Public PolicyPublic policy is the result of interactions and dynamics

among actors, interests, institutions and processes.

The formation of policy agendas, the enactment of policies by Congress and the president, and the implementation

and interpretation of policies by the bureaucracy and the courts are all stages in the policy process.

Students should also investigate policy networks and issue networks in the domestic and foreign policy areas. the

study of these will give students a clear understanding of the impact of federalism, interest groups, parties, and

elections on policy processes and policymaking.

Students should be familiar with major public policies.

Vocabulary Public Policy: Governmental plan of action designed to address a

problem Difficult to implement and evaluate

Rarely solves problem completely

Political Agenda: Issues that people believe require government action Shaped by popular attitudes, elite interests, media, critical events, &

government actions

Actors : groups, institutions, & media

Legitimacy: what the people believe is proper for government to do Role of gov’t has grown over time under both parties

Policymaking :formation of public policy Status quo is most likely outcome of any policymaking attempt

Limited by power of actors involved

Limited by economic reality

Policymaking Steps

1.Agenda-Setting

2.Policy Formulation

3.Policy Adoption

4.Policy Implementation

5.Policy Evaluation

1. Agenda-Setting

Problems are recognized and characterized Spurred by a crisis lobbying group media campaign Politician technological change

Policy Problems – why are some problems acted on and others neglected? Defined not just by the problem itself, but the objective

Tractability – how difficult will the problem be to fix?

2. Policy Formulation

Proposals are discussed among government officials & the public

Many solutions debated Almost always stalls here

3. Policy Adoption Official acceptance of policy Specific strategy is chosen Often takes form of legislation Very unlikely! Support dependent on:

Resources of involved parties Strength of belief Positions held by supporters Actions of policy proponents (grassroots, media,

etc.)

4. Policy Implementation

Gov’t action taken by bureaucracy, courts, police, & individuals to put the policy into place

Usually only partly successful Legislative policy goals are difficult for

bureaucracy to carry out

5. Policy Evaluation Studies conducted to assess success or

failure of policy Congressional oversight Areas of focus

Effectiveness Negative or unintended effects Necessary changes

Costs vs. Benefits Costs: any burden that people bear from a policy Benefits: any satisfaction people expect to receive

from policy Remember: it is the perception of costs & benefits

that affect politics People debate if it is legitimate for a group to benefit from a

policy

Classification Distributed Costs Concentrated Costs

Distributed Benefits Majoritarian Politics Entrepreneurial Politics

Concentrated Benefits Client Politics Interest Group Politics

Cost-Benefit Classification Majoritarian Politics

Many benefits, many pay

Debate is public & ideological

Social Security, military, cancer research

Entrepreneurial Politics

Many benefit, targeted group pays

Promoted by lobbyists

Environmental protection

Client Politics

Targeted group benefits, many pay

“clients” organize for benefits

Farm subsidies, welfare

Interest Group Politics

Small group gains at others’ expense

Labor unions vs. business firms

Questions Why are some issues addressed by public

policy while others are not? Who sets the political agenda? Why do most policies stall at the formation

stage? Why are Social Security payments to the

elderly popular while payments to unwed mothers are unpopular?

Does the fact that policies are rarely adopted suggest an inherent conservatism or inefficiency in government?

Current Areas of Concern Healthcare

Rising Costs – US pays more of its GDP towards healthcare than many other nations

Expensive diagnostic testing

inflation

Medicare & Medicaid

Uninsured

Environmental Policy

Pollution

Emissions Caps

Transformed over time from conservation to preservation to pollution

Media brings attention to the problem

Energy Policy

How much energy is needed & used

Environment

Nuclear power

Alternative approaches

Poverty & Welfare

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)

Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

Food Stamps

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)

Welfare controversial

Anti-work

Anti-marriage

Current Areas of Concern Immigration

Effect on present & future society – positive or negative?

1M immigrate to US annually

Illegal immigrants use public services without contributing (public education, emergency rooms, etc.) raising their costs

Fence?

Crime

Lower than other countries, but still a problem

Juvenile crime – lowering (tried as adults, curfews, detention centers)

School shootings

Prison population

Incarceration rate

Drug policy

terrorism

Policymaking in the Federal System

Public Policymaking in the US Fundamentally shaped by federalism Division of authority & responsibility affects

development of public policy Bureaucrats and government officials at different

levels have diff. interests & ideas of how particular policies should be developed & implemented

Two dimensions helpful to understanding: Constitutional Dimension

Financial Dimension

Constitutional Dimension Structures & practices of American federalism are in the constitution

Focuses primarily on structure & authority of national government

Enumerated powers

Clauses raise possibility that national government might engage in activities beyond enumerated powers

Necessary & proper

General welfare

Interstate commerce

Equal protection of the laws

State governments are NOT given specific powers or responsibilities

Reserved powers

Supports limited role of national government

Each state also has its own constitution describing structure & roles within its government

Financial Dimension Financial spending pattern in

policy areas

Complicated by intergovernmental transfer of money between levels of government

Chart Questions: What level of government has

the most influence over education?

What level of government has the most influence in Social Security?

How does state and federal funding affect welfare?

Social Security & Pensions

Healthcare

Education Welfare

Total Expenditure

$840B $906B $859B $498B

Level of Gov’t

National 79% 44% 2% 57%

State 17% 43% 28% 26%

Local 4% 13% 70% 17%

Policymaking in a Federal System All 3 levels of government play some role in

policy process Creates high degree of interdependence Sometimes cooperative Also competitive & conflictual Fosters debate & tension among government

officials Develop strategies to ‘work the system’

Grantsmanship

Extension: Education or Healthcare

Explain how federalism shapes this policy area.

Evaluate the role of federalism in this policy area.

Policy Networks

Policy Networks

Definition: clusters of actors, each with a stake in given policy & capacity to help determine success or failure

Modern democratic governance occurs only rarely via traditional hierarchies or pure ‘markets’

Instead, policy is made via some hybrid arrangement involving a variety of actors Some private, non-governmental institutions

Includes issue networks and iron triangles

Issue Networks Definition: policy-making alliance among loosely

connected participants that comes together on a particular issue, then disbands

Approximates how policy is made on high-profile issues

Assumes that the issue has been brought to the attention of the public & that policy-formulation is already taking place in the public forum

Roles:

Mass media is the ‘gatekeeper’ of public agenda

Interest groups always in search of favorable policy & influence public perceptions of the issue using the media

Policy experts (think tanks) conduct studies on policy alternatives

Congressional committees actually draft details of legislation, reacting to the media, interest groups, & experts

Bureaucratic agencies have to implement the policy, maintaining confidence of the public and Congress (oversight)

Bureaucratic

Agency

Interest Groups

Policy Experts

Congressional Committees

Mass Media

Iron Triangles Emphasizes mutually beneficial roles played by interest

groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies in formulating & implementing policy

Each influences & is influenced by the others

Roles

Interest groups lobby Congress

Congress provides interest groups with friendly legislation

Congress pressures bureaucrats to implement policy in a way interest groups favor (oversight)

Congress’s budget decisions impact bureaucratic agencies & persuade them to do their job a certain way

Bureaucrats choose to execute policy in a way favorable to Congress

Interest groups lobby bureaucrats

Bureaucrats implement policies in a way to please interest groups, keeping them & Congress happy

Noticeably absent: president’s role [term limit makes presidents somewhat transient + job focuses primarily on the big picture, not minute details of individual policy]

Congressional Committees

Bureaucratic Agenci

es

Interest

Groups

The Policymaking Process : Examined

Agenda-Setting Limited resources & time = choosy about what problems to act

on

Problems converted into issues

Two agendas Systemic (discussion): issue has attention of the public

Powerful groups agree it is a concern

Groups involved have jurisdiction over the issue

Institutional (action): government is prepared to intervene

What agency…

What actions…

Clues found in presidential addresses & things in the media

Agenda-Setting Process Multiple Streams Approach

3 mostly independent streams occasionally come together (problems, proposals, & policies)

Opens a policy window allowing the issue to come onto the agenda

Alternative View

Agenda-building is competitive

Interest groups try to maintain equilibrium & react if threatened

Other factors

Political leadership

Presidential agenda

Electoral benefits

Historical achievement

Concepts of good policy

Policy entrepreneurs

Supreme court

Protest activity

Media attention

Formulation of Policy Proposals Development of proposed courses of action for dealing with public problems

Typically incremental in nature

Actors

President & Advisors

Government Agencies

Presidential Organizations

Legislators

Interest Groups

Universities

Citizen Organizations

2 activities involved

Decisions on what (if anything) should be done

Adoption of legislation or rules

Institutional Limits on Policy Formulation

Constitutional Limits

Separation of powers

Federalism

Bicameralism

Checks & balances

Existing Policy Relationships

Drive for predictability

Networks of contacts & interactions

Change is possible – normally incrementally

Extension

Choose one article:

How is this article related to what you’ve learned about policy agendas?

What problems are evident in the formation of policy in the article?

What do you propose the government do to fix the problem?

Foreign Policy & Defense Spending

Foreign Policy Carefully weigh costs & benefits in domestic and international spheres

Takes many forms Use of force

Military alliances

Treaties

Nuclear test ban treaty

Strategic arms limitation agreement

International trade

Foreign aid

Reflect interest group politics Tariff decisions

Client politics Aid to corporations doing business abroad

Policy toward Israel

Military-Industrial Complex = alleged alliance between military & corporate leaders Shapes defense budget

The President & Foreign Policy American public instinctively feels president is in charge of foreign

affairs – but Congress really is! Constitutional Roles – shared war powers

President can send troops, but Congress declares war

President negotiates treaties, but Congress ratifies them

President can make executive agreements without Congress

President wins more when asking for congressional support on foreign matters than domestic

Checks on power: War Powers Act

Intelligence Oversight

CIA supposed to report to House & Senate Intelligence Committees about covet action

Office of the Diector of National Intelligence (created post-9/11) coordinates FBI, CIA, Defense Intelligence Agency, & intel. Units of other gov’t agencies

Who creates foreign policy? Often made & almost always carried out by Secretary of State from Jefferson to the 20th century – but

no more!

Commitments overseas increased after WWII President put foreign policy at top of agenda

Larger role directing it

Policy shaped by scores of agencies with overseas activity

Today Defense Dept.

CIA

Dept. of Agriculture, Commerce, Labor – all have missions abroad

FBI

DEA

Agency for International Development

US Information Agency – runs libraries & educational programs abroad

National Security Council – committee that coordinates foreign policy

Sect. of State Today Still always promise to coordinate & direct foreign policy – but cannot

Job is too big for one person

Agencies owe no political or bureaucratic loyalty to secretary of state

Machinery Affects Substance of Policy Issues are endlessly agitated & rarely settled Rivalries within exec. branch intensify rivalry between

executive & Congress

Congress has steadily increased influence over foreign policy

Interests of organizations affect positions they take State Dept. likes diplomacy, so it resists bold or controversial

new policies

CIA has stake in gathering information, making it skeptical of other agencies’ claims of success abroad

Air force optimistic about military operations, while army has more doubts

Public Opinion

Broad outlines of foreign policy are shaped by public & elite opinion

Public poorly informed in most cases, but want US to play active role internationally

Political elites are better informed, but opinions change more rapidly

Generally, leaders have more liberal & internationalist outlook than the public

“Rally around the flag” in times of trouble

People are less leery of overseas military expeditions until they start

4 Worldviews Worldview = opinion on how the US should respond to world problems

Isolationism = US should withdraw from foreign affairs Response to WWI

Led to rise of dictators & WWII

Ended with attack on Pearl Harbor

Containment = US should resist expansion of aggressive nations Cold War mentality

Rationale for intervention in Korea & Vietnam

Disengagement = US was harmed by Vietnam, so they should avoid supposedly similar events Resulted from experience of younger foreign policy elite that rose in 1970s

Vietnam led to military defeat & domestic political disaster

“No more Vietnams”

Critics called it “New Isolationism”

Affected foreign policy for decades

Carter (reluctant for military intervention) Reagan (containment) Bush (involved in Kuwait, stirring controversy) Clinton (lack of interest in foreign policy)

Human Rights = try to improve lives of people in other countries Began in early 1990s – Kosovo (Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic sent troops to suppress ethnic

Albanians in Kosovo)

Generally supported by liberals, while conservatives prefer disengagement in these instances

Extension What Would You Do? Activity [textbook p.550]

6 American hostages held in Middle East for 2 years now

Undergoing torture

Policy is not to negotiate with terrorists

Criticism heard by hostage families & their sympathizers

Terrorist groups demand US end its support of Israel

Your Options

Maintain “no negotiations” policy, but use quiet diplomacy with friendly nations in the region

Secretly exchange arms for the release of Americans

Use military units to find & free the hostages