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ETHICS AND CODE OF

CONDUCT

IN

PUBLIC RELATIONS

Made By:

BARKHA VERMA (8119)

NOVITA KOHLI (8113)

BBS 2-C

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We gratefully acknowledge and thank our Public

Relations teacher Ms. Nomita Sharma for her

support and help, the classroom teachings

provided by her were extremely beneficial and

guided us on how to work on our project.

The project was a learning experience for both of

us. It helped us to understand Public Relations

better as a subject and to gain useful insights. It

also provided a practical approach to Public

Research.

We are also thankful to our respective parents for

providing us with the resources and encouraging

us. We are thankful to everyone who’s helped us

complete the project.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the group of Barkha

Verma and Novita Kohli has successfully

completed their project on ―Ethics and Code of

Conduct in PR‖ as part of their internal

assessment project for Public Relations and

Corporate Image.

Ms. Nomita Sharma

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Preface………………………………………………….5

2. Evolution of Public Relations Ethics………..6

3. Defining ethics………………………………………8

4. Theories of Ethics in PR………………………...11

5. Application of PR Ethics………………………..15

6. Resources of PR Ethics…………………………...18

7. PRSA Code of Ethics (guidelines)…………..19

8. Public Relations Ethics Case Study………..22

9. Pushing the Frontiers in Public Relation

Ethics…………………………………………………..26

10. Conclusion…………………………………………..27

11. Bibliography………………………………………..28

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PREFACE

The central purpose of this project is to provide an

overview of Ethics in public relations. We review the

evolution of public relations ethics, the current state of

practice, and the thoughts of ethicists.

Definitions will be provided and key areas of evolution

and debate within the field will be addressed.

Implications for practitioners are discussed, including

the research showing that a strong sense of ethics and

of how to arrive at ethical decisions can enhance the

career prospects of public relations professionals.

Recommendations for public relations practitioners

are made, including topics such as gaining access to

an organization’s top decision makers, promotion to

an ethical counselor role, PRSA code of ethics and

ethics study, and approaches to ethical analyses.

Finally, practical guidelines for dealing with ethics

will be offered, followed with suggestions.

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EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC

RELATIONS ETHICS

One of the earliest public relations executives to argue

for the role of acting as an ethical counsel to

management was John W. Hill. Hill had a very

developed philosophy of Corporate Responsibility and

Issue Management and this recent analysis found that

ethics pervaded both his work as executive counsel and

his books about public relations. Hill’s grasp of the

interaction between ethics, issues management, and

―far-reaching effects of corporate policy‖ made him not

only one of the most successful practitioners of his

century. John W. Hill was a progenitor of what scholars

called public relations as the ―corporate conscience‖.

As the civil unrest of the 1960s called both government

and businesses to a higher level of accountability, their

communication functions responded with the creation

of more open, ethical, and socially responsible forms of

public relations. The function of issues management

began to advise executives on ethically responsible

policy decisions and symmetrical public relations

began to incorporate the desires of publics for more fair

and balanced decision making.

Although research showed that scant attention was

given to ethics in major public relations textbooks

before this time, the last decade has shown an

improvement. This interest in teaching and discussing

public relations ethics is good news, especially for new

practitioners so that they do not inadvertently limit

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their prospects for promotion. As newer data reveals, job

promotion options may be constrained for practitioners

who do not know ethics or feel prepared to advice on

ethical dilemmas.

Despite the strides made in modern public relations

toward becoming ethical advisors in management, the

field holds ―a tarnished history‖ in the words of one

scholar. Like any young profession, the historical

development of public relations shows a progression

toward more self-aware and ethical models of

communication. By reviewing this development, the

historically negative reputation of public relations, as

well as its potential for encouraging ethical

communication, we can see the maturation of the

profession from one engaged in simple dissemination

of information to one involved in the creation of

ethical communication.

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DEFINING ETHICS

The definition of "ethics" is somewhat consistent from scholar to

scholar.

―Standards of conduct that indicate how one should behave

based on moral duties and virtues.‖

However, the debate comes into play when determining what

these standards of conduct consist of. Are ethics a personal

decision? Do universal ethics really exist? Are ethical

obligations determined by yourself, your employer, the public

relations profession, society? Each of these issues is debated

among scholars.

Traditionally, ethical systems have been categorized into one of

three main categories:

Teleological

Deontological

Situational

TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS

Teleological ethics systems take on a results-oriented

approach and are often referred to as "utilitarian." This

approach asks the question, which decision will provide

the greatest good to the greatest number of people.

Problems with this approach:

How can you calculate greatest good?

Won't you have to act before you can determine the

outcome?

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Positives of this approach

Requires a consideration of all alternatives.

Requires a practitioner to think about the consequences

of their actions.

Examples of teleological ethics

The suggestion that public relations should serve the

public interest.

Making choices not based solely on financial

considerations.

DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS

Deontological approaches to ethical decision making

are also called "duty" ethics or the "humanitarian"

approach. Deontological systems are based on the idea

that human beings must treat other human beings with

respect and dignity. In this case, ethical behavior is

judged on whether the action violates human rights. The

actions themselves are treated as "right" or "wrong."

Problems with this approach

Which human rights are deemed more important?

As society evolves over time, will norms of basic human

rights change?

Blindly following this approach could lead to

considerable harm.

Examples of Deontological Ethics

Declaration of Independence

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Choosing not to disseminate false information because

that would constitute an act of lying which is "wrong."

SITUATIONAL ETHICS

Situational ethics suggests that decision-making should

be seen as independent of specific circumstances. Instead

of following the same set of rules in each decision,

practitioners engaging in Situational ethics decide on a

case by case basis.

Positives of this approach

Can be helpful when there are several conflicting

ethical obligations.

Useful when blindly following rules, as suggested by

Deontological systems, would result in considerable

harm.

Examples of Situational Ethics in Action

Choosing not to comment to the press when releasing

the information could result in considerable harm to

one's client or the public. The conflicting ethical

responsibilities in this instance include honest and

prevention of harm.

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THEORIES OF ETHICS

IN PR

Several theories have been developed that relate to

public relation ethics and the ethical decision-making

process. For each of these theories, it is important to

take note of the core value espoused in each perspective.

The theories reviewed are:

Theory of Responsible Advocacy

Enlightened Self Interest Baseline

Two-way Communication Model

Attorney/Adversary Model

Each of these theories offers a different justification for

the practice of public relations.

Responsible Advocacy (Fitzpatrick and Gauthier)

This theory of public relations proposes that the best

way to practice public relations ethics is through the

ideal of professional responsibility. The key points of

this theory of ethics are:

Practitioner’s greatest need for ethical guidance is in

the reconciling of their conflicting roles of professional

advocate and social conscience.

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Public relations professionals’ best serve society by

serving the special interests of his or her client or

employer.

First loyalty is always to client; but also has a

responsibility to voice the opinions of organizational

stakeholders.

This theory is espoused in the Public Relations Society

of America Code of Ethics. In the code's statement of

values, it defines advocacy as:

"We serve the public interest by acting as responsible

advocates for those we represent."

Enlightened Self-interest Model (Baker)

Baker proposes enlightened self-interest as a baseline

for justification of persuasive communication activity.

The key point of this model is that:

―Businesses do well by doing good.‖

Those who propose this model use potential for profit as

a basis for justifying acts that are ethical. The creator

suggests that:

By behaving ethically, companies gain a competitive

edge and are more respected in the marketplace.

Businesses which make a short term investment in

order to behave ethically will reap the rewards in the

long term.

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Opponents of this model argue that self-interest cannot

be a core value of public relations ethics programs

because you are effectively ignoring the interests of

your publics. Also, enlightened self-interest can be

interpreted as just an easy way out of making difficult

decisions. Ethics is about doing right where others, and

not just yourself, are concerned.

Two-way Communication (James Grunig)

James Grunig, one of the leading public relations

scholars in the world, proposes his model of two-way,

symmetrical communication as the best way to achieve

ethical decisions. He bases his theory on the following

assumptions:

Collaboration, working jointly with others, is a key

value in ethical decisions.

The process of dialogue with different people allows for

both listening and arguing.

Not everyone will get what they want, but dialogue will

lead to the most ethical outcome.

This approach requires the public relations practitioner

to balance their role as advocate for their client with

their role as social conscience. Opponents of this model

say it falls short for failing to address the question of

how far PR professionals should go in counseling their

clients and employers to address the needs of others.

Other critics contest that two-way symmetrical public

relations is an unrealistic, utopian ideal.

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Attorney/Adversary Model Barney and

Black

This model makes several assumptions as its creators

attempt to compare lawyers to public relations

practitioners. According to Barney and Black, these

two professions are alike in two ways:

1. Both are advocates in an adversarial climate

2. Both assume counterbalancing messages will be

provided by someone else.

In this model of public relations ethics, Barney and

Black suggest practitioners have no obligation to

consider the public interest or other outside points of

view. Because they assume a counterbalancing

message is someone else's job, public relations

practitioners should only consider the view of their

client in their decision-making process.

Those who oppose this approach to public relations

ethics cite differences between the conditioners under

which lawyers and PR practitioners operate. Lawyers

practice in a court of law where fairness and equal

representation are guaranteed. PR professionals work

in the court of public opinion. Opponents say because

a counterbalancing message is not guaranteed,

practitioners cannot afford to overlook the public

interest in ethical decision-making.

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APPLICATIONS OF PR

ETHICS

Ethics is essentially the result of intellectual reasoning, it is

important to have guidelines to follow in the decision-making

process.

―Ethics is not just knowing what is right or wrong, but doing

it!‖

The Potter Box decision-making model

The Navran decision-making model

Codes of Ethics

Potter Box Model

This ethical decision-making model was derived by Ralph

Potter of the Harvard Divinity School. It includes four steps:

1. Define the situation

2. Identify values

3. Select principles

4. Choose loyalties

The benefit of this model is that it forces the practitioner to

prioritize the values and publics that are most important to the

organization in a given situation. In most cases, the public

relations professional is juggling relationships with many

constituents, none of which can be overlooked.

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Navran Model

The creator of the decision-making model devised a six-step

plan to reflect the natural decision process of humans:

1. Define the problem

2. Identify available alternatives

3. Evaluate the alternatives

4. Make the decision

5. Implement the decision

6. Evaluate the decision

Ethical decisions are made by applying series of ―PLUS‖ filter to

steps 1, 3 and 6.

P = Policies - is it consistent with organization guidelines?

L = Legal - is it within the scope of the law?

U = Universal - does it conform to values of my organization?

S = Self - does it satisfy my personal definition of what is right

and fair?

While this may not guarantee an ethical decision, it will

ensure ethical components are taken into consideration.

Developing Codes of Ethics

A code of ethics should serve as a living, breathing document

that was created with the input from all levels of employment

at an organization. There are four issues that should be taken

into consideration when drafting a code of ethics:

1. Determine the purpose and jurisdiction of the code. Is it

created for regulatory or inspirational purposes? Who does the

code apply to? Is it to be used in day-to-day decision-making?

2. Determine the values most important to leaders, employees

and other stakeholders. These values will provide direction in

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the absence of policies. They should be defined, not just listed.

Examples: integrity, honesty, respect.

3. Current challenges facing the organization along with legal

context in which the firm operates should be addressed in the

rules and guidelines of the code. Examples: discrimination,

conflicts of interests, globalization.

4. How the guidelines will be implemented and enforced is

another consideration when drafting a code of ethics. How will

employees be trained, monitored and evaluated in their

ethical behavior? Will there be rewards and opportunities for

feedback?

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RESOURCES FOR PR

ETHICS

Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics

The Institute of Public Relations Code of Conduct

Canadian Public Relations Society Code of

Professional Standards

International Association of Business

Communicators Code

Association of Fundraising Professionals Code of

Ethics

Josephson Institute for Ethics

Ethics Resource Center

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PRSA CODE OF ETHICS

ETHICAL GUIDANCE FOR TODAY’S

PRACTITIONER

The practice of public relations can present unique and

challenging ethical issues. At the same time, protecting integrity

and the public trust are fundamental to the profession’s role

and reputation. Bottom line, successful public relations hinges

on the ethics of its practitioners.

To help members navigate ethics principles and applications, the

Society created, and continues to maintain, the PRSA Code of

Ethics. Under the Code, widely regarded as the industry

standard, members pledge to core values, principles and

practice guidelines that define their professionalism and

advance their success.

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Building Principles on Core Values

The Code, created and maintained by the PRSA Board of Ethics

and Professional Standards (BEPS), sets out principles and

guidelines built on core values. Fundamental values like

advocacy, honesty, loyalty, professional development and

objectivity structure ethical practice and interaction with

clients and the public.

Translating values into principles of ethical practice, the Code

advises professionals to:

Protect and advance the free flow of accurate and truthful

information.

Foster informed decision making through open

communication.

Protect confidential and private information.

Promote healthy and fair competition among professionals.

Avoid conflicts of interest.

Work to strengthen the public’s trust in the profession.

Code guidelines, like tactics supporting strategies, zero in on

putting value and principles into play for working professionals

facing everyday tasks and challenges. Among them,

professionals should:

Be honest and accurate in all communications.

Reveal sponsors for represented causes and interests.

Act in the best interest of clients or employers.

Disclose financial interests in a client’s organization.

Safeguard the confidences and privacy rights of clients and

employees.

Follow ethical hiring practices to respect free and open

competition.

Avoid conflicts between personal and professional interests.

Decline representation of clients requiring actions contrary to

the Code.

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Accurately define what public relations activities can

accomplish.

Report all ethical violations to the appropriate authority.

Addressing Practice Challenges

Digging even deeper, BEPS takes on current practice issues and

challenges in periodic Professional Standards Advisories (PSA's).

Applying the Code to specific scenarios, BEPS has addressed

practices including:

Pay-for-play journalism.

Anonymous Internet posting, ―flogs‖ and viral marketing.

Front groups.

Disclosure of payment of expert commentators.

Truth in wartime communications.

Overstating charges or compensation for work performed.

Offering a Professional Model

In the Code preamble, PRSA asserts that ―ethical practice is the

most important obligation of a PRSA member.‖ While the Code

covers members, PRSA maintains that all public relations

professionals should look to it as a model of professional

behavior. Additionally, PRSA regards the Code as a ―model for

other professions, organizations and professionals.‖

Resources for Your Benefit

To make the topic of professional ethics accessible,

understandable and practical, PRSA offers a host

of resources — the PRSA Code of Ethics, Professional Standards

Advisories, topical analyses and case studies.

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―Public Relations Society of America Board

of Ethics and Professional Standards‖

PUBLIC RELATIONS ETHICS CASE STUDY

SAFEGUARDING CONFIDENCES

The Worldwide Widget Co. (WWC) has a non-disclosure policy

that’s set in stone. Smythe & Smythe Public Relations has just

won the WWC account and all the account personnel working on

the account have signed WWC’s non-disclosure policy form. The

forms are on file in WWC’s Law Dept.

Three weeks after work for the new client has started, the

account team is given a briefing about a new product that will

revolutionize the widget market. The new widget model is half

the price of conventional widgets and does the work in half the

time. In addition, secret tests show that it lasts twice as long.

The account team is cautioned not to say a word about this to

anyone – not even other S&S PR employees or family members.

After a month of work on a dynamite new public relations

program that could preempt the market, S&S PR staffers are

invited to a fund raising party for the Newtown Symphony

Orchestra. The top echelon of influential Newtown citizens are

at the function, where food and wine flow like – food and wine!

An S&S PR junior staffer assigned to the WWC account lets the

wine flow too freely and, before anyone can do anything about

it, he discloses all he knows about the new widget to an editor

with the Newtown News. If president of S&S hear him blab the

final piece of information to the editor. Pulling the staffer aside.

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What would be the next courses of action? With the staffer? With

the editor? With the client?

1. The ethical issue and/or conflict

The client should be informed about what has occurred? Should

he try to get the editor to hold up releasing information about

what he was just told? What are his responsibilities to his

employee?

2. Internal/external factors that may influence the decision

• Enforcement of the non-disclosure policy by WWC

• Policy of the Newtown News regarding curtailing information

until later .

• Responsibility to an intemperate employee

3. Identify key values

Honesty – We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and

truth in advancing the interests of those we represent and in

communicating with the public.

Independence – We are accountable for our actions.

Loyalty – We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring

our obligation to serve the public interest.

Fairness – We deal fairly with clients, employees, employers,

competitors, peers, vendors, the media and the general public.

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4. Identify the parties who will be affected by the decision and

define the public relations profession’s obligation to each

• WWC management and employees

• Newtown News and other media

• S&S employees

5. Select ethical principles to guide the decision

The core principle of the ―Safeguarding Confidences‖ section of

the PRSA Code of Ethics Code Provisions is: ―Client trust requires

appropriate protection of confidential and private

information.‖ The intent of this provision is: ―To protect the

privacy rights of clients, organizations and individuals by

safeguarding confidential information.‖ A guideline under this

provision stipulates that a member shall: ―Immediately advise

an appropriate authority if a member discovers that

confidential information is being divulged by an employee of a

client company or organization.‖

6. Make a decision and justify

The client’s interests are paramount in this case. The client

should be immediately informed of the information leak by the

S&S president. The circumstances should be explained regarding

the tipsy staffer and the presence of the newspaper editor. The

agency president and the client should determine the next step,

which might include making an early announcement of the

product launch to nail down the market possibilities. A more

sensitive course of action would be to ask the editor to curtail

the information until a later date in the best interest of WWC, its

employees and the citizens of Newtown. If your relationship is

good, this might work, in return for giving the editor a jump on

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the story. Since a non-disclosure statement was signed by the

junior staff member and the agency had pledged not to disclose

information, there are possibly legalities involved that could

make the agency responsible for any loss of future market share,

at the worst. Loss of the account is also highly likely.

Unfortunately, the budding staffer would have to be discharged

so that other staff members would realize that they must keep

information on a confidential basis.

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PUSHING THE FRONTIERS IN

PUBLIC RELATIONS ETHICS

To answer the demand for ethics training from the

professional front, training in ethical decision making

is being offered by some employers, universities, and

professional associations. Only recently have public

relations scholars incorporated a substantial amount

of moral philosophy into the body of knowledge we

know as communication. The inclusion of this

scholarly literature in our own field can powerfully

extend the ethical reasoning capabilities of public

relations professionals. These approaches, which are

reviewed below, offer substantive ethical guidelines for

analyzing dilemmas.

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CONCLUSION

The ability to engage in ethical reasoning in public relations is

growing in demand, in responsibility, and in importance.

Academic research, university and continuing education, and

professional practice are all attending more than ever to

matters of ethics. The public relations function stands at a

critical and defining juncture: whether to become an ethics

counselor to top management or to remain outside the realm of

the strategic decision making core. How we choose to respond to

the crisis of trust among our publics will define the public

relations of the future.

Although it is true that no single person or function can be the

entire ―ethical conscience‖ of an organization, the public

relations function is ideally informed to counsel top

management about ethical issues. Public relations professionals

know the values of key publics involved with ethical dilemmas,

and can conduct rigorous ethical analyses to guide the policies

of their organizations, as well as in communications with

publics and the news media. Careful and consistent ethical

analyses facilitate trust, which enhances the building and

maintenance of relationships – after all, that is the ultimate

purpose of the public relations function.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

REFERNCES

Here is a list of some of the research articles where this

information was compiled.

Barney, R and J. Black (1994). Ethics and Professional

Persuasive Communications. Public Relations Review, 20(3),

233-248.

Fitzpatrick, K. and Gauthier, C. (2001). Toward a Professional

Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics, Journal of Mass

Media Ethics, 16(2 & 3), 193-212.

Grunig, J.E. (2000). Collectivism, Collaboration and Societal

Corporatism as Core Professional Values of Public Relations,

Journal of Public Relations Research, 12(1), 23-48.

Fitzpatrick, K. and Seib, P. Public Relations Ethics. Chapters 1, 2,

3.