacy helping to provide the technical knowledge essential to industrialization. Achievements in the economic field were even more impressive. Japan's economy was transformed, within a few decades, from a developing and mainly agrarian one into a highly industrialized one. Various kinds of industries sprang up. Her foreign trade boomed and her cheap labor enabled her products to compete favorably in the world market. A self-sustaining economy was achieved with such industrial and commercial progress. Increase in agricultural production also made her self-sufficient in foodstuffs. The improvement of transport and communication transformed her into a more compact geographical unit.

Explain how (i) the abolition of feudalism, and (ii) attempts to learn from the West, helped to modernize Japan during the Meiji period.

The abolition of feudalism/attempts to learn from the West 12/13 either wayThe abolition of feudalismCandidates should discuss how the abolition of feudalism created conditions favorable to Japan's modernization, e.g. 1. the unification of Japan under a strong, centralized government;2. the removal of feudal restrictions on trade and occupation;3. the provision of a steady revenue for the government.

Attempts to learn from the WestCandidates should discuss how the attempts to learn from the West contributed to the modernization of Japan's economy and defence (e.g. armaments, industrial technology, modern transport and communications).

N.B. A mere narrative of the Meiji reform measures without relating them to Japan's "modernization", should NOT score more than 10 marks for the whole question.

What are the merits and demerits of the reforms carried out during the Meiji period?

Merits/Demerits 10/15 either way

MeritsCandidates are expected to show how the reform measures enabled Japan to remove feudal restrictions and paved way for her modernization in political, social, economic, educational and military aspects.

DemeritsA discussion of the negative effects of the reforms is required, which could be related to aspects such as the rise of the zaibatsu, extreme nationalism and militarism.Note: Detailed descriptions of the reform measures are not required for this question

What is meant by 'modernization'? (7 marks)In What ways can Japan be regarded as a modernized state by 1912? (18 marks)

'Modernization'Candidates are expected to point out the characteristics of 'modernization', which may cover political, social, economic and military changes, etc.Japan as a modernized stateCandidates should discuss how reforms carried out during the Meiji period transformed Japan into a modernized state in respect of the following areas:-political (e.g. the enactment of the Meiji Constitution, the formation of political parties);-social (e.g. the abolition of feudalism, the rise of new social classes, the introduction of universal education);-economic (e.g. the introduction of land tax, the promotion of industrialization);-military (e.g. the setting up of a conscript army, naval reforms based on the British model).

Note: Answers which consist of a mere account of Meiji reform measures should NOT score more than 10 marks out of 18.

What were the main features and consequences of the educational and economic reforms carried out in Japan during the Meiji period?

Educational/Economic OR Features/Consequences 12/13 either wayEducational'Features' may include the important role played by the government, the setting up of a modern school system, strong emphasis on seeking knowledge throughout the world, pragmatic and utilitarian nature, etc.'Consequences' may be categorized into positive and negative ones, e.g. a high degree of literacy, rapid advances in industrial and technological developments, the spread of liberal and progressive ideas, unquestioning obedience and loyalty to the state, the rise of extreme nationalism.

Economic'Features' may include the active role taken by the government, the introduction of the new land tax, the promotion of heavy and light industries, the improvement of transportation and communications systems, etc.'consequences' may include the increase of agricultural and industrial production, a higher level of industrialization, the expansion of overseas markets, the rise of the zaibatsu and territorial expansionism, etc.

B) JAPAN'S EXPANSIONIST FOREIGN POLICY

What were the problems concerning Japan's relations with China, Britain and the United States when the Washington Conference (1921-22) was called? To what extent were these settled at that conference?

Problems/settlements: 12/13 either wayIn the first part, attention should be focused on the problems concerning Japan's relations with the three powers, but credits will be given to candidates who can point out the growth of Japanese influence in the Far East during WWI. In the second part, candidates are expected to discuss the decisions made at the conference and say how far these had settled the problems.

The problems concerning Japan's relations with China was Japan's seizure of German rights in Shandong during the WWI, her eagerness to seek legal sanction of such rights, and China's indignation over her treatment at the Versailles Conference. After the close of WWI, the United States and Japan were engaged in a naval race. American-Japanese relations had been strained by disagreement over Siberia, arguments over the 4-power consortium and the immigration questions. Consequently there was suspicion of an American-Japanese War in the Pacific. Britain did not wish to be involved as the ally of Japan in an American-Japanese war through the Anglo-Japanese Alliance obligation. This also troubled the Commonwealth countries which were concerned about the upsetting of their amicable relations with the United States.The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was allowed to lapse and to take its place, a 4-power pact was signed. This removed American and Commonwealth fears of Anglo-Japanese cooperation in some future war with the United States. A Treaty, concerning naval disarmament (which had specific reference to the Pacific) was signed. Candidates should say whether the powers were satisfied with this. The China problem was settled by the conclusion of the 9-power Treaty, but the United States and Japan interpreted the Treaty in different ways. A bilateral agreement was signed restoring Chinese sovereignty in Shandong, but ratifying Japan's economic privileges there. Japan finally agreed to withdraw from Siberia and Northern Sakhalin. However, the immigration question was not on the agenda.

How did the relations between China and Japan worsen during the period 1870-94? What prevented war from breaking out between the two countries in 1885?

How Sino-Japanese relations worsened in 1870-94/Factors that prevented war from breaking out in 1885 12/8, with 5 marks for overall assessment.

How Sino-Japanese relations worsened in 1870-94Mark up candidates who analytically explain how conflicts between China and Japan over the Liuchiu Islands, Formosa and Korea worsened the two countries' relations. An answer scoring more than 10 marks in this part should make reference to incidents that culminated in war between China and Japan in 1894, such as:

a. Japan's expedition to Formosa,b. Japanese annexation of the Liuchiu Islands,c. the Treaties of Kanghwa and Chemulpo,d. factional strife in Korea,e. the assassination of Kim Ok-kun,f. the Tonghak Rebellion,g. the sinking of the Kowshing.

A mere description of the two countries' conflicts over these places without explaining how these led to a deterioration of their relations, should be marked sparingly.

Factors that prevented war from breaking out in 1885

This part may pose difficulty to candidates not used to questions requiring analysis and perspective, and should be assessed sympathetically. Credit those who analyze the terms of the Li-Ito Convention, showing how it helped to avert an impending war in 1884-5. Domestic issues in both China and Japan (including their involvement in modernization programs) and China's pre-occupation with a French war in Annam, which served to discourage warfare in the 1880s, should also be mentioned for full marks.

How far did Japan's expansion towards China from 1870-1915 result from her economic development during the period?

Role of Japan's economic development/Role of other factors 15/10 either way

Role of Japan's economic development1. Description of Japan's economic development or of her expansion towards China in the period without

relating the two should be confined to a maximum of 6 marks.2. Emphasis should be placed on Japan's economic needs (e.g. markets, raw materials) which could be satisfied

by acquiring territories in China.3. Credit candidates who see the economic motivation from Japan's economic gains (N.B. opening of treaty ports; the right to manufacture etc.) by the treaties forced upon China after the latter's defeat.

Role of other factors1. Candidates are expected to discuss the role of factors such as:a. security needs (particularly the threat from Russia);b. the political need to divert discontent overseas;c. China's lax control over her vassal states and peripheral provinces;d. favorable international circumstances (e.g. the Scramble for Concessions; the Eight-Power Expedition; pre-

occupation of the Powers with the WWI).2. Reference to relevant incidents (e.g. the First Sino-Japanese War, Russo-Japanese War, WWI) should be awarded credit.

Account for the entry of China and Japan into WWI. How did the war affect Sino-Japanese relations up to 1923?

Reasons for entering the war/Effects 12/13 either wayReasons for entering the warChina: The discussion may include:1. China's war aims, which consisted of the enhancement of her international status, the abolition of unequal

treaties, and the acquisition of foreign loans etc.;2. inducement from the Allied powers;3. the role of Tuan Ch'i-jui, who sought to expand his personal power and influence through involving China in

war.

Japan: The discussion may include:1. Japan's desire to take the opportunity of the powers' pre-occupation with the war in Europe to establish a

dominant position in China;2. Japan's hostility towards Germany (N.B. partly a result of the Triple Intervention of 1895);3. the threat to Japan's security posed by the German military base at Kiaochow;4. the excuse for Japan's entry into the war on the side of the Allied powers provided by the Anglo-Japanese

Alliance.

(N.B. Credit should be given to candidates who understand why China entered the war later than Japan.)

Effects

Emphasis should be placed on1. how the war, which enabled Japan to intensify her expansion into China (N.B. through the 21 Demands,

loans to Tuan Ch'i-jui etc.) led to a deterioration of Sino -Japanese relations;2. how the granting of the German concessions in Shandong to Japan at the Paris Peace Conference culminated

in anti-Japanese activities in the May Fourth period;3. how the curbing of Japan's naval power at the Washington Conference and the subsequent restoration of

Shandong to China eased temporarily the tense relations between China and Japan.

Trace and account for the development of Sino-Japanese relations in the period 1914-1922.Candidates should trace and explain the development of Sino-Japanese relations in the period specified, with reference to major aspects such as:-Japan's seizure of German concessions in Shandong and Jiaozhouwan (1914)-Japan's presentation of the 21 Demands to China (1915)-Japan's role in Yuan Shikai's monarchical movement (1915-16)-Japan's interference in China's entry into the WWI (1915-17)-Japan's influence on Duan Qirui's government through the Nishihara Loans (1918)-international recognition of Japan's gains in Shandong at the Paris Peace Conference -anti-Japanese feelings among the Chinese during the May Fourth Movement (1919)-the settlement of the "Shandong Question" by Washington Conference (1922)

Trace and account for Japan's ambitions in Korea during the period 1870-1910.

Candidates should trace and explain Japan's political and economic ambitions in Korea as well as the strategic value of Korea for Japan, in the period specified. Reference may be made to:-the signing to the Treaty of Kanghwa with Korea in 1876-Japan's challenge to China's suzerainty in Korea in the 1880s-the defeat of China in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-5)-Japan's contest with Russia for the control of Korea and victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5)-the annexation of Korea in 1910Note: Answers merely tracing without explaining Japan's ambitions in Korea should NOT score more than 12 marks.

Give an account of Japan's territorial expansion in Asia during the period 1870-1918. What were the motives behind this expansion?

Territorial Expansion/Motives 10/15 either wayTerritorial ExpansionThis part may include the acquisition of the Liuqiu Islands (1879), Taiwan and the Pescadores (1895), Korea (1910), and Chinese concessions to Germany in Shandong (1914).MotivesThese may include the need for emigration outlets, the desire to prevent Korea from falling under the control of hostile powers (especially Russia), the quest for big-power status and natural resources.Notes: Answers which give an integrated account of both Japan's territorial expansion and its motives should be considered acceptable as well as those treating the two parts of the question separately.To What extent did Japan's emergence as a world power by 1919 result from its victories in foreign wars?

Victories in foreign wars/other factors 20/10 marksVictories in foreign wars (20 marks)

Candidates are expected to discuss the impact of each of Japan's victories in foreign wars before 1919, showing how such wars helped it to become a world power. The foreign wars may include the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), the Eight-Power Expedition in China (1900-1), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), and the First World War (1914-18)(Note: An answer that only describes the wars and fails to relate them to Japan's rise as a world power, should not be awarded more than 10 marks.)

Other factors (10 marks)These may include the Meiji modernization programs which helped to enrich and strengthen Japan, and Japan's diplomatic skills which helped to enhance its international standing (e.g. the Anglo-Japanese Alliance).