Purpose of field research designs Types of field studies Planning a field study Sampling plan Questionnaire design –Online Questionnaires Data analysis

• Purpose of field research designs• Types of field studies• Planning a field study

• Sampling plan

• Questionnaire design– Online Questionnaires

• Data analysis

• Special concerns in field research

Field Research Designs

• Population• An entire group of people, events or things of interest

• Element• Single member of population

• Sample• Subgroup of the population

• Subject• Single member of sample

• Sampling• Selecting sufficient number of elements from

population so that features of the sample (e.g., mean) can be generalized to the population

Some Definitions

Advantages of Sampling

• Less cost• Compared to cost of studying population

• Less error• In collecting & analysing data

• Less time• Because fewer elements considered

• Less intrusive/destructive• E.g., when measurement changes

phenomenon

• Random sampling • Each member of population has EQUAL

chance of being selected into sample• Ease of identifying population

• Company vs. community vs. student populations

• Determining sample• Random number tables, computerized routine, drawing

from urn

Sampling Plan

• Random sampling • Randomly select additional participants if

initially selected ones refuse/cannot• Order population, sample every xth person –

ordering is not related to variable of interest• E.g., Immigration checks

• Use of convenience sample• Include variables that assess representativeness

of obtained sample• If response rate is low

• e.g., ethnic harassment study

Sampling Plan

• Modified random sampling• Stratified random sampling• Divide population into subgroups & randomly

select from subgroups• Sub-grouping expected to influence results (e.g.,

motivational levels in R&D vs. secretarial staff)

• Used when total sample size is small and number of subgroups is large• E.g., visible minorities at Scar campus

Sampling Plan

• Modified random sampling (cont’d)• Cluster sampling• Choose participants based on membership of a

group• Groups are then chosen to participate in study• Stats computed can have large sampling errors

– E.g., examine units in 4 vs. 30 boxes of a shipment

• Over-sampling from a subgroup – E.g., gays in the org’n

• Need to weight descriptive stats appropriately

Sampling Plan

• Sampling plan

• Questionnaire design– Online Questionnaires

• Data analysis

• Special concerns in field research

Field Research Designs

• Use existing measures of concepts• Comparability• Reliability (standardization)• Validity

Questionnaire Design

• Writing Items• Comprehensiveness• E.g., commitment scale

• Accuracy• Maintain respondents’ cooperation & dignity


• Writing Items• Structured vs. Open-ended items • Respondent involvement in research• Purpose of research

• Exploratory vs. confirmatory

• Type of question• E.g., When all possibilities are not known/too many

• Resource availability• Time & money for coding & analysing


Saks 69-73; Sekaran 238-242

• Writing Items• Use simple, direct, familiar language• Be clear & specific (avoid ambiguous items)• Use positively and negatively worded items• Avoid double-barreled items• Avoid Leading questions• Avoid loaded questions• Ensure applicability to all respondents• Avoid recall-dependent items



• Writing Items• Minimize Response styles

• Yea/Nay sayers (acquiescence)• Positive vs. negatively worded items

• Social Desirability» Forced choice format» Content-specific anchors (e.g., BARS)» Items scattered across survey



• Response options in structured scales• Types of Rating Scales• Likert, Semantic Differential, Itemized Rating etc. (p.

197-199 Sekaran)

• Bimodal responding• Using only a portion of the response options

• Ensure anchors have same meaning to all respondents• Use numbers w/verbal descriptors


• Response options in structured scales• Identify time frame of phenomenon of interest• Optimal number of scale points • 5 points is best, fewer results in less variability

• Instructions • Provide examples • Participants’ education level • Previous exposure to method of data collection

• e.g., web/email surveys


• Response options in structured scales• Sequencing• General to specific, easy to difficult• Avoid placing positively and negatively worded items

tapping into the same dimension near each other• Beware of ordering effects• Issues with dispersal of items

• Numbering• Attend to data analyses issues


Sekaran 242

• Response options in structured scales• Layout (appearance)• Introduction

• e.g., Study Information Sheet

• Organization• By sections• Personal Data

• Request sensitive personal data at the end• Open-ended questions in the end• Conclusion


Sekaran 245-249

• Pre-testing Survey• Readability, item content, ambiguities

• Ways to Optimize Return Rate• Upper management or union support• Work time allocated for survey completion• Coercion, confidentiality concerns

• Participants’ belief in value of research• Previous experience with HR research

• 30% rate is common


• Optimizing Return Rate• Professional appearance• For mailed survey: use first class mail & include

return postage

• Send reminders• Provide Incentives for responding• Keep survey at optimal length• Identify characteristics of non-responders to

establish representativeness of sample• Identify mechanism for clarifying questions


• Advantages • Speed• Delivery to participants• Completed surveys to researcher

• Cost efficiency• Environmental costs (e.g., paper, ink)• Personnel costs (e.g., typing, data entry)

Online Questionnaires

• Concerns • Respondents’ access to computers

• Establish invariance b/w paper-pencil and computer versions (e.g.,achievement, attitude measures)

• Ballot stuffing• Unique access control numbers

• Start up costs• E.g. survey monkey $20/month

• Technical difficulties during survey administration• Researcher’s control over design interface

• E.g. survey monkey

• Employee reactions to online surveys

Online Questionnaires

• Preliminary Data Cleaning• Use descriptive data to catch errors• E.g., means, ranges, standard deviations

• Coding open-ended responses

• Analysis & Interpretation• Descriptive data• Frequencies, means

• Group comparisons • T-tests, ANOVAs

• Establish relations between variables• Correlations, regressions

Data Analysis

• Scale reduction• Alternatives to shortening existing scales• Reduce number of variables• Use alternative methods of measurement

• E.g., peer ratings, archival data etc.

Special Issues in Field Research

• Percept-percept problem• Response bias due to cross-sectional, mono-

method measurement of all variables• Alternatives to self-report questionnaires

• E.g., archival, objective data

• Multiple data collection times• E.g., Longitudinal study

• Dispositional influences • E.g., neuroticism


• Survey matching• Ensure confidentiality & anonymity

• Controlling extraneous variables• Conceptual understanding• Sample characteristics• Measurement or control of variables


• Response Variability• Dichotomous scales (e.g., y/n responses)

• Ethics• Info re: research objectives• Precautions re: anonymity• Limit demographic info requested• Web/email based surveys

• Mechanisms for research feedback • Implications, planned action, follow up


Documents

Purpose of field research designs Types of field studies Planning a field study Sampling plan Questionnaire design –Online Questionnaires Data analysis