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The Point-Spread Function (PSF) of a low-pass filter
plane wave
illumination
pupil mask
ideal truncated
colle
ctor
objec
tive
PSFinput transparency ideal point source
ideal wave converging (infinitely wide) (infinitely wide) plane wave to form the PSF spherical wave plane wave at the output plane
Now consider the same 4F system but replace the input transparency with an ideal point source, implemented as an opaque sheet with an infinitesimally small transparent hole and illuminated with a plane wave on axis (actually, any illumination will result in a point source in this case, according to Huygens.)In Systems terminology, we are exciting this linear system with an impulse (delta-function); therefore, the response is known as Impulse Response. In Optics terminology, we use instead the term Point-Spread Function (PSF) and we denote it as h(x’,y’).The sequence to compute the PSF of a 4F system is:➡ observe that the Fourier transform of the input transparency δ(x) is simply 1 everywhere at the pupil plane➡ multiply 1 by the complex amplitude transmittance of the pupil mask
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-22
➡ Fourier transform the product and scale to the output plane coordinates x’=uλf2. ➡Therefore, the PSF is simply the Fourier transform of the pupil mask, scaled to the output coordinates x’=uλf2
Example: PSF of a low-pass filterPSF
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x’’ [cm]
|gP(x
’’)|2 [a
.u.]
pupil mask
The output field, i.e. the PSF is
The pupil mask is . If the input transparency is δ(x), the field at the pupil plane to the
right of the pupil mask is
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20−1
0
1
2
3
x’ [µm]
h(x’
) [a.
u.]
The scaling factor (3×) in the PSF ensures that the integral ∫|h(x’)|2dx equals the portion of the input energy MIT 2.71/2.710 transmitted through the system 04/15/09 wk10-b-23
Example: PSF of a phase pupil filter
The pupil mask is
The PSF is
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-24
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 40
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x’’ [cm]
|gPM
| [a.
u.]
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −pi
−pi/2
0
pi/2
pi
x’’ [cm]
phas
e(g PM
) [ra
d]
pupil mask
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 200
1
2
3
4
5
x’ [µm]
|h(x
’)|2 [a
.u.]
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 −pi
−pi/2
0
pi/2
pi
x’ [µm]
phas
e[h(
x’)]
[rad]
PSF
Comparison: low-pass filter vs phase pupil mask filter
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 200
1
2
3
4
5
x’ [µm]
|h(x
’)|2 [a
.u.]
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 −pi
−pi/2
0
pi/2
pi
x’ [µm]
phas
e[h(
x’)]
[rad]
PSF: phase pupil mask filter
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 200
2
4
6
8
10
x’ [µm]
|h(x
’)|2 [a
.u.]
−20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 −pi
−pi/2
0
pi/2
pi
x’ [µm]
phas
e[h(
x’)]
[rad]
PSF: low-pass filter
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-25
Shift invariance of the 4F system
plane wave
illumination
pupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
PSFinput transparency ideal point source
plane wave
illumination
pupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
PSF, shifted input transparency ideal point source
shifted
lateral magnification
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-26
The significance of the PSFpupil mask
diffracted field diffracted field
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x)
diffraction from the wave converging
input field
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x)
gPM(x”)
input field after objective after pupil mask to form the image at the output plane
Finally, consider the same 4F system with an input transparency whose transmittance is an arbitrary complex function gt(x) and the field gin(x) immediately to the right of the input transparency.
According to the sifting theorem for δ-functions, we may express gin(x) as
Physically, this expresses a superposition of point sources weighted by the input field, i.e. Huygens’ principle.
Using the shift invariance property, we find that the field produced at the output plane by each Huygens point source is the PSF, shifted by −x1×f2 ⁄f1, (note: −f2 ⁄f1 is the lateral magnification) and weighted by gin(x1); i.e.,
the output field is almost a convolution (within a sign & a scaling factor) of the input field with the PSF:
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-27
The Amplitude Transfer Function (ATF)pupil mask
diffracted field after objective
diffracted field after pupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x)
diffraction from the input field
wave converging to form the image
input field
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x)
0
gPM(x”)
at the output plane To avoid the mathematical complications of inversion and lateral magnification at the output plane, we define the “reduced” output coordinate . Inverted and re-sampled in the reduced coordinate, the output
field is expressed simply as a convolution .
Using the convolution theorem of Fourier transforms, we can re-express this input-output relationship in the spatial frequency domain as , where H(u) is the amplitude transfer function (ATF). Inverting the Fourier transform relationship between gPM(x”) and the PSF, we obtain That is, the ATF of the 4F system is obtained directly from the pupil mask, via a
coordinate scaling transformation. MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-28
Example: ATFs of the low-pass filter and the phase pupil mask
×103
×103
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/15/09 wk10-b-29
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x’’ [cm]
|gP(x
’’)|2 [a
.u.]
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 40
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x’’ [cm]
|gPM
| [a.
u.]
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −pi
−pi/2
0
pi/2
pi
x’’ [cm]
phas
e(g PM
) [ra
d]
low pass filter pupil mask
phase pupil filter pupil mask
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 40
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x’’ [cm]|g
PM| [
a.u.
]
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −pi
−pi/2
0
pi/2
pi
x’’ [cm]
phas
e(g PM
) [ra
d]
u[cm-1]
u[cm-1]
u[cm-1]
ATF
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
x’’ [cm]
|gP(x
’’)|2 [a
.u.]
×103
ATF
Today
• Lateral and angular magnification • The Numerical Aperture (NA) revisited • Sampling the space and frequency domains, and
the Space-Bandwidth Product (SBP) • Pupil engineering
next two weeks • Depth of focus and depth of field • The angular spectrum • “Non-diffracting” beams • Temporal and spatial coherence • Spatially incoherent imaging
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 1
4F imaging as a linear shift invariant systempupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x,y)
input field
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x,y)
0
gPM(x”,y”)
reduced coordinates
diffraction from the diffracted field diffracted field wave converging input field after objective after pupil mask to form the image
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 2
at the output planeIllumination: Input transparency: Field to the right of the input transparency (input field):
Pupil mask: Amplitude transfer function (ATF):
Point Spread Function (PSF): in actual coordinates
in reduced coordinates
Output field: in actual coordinates
in reduced coordinates
∝
∝
∝
∝
Lateral magnificationpupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x,y)
Huygens wavelet from input field, departing at x1
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x,y)
gPM(x”,y”)
spherical plane wave clear pupil mask Huygens wavelet wave converging to form
point image at MTx1=−x1f2/f1
An ideal imaging system with a point source as input field should form a point image at the output plane. Therefore, the ideal PSF is a δ-function. This is of course the limit of Geometrical Optics and in practice unachievable because of diffraction; alternatively, it implies that the spatial bandwidth is infinite, or that the lateral extent of the pupil mask is infinite. Both conditions are non-physical; however, for the purpose of calculating the geometrical magnification, let us indeed assume that
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 3
So our calculation has reproduced the Geometrical Optics result for a telescope with finite conjugates:
∝
Angular magnificationpupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x,y)
plane wave input field (or angular spectrum
component of input field),
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x,y)
gPM(x”,y”)
spherical focusing plane wave exitingdeparting at θ1 wave at x”=θ1f1 at angle MAθ1=−θ1f1/f2
spatialNow let us consider a plane wave input field frequency
Still assuming the ideal geometrical PSF, the output field is
So the angular magnification is again in agreement with Geometrical Optics.
Based on the interpretation of propagation angle as spatial frequency, the magnification results are also in
∝
agreement with the scaling (similarity) theorem of Fourier transforms:
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 4
∝ ∝
11-b- 5MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk
Example: PM, ATF and PSF for clear apertures
a
b
Rectangular
PM
a/λf1
b/λf1
ATF PSF
2R Circular
PM
2R/λf1
ATF PSF
Numerical aperture (NA) and PSF sizepupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x,y)
on-axis point source truncated by
pupil-plane mask
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x,y)
gPM(x”,y”)
(NA)in (NA)out
plane wave clear pupil mask converging spherical wave
The pupil mask is the system aperture (assuming that the lenses are sufficiently large); therefore,
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 6 PSF
Let Δx’ denote the half-size of the PSF main lobe; then,
PSF
Let Δr’ denote the radius of the PSF main lobe; then,
fx,max
A note on sampling input field
y v y”
x u x”
spatial frequency domain
pupil mask
δx :pixel size
Δx :field size
Nyquist sampling
relationships
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 7
δu :frequency resolution
2Δu :frequency bandwidth
δx” :PM pixel size
2Δx” :pupil mask size
Space-Bandwidth
Product (SBP)
Pupil engineeringpupil mask
diffracted field diffracted field
colle
ctor
objec
tive
output field
arbitrary complex input transparency
gt(x,y)
diffraction from the wave converging
input field
spatially coherent illumination gillum(x,y)
0
gPM(x”,y”)
reduced coordinates
Amplitude transfer function (ATF):
Point Spread Function (PSF): in actual coordinates
Output field: in actual coordinates
∝
∝
input field after objective after pupil mask to form the image at the output plane
Pupil engineering is the design of a pupil mask gPM(x”,y”) such that the ATF, the PSF or the output field meet requirement(s) specified by the user of the imaging system
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 8
Example: spatial frequency clipping
f1=20cmλ=0.5µm
monochromatic coherent on-axis
illumination
object plane pupil mask Image plane transparency circ-aperture observed intensity
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 9
Spatial filtering examples: the amplitude MIT pattern
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 10
Weak low-pass filtering
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 11
Moderate low-pass filtering
(moderate blurring)
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 12
Strong low-pass filtering
(strong blurring)
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 13
Moderate high-pass filtering
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 14
Strong high-pass filtering
(edge enhancement)
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 15
One-dimensional (1D) blur: vertical
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 16
One-dimensional (1D) blur: horizontal
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 17
Phase objectsthickness
protrusion (transparent)
t(x)TOP CROSS VIEW SECTION
protrusion
glass plate (transparent)
This model is often useful for imaging biological objects (cells, etc.)
If we illuminate this object
uniformly (e.g., with a plane wave) the
resulting intensity|gin(x)|2 is also
uniform, i.e. the object is invisible.
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 18
phase-shiftscoherent illumination
by amount φ(x) =2π(n-1)t(x)/λ
To visualize phase objects in
subsequent slides, we use the
color representation of phase as shown here. Physically, phase may be measured with interferometry.
The Zernike phase pupil mask
5mm The Zernike mask is a phase pupil mask π/2 1mm used often to visualize input transparencies that are themselves phase objects. The Zernike mask imparts phase delay of π/2 near the center of the pupil plane, i.e. at the lower spatial frequencies. The result at Use of the Zernike phase mask is alsothe output plane is intensity contrast at the called phase contrast imaging.edges of the phase object.
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 19
Phase contrast (Zernike mask) imaging
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 20
plane wave
illumination
pupil mask
colle
ctor
objec
tive
π/2 phase shift
arbitrary
pupi
l pla
ne b
andw
idth
DC
term
φ=π/2
phase object gt(x,y)=exp{iφ(x,y)}
phase contrast image Iout(x’,y’)
Phase contrast imaging the MIT phase object
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 21
Phase contrast imaging the MIT phase object
f1=20cm pupil mask Intensity @ image plane λ=0.5µm
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/22/09 wk11-b- 22
The transfer function of Fresnel propagation
Fresnel (free space) propagation may be expressed as a
convolution integral
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-26
The Talbot effect
y z y z
x x
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-27
MIT 2.71/2.71004/08/09 wk9-b-
Talbot effect: still shots
28
intensity atz = 5, 000!
intensity atz = 20, 000!
x(!)
y(!)
−1000 −500 0 500 1000
1000
500
0
−500
−1000
x(!)
y(!)
−1000 −500 0 500 1000
1000
500
0
−500
−1000
intensity atz = 0
x(!)
y(!)
−1000 −500 0 500 1000
1000
500
0
−500
−1000
intensity atz = 10, 000!
x(!)
y(!)
−1000 −500 0 500 1000
1000
500
0
−500
−1000
Talbotsubplane
Talbotplane
(in phase)
Talbotplane(phase
reversal)
Physical explanation of the Talbot effectone three
plane plane xwave waves
0th order
+1st order
–1 st order
z
refe
renc
e sph
ere
(radi
usz)
!r ! !
z2 + x2 " z # 2z
2
" x = z tan ! # ! #
"
phase delay x !r "z
!# = 2$ $ . "
# "2
!! = 0, ±2", ±4", . . . replicates field at grating
!! = ±", ±3", . . . 1 period shift wrt grating 2
!! = ± ! 2 , ± 32
! , . . . +1st , ! 1st orders interfere
destructively
0th, +1st, -1st orders are in phaseMIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-29
Mathematical derivation of the Talbot effect /1
• Field immediately past grating
g(x; 0) = 1 !
1 + m cos "2!
x #$
2 !
– also expressed as g(x; 0) = 1 !
1 + m
exp "i2!
x # +
m exp
"!i2!
x #$
2 2 ! 2 !
• Fourier transform (spatial spectrum) of field past grating 1
! m
" 1
# m
" 1
#$
G(u; 0) = 2
!(0) + 2
! u ! !
+2
! u + !
• Fourier transform (spatial spectrum) of Fresnel propagation kernel
H(u, v; z) = exp ! ! i!"z
"u 2 + v 2
#$
1 !
"z "
– value at grating’s spatial frequencies H(± !
, 0) = exp !i! !2
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-30
Mathematical derivation of the Talbot effect /2 • Fourier transform (spatial spectrum) of field propagated to distance z,
G(u, v; z) = G(u, v; 0) ! H(u, v; z)1
! m
" 1
# m
" 1
#$
=2
!(0) + 2
! u " !
+2
! u + !
! H(u, v; z)
1 !
m "
1 # "
1 #
=2
H(0, 0; z)!(0) + 2
H !
, 0; z ! u " !
m "
1 # "
1 #$
+2
H " !
, 0; z ! u + !
1 !
m "
#z # "
1 #
=2
!(0) + 2
exp "i" !2
! u " !
m "
#z # "
1 #$
+ 2
exp "i" !2
! u + !
• Inverse Fourier transforming,
g(x; z) = 21
!1 +
m 2
exp
"
!i! !"z
2
#
exp $i2!
! x %
+ m 2
exp
"
!i! !"z
2
#
exp $!i2!
! x %
&
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-31
Mathematical derivation of the Talbot effect /3 • Our previous result
g(x; z) = 12
!1 +
m 2
exp
"
!i! !"z
2
#
exp $i2!
! x %
+ m 2
exp
"
!i! !"z
2
#
exp $!i2!
! x %
&
– also expressed as
g(x; z) = 12
!1 + m exp
"
!i! !"z
2
#
cos $2!
! x %
&
– intensity is I(x; z) = |g(x; z)| 2
=1
!1 + m 2 cos2
"2!
x # + 2m cos
$
!"z
%
cos "2!
x #&
4 ! !2 ! – note intensity immediately after grating
I(x; 0) =
! 1 "
1 + m cos #2!
x $%&2
2 !
=1 '
1 + m 2 cos2 #2!
x $ + 2m cos
#2!
x $(
4 ! !
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-32
Mathematical derivation of the Talbot effect /4
• Special cases of propagation distance
Talbot plane
(shifted) Talbot plane
MIT 2.71/2.710
Talbot subplane
04/08/09 wk9-b-33
The Talbot planes
MIT 2.71/2.710 04/08/09 wk9-b-34
T alb
ot p
lane
T alb
ot p
lane
T alb
ot su
bpla
ne
T alb
ot su
bpla
ne
frequencydoubling
1/2 periodshift
frequencydoubling
replica ofgrating
etc.
MIT OpenCourseWarehttp://ocw.mit.edu
2.71 / 2.710 Optics Spring 2009
For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.