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Public administration

ContentsArticlesMain article 1

Public administration 1

In academia 12

Master of Public Administration 12Doctor of Public Administration 13

Supporting articles 16

Administrative law 16Build-Operate-Transfer 23Civil society 26Regulatory economics 35Government 40Public safety 54Public services 54

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 57Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 59

Article LicensesLicense 60

1

Main article

Public administration

Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field ofpractice; the latter is depicted in this picture of US federal public

servants at a meeting.

Public administration refers to two meanings: first,it is concerned with the implementation ofgovernment policy; second, it is an academicdiscipline that studies this implementation andprepares civil servants for working in the publicservice.[1] As a "field of inquiry with a diversescope" its "fundamental goal... is to advancemanagement and policies so that government canfunction."[2] Some of the various definitions whichhave been offered for the term are: "the managementof public programs";[3] the "translation of politicsinto the reality that citizens see every day";[4] and"the study of government decision making, theanalysis of the policies themselves, the various inputsthat have produced them, and the inputs necessary toproduce alternative policies."[5]

Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as wellas the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct"[6] Many unelected publicservants can be considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state and federaldepartments such as municipal budget directors, human resources (H.R.) administrators, city managers, censusmanagers, state mental health directors, and cabinet secretaries. Public administrators are public servants working inpublic departments and agencies, at all levels of government.

In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted American civil service reform in the1880s, moving public administration into academia.[7] However, "until the mid-20th century and the disseminationof the German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy" there was not "much interest in a theory of publicadministration."[8] The field is multidisciplinary in character; one of the various proposals for public administration'ssub-fields sets out six pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis and statistics,budgeting, and ethics.[9]

Public administration 2

Definitions

Even in the digital age, public servants tend to workwith both paper documents and computer files[citation

needed] (pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, DeputyComptroller for the US Navy)

In 1947 Paul H. Appleby defined public administration as "publicleadership of public affairs directly responsible for executiveaction". In a democracy, it has to do with such leadership andexecutive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity,the worth, and the potentials of the citizen. [10] One year later,Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authoritydefined public administration "as a public instrument wherebydemocratic society may be more completely realized." Thisimplies that it must "relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, andfuller economic opportunity for human beings" and is thus"concerned with "people, with ideas, and with things." [11]

Drawing on the democracy theme and discarding the link to theexecutive branch, Patricia M. Shields asserts that publicadministration "deals with the stewardship and implementation of the products of a living democracy." [12] The keyterm "product" refers to "those items that are constructed or produced" such as prisons, roads, laws, schools, andsecurity. "As implementors, public managers engage these products." They participate in the doing and making ofthe "living" democracy. A living democracy is "an environment that is changing, organic", imperfect, inconsistentand teaming with values. "Stewardship is emphasized because public administration is concerned "withaccountability and effective use of scarce resources and ultimately making the connection between the doing, themaking and democratic values." [13]

More recently scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition", because the "scope ofthe subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define".[14] Public administration is a field ofstudy (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of publicadministration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administrationis a subfield of political science or a subfield of administrative science". Scholar Donald Kettl is among those whoview public administration "as a subfield within political science".[15]

The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector statesthat public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, thatis, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration ofprograms based on them". This includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety,immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs areactivities that are purely governmental in nature".[16]

From the academic perspective, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States defines thestudy of public administration as "A program that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm oflocal, state, and federal government and that focuses on the systematic study of executive organization andmanagement. Includes instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public administration; themanagement of public policy; executive-legislative relations; public budgetary processes and financial management;administrative law; public personnel management; professional ethics; and research methods."[17]

Public administration 3

History

Antiquity to the 19th centuryDating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors toadminister the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrationswas rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "spoils system". Publicadministrators have been the "eyes and ears" of rulers until relatively recently. In medieval times, the abilities to readand write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the needfor expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessaryactivities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the European Imperialist ageprogressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for asophisticated public administration grew.The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in an effortto train a new class of public administrators. The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of Halle werePrussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. Johann HeinrichGottlob Justi was the most well-known professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European perspective,Classic, Medieval, and Enlightenment-era scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that has come to be calledpublic administration.Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of publicadministration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form ofadministrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administrationrelies on many prestablished disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance.He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that public administrators should be concernedwith both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated andevaluated according to the scientific method.Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic governance, justified by classic and liberalphilosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle to John Locke[18] to Thomas Jefferson[19][20]

Public administration 4

Woodrow Wilson

In the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is consideredthe father of public administration. He first formally recognizedpublic administration in an 1887 article entitled "The Study ofAdministration." The future president wrote that "it is the object ofadministrative study to discover, first, what government canproperly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do theseproper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the leastpossible cost either of money or of energy." Wilson was moreinfluential to the science of public administration than Von Stein,primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which headvocated four concepts:

•• Separation of politics and administration•• Comparative analysis of political and private organizations•• Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes

toward daily operations• Improving the effectiveness of public service through

management and by training civil servants, merit-basedassessment

The separation of politics and administration has been the subjectof lasting debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics ofthe suggested generations of public administration.By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's solicitation and thus textbooks in this fieldwere introduced. A few distinguished scholars of that period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol,Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), another prominent scholar in the field of administrationand management also published a book entitled ‘The Principles of Scientific Management’ (1911). He believed thatscientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the ‘one best way’ to do things and /or carrying out an operation.This, according to him could help save cost and time. Taylor’s technique was later introduced to privateindustrialists, and later into the various government organizations (Jeong, 2007).[21]

Taylor's approach is often referred to as Taylor's Principles, and/or Taylorism. Taylor's scientific managementconsisted of main four principles (Frederick W. Taylor, 1911):•• Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.•• Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.• Provide ‘Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task’

(Montgomery 1997: 250).•• Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management

principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system (approach): ‘It is only through enforcedstandardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforcedcooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcingthis cooperation rests with management alone.’[22]

The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) the leading professional group for public administrationwas founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal Public Administration Review, which was founded in 1940.[23]

Public administration 5

US in the 1940sThe separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in publicadministration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars,beginning in the 1940s. Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposedpolitics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web ofdiscretion and interaction".[24]

Luther Gulick (1892–1993) was anexpert on public administration.

Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick are two second-generation scholars.Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work ofcontemporary behavioral, administrative, and organizational scholarsincluding Henri Fayol, Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Paul Appleby, FrankGoodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizationaltheories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations abouthuman nature like classical and enlightened theorists.

Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization thatemphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structuralreform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties ofadministrators with an acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for planning,organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayoldeveloped a systematic, 14-point, treatment of private management.

Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, genericmanagement theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. Withthe general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations.The mid-1940stheorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism.

1950s to the 1970s

During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader.Public Administration experienced a kind of hey-day due to the successful war effort and successful post warreconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960sand 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costlyAmerican intervention in Vietnam along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic partyheadquarters (the 1974 Watergate scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behavior that alienatedcitizens.

The costly Vietnam War alienated US citizensfrom their government (pictured is Operation Arc

Light, a US bombing operation)

There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replaceineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have todistance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective.Elected officials supported these reforms. The Hoover Commission,chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow, toexamine reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequentlyfounded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, anorganization which has provided consulting services to all levels ofgovernment until the 1970s.[citation needed]

Concurrently, after World War II, the whole concept of publicadministration expanded to include policy-making and analysis, thus

the study of ‘administrative policy making and analysis’ was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of

Public administration 6

Public Administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge,predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007).Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as, Fritz Morstein Marx with his book ‘The Elements of PublicAdministration’ (1946), Paul H. Appleby ‘Policy and Administration’ (1952), Frank Marini ‘Towards a New PublicAdministration’ (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors.

1980s–1990sIn the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory,which came to be called New Public Management, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their bookReinventing Government.[25] The new model advocated the use of private sector-style models, organizational ideasand values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the Clinton Administration(1993–2001), Vice President Al Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s,new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK and, to a lesser extent, inCanada.Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmentedagencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between publicagencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives oruser-pay models).[26] NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than ascitizens.[27]

Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens"is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end(profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business(the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants.Nevertheless, the model is still widely accepted at all levels of government and in many OECD nations.

Late 1990s–2000In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance ofNPM.[28] A successor to NPM is digital era governance, focusing on themes of reintegrating governmentresponsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting thetransformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage).One example of this is openforum.com.au, anAustralian non-for-profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, businesspeople and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate.Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach which includes acentralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization ofappointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan forthe government of the day.[29]

Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of political economy toexplain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts and/or the persistence of sub-optimaloutcomes.[30]

Public administration 7

Approaches•• Behavioural approach•• Systems approach•• Ecological approach•• Public choice approach•• Contingency approach

Core branchesIn academia, the field of public administration consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have proposed a numberof different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":• Human resource management is an in-house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an

unbiased, ethical and values-based manner. The basic functions of the HR system are employee benefits,employee health care, compensation, and many more.

• Organizational Theory in Public Administration is the study of the structure of governmental entities and themany particulars inculcated in them.

• Ethics in public administration serves as a normative approach to decision making.• Policy analysis serves as an empirical approach to decision making.• Public budgeting is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited

demands.

Decision-making modelsGiven the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing, the professional administrator mightrefer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work. Indeed, many public and private administrativescholars have devised and modified decision-making models.

Niskanen's budget-maximizingIn 1971, Professor William Niskanen proposed a rational choice variation which he called the "budget-maximizingmodel". He claimed that rational bureaucrats will universally seek to increase the budgets of their units (to enhancetheir stature), thereby contributing to state growth and increased public expenditure. Niskanen served on PresidentReagan's Council of Economic Advisors; his model underpinned what has been touted as curtailed public spendingand increased privatization. However, budgeted expenditures and the growing deficit during the Reaganadministration is evidence of a different reality. A range of pluralist authors have critiqued Niskanen's universalistapproach. These scholars have argued that officials tend also to be motivated by considerations of the public interest.

Dunleavy's bureau-shapingThe bureau-shaping model, a modification of Niskanen, holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part oftheir budget that they spend on their own agency's operations or give to contractors and interest groups. Groups thatare able to organize a "flowback" of benefits to senior officials would, according to this theory, receive increasedbudgetary attention. For instance, rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks tomillions of low-income citizens because this does not serve a bureaucrats' goals. Accordingly, one might insteadexpect a jurisdiction to seek budget increases for defense and security purposes in place programming. If we referback to Reagan once again, Dunleavy's bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the "size" ofgovernment while spending did not, in fact, decrease. Domestic entitlement programming was financiallyde-emphasized for military research and personnel.

Public administration 8

Academic fieldIn the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science andadministrative law. Some MPA programs include economics courses to give students a background inmicroeconomic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt).Scholars such as John A. Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of governmentbureaucracy. In Europe (notably in Britain and Germany), the divergence of the field from other disciplines can betraced to the 1720s continental university curriculum. Formally, official academic distinctions were made in the1910s and 1890s, respectively.The goals of the field of public administration are related to the democratic values of improving equality, justice,security, efficiency, effectiveness of public services usually in a non-profit, non-taxable venue; businessadministration, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with taxable profit. For a field built on concepts(accountability, governance, decentralization, clientele), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies oftenignore certain aspects of these concepts (Dubois & Fattore 2009).One minor tradition that the more specific term "public management" refers to ordinary, routine or typicalmanagement concerns, in the context of achieving public good. Others argue that "public management" refers to anewer, market-driven perspective on the operation of government. This latter view is often called "new publicmanagement" by its advocates. New Public Management represents a reform attempt, aimed at reemphasizing theprofessional nature of the field[citation needed]. This will replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis. Sometheorists advocate a bright line differentiation of the professional field from related academic disciplines likepolitical science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature.One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "...public administration sits in a disciplinarybackwater", because "...[f]or the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study likeimplementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory". Kettl states that "public administration, as asubfield within political science...is struggling to define its role within the discipline". He notes two problems withpublic administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field’s theoretical work too oftenseems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come fromoutside the field".Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the roleof bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place. In recentyears, public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory andpostmodern philosophical notions of government, governance, and power. However, many public administrationscholars support a classic definition of the term emphasizing constitutionality, public service, bureaucratic forms oforganization, and hierarchical government.

Comparative public administrationComparative public administration is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or thestudy of public administration in other countries.[31] Another definition for "comparative public administration" isthe "quest for patterns and regularities in administrative action and behavior". There have been several issues whichhave hampered the development of comparative public administration, including: the major differences betweenWestern countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this subfield in public administrationprograms; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested.[32] theComparative Administration group has defined CPA as, "the of publicadministration applied to diverse cultures andnational setting and the body of factual data, by which it can be examined and tested." Accordingly to Jong S. Jun,"CPA has been predominantly cross-cultural and cross-national in orientation."

Public administration 9

Master's degrees

The Knapp-Sanders Building, the home of the Schoolof Government at the University of North Carolina.

Some public administration programs have similarities to businessadministration programs, in cases where the students from both theMPA and MBA programs take many of the same courses [citation

needed]. In some programs, the MPA is more clearly distinct fromthe MBA, inthat the MPA often emphasizes substantially differentethical and sociological criteria that are traditionally secondary tothat of profit for business administrators. The MPA is related tosimilar graduate level government studies programs including MAprograms in public affairs, public policy, and political science.Differences often include program emphases on policy analysistechniques or other topical focuses such as the study ofinternational affairs as opposed to focuses on constitutional issues such as separation of powers, administrative law,problems of governance and power, and participatory democracy.

Doctoral degreesThere are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration and the Ph.D.in Public Administration. The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) is an applied-research doctoral degree in thefield of public administration, focusing on practice. The DPA requires a dissertation and significant courseworkbeyond the Masters level. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awardedand the post-nominals of D.P.A. are often added. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in publicadministration (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada).

Notable scholarsNotable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields. In the period before publicadministration existed as its own independent discipline, scholars contributing to the field came from economics,sociology, management, political science, administrative law, and, other related fields. More recently, scholars frompublic administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories.

International public administrationThere are several organizations that are active. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration andManagement CAPAM is perhaps the most diverse, covering the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from Indiato Nauru. Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service, top officials and leading scholars in thefield.The oldest is the International Institute of Administrative Sciences. Based in Brussels, Belgium, the IIAS is aworldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and practices to improve theorganization and operation of Public Administration and to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to betterrespond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. The IIAS has set up four entities: theInternational Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), the European Group for PublicAdministration (EGPA), The Latin American Group for Public Administration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group forPublic Administration (AGPA).IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administrationand management. The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers. It isthe only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management. EGPA, LAGPA and AGPA are theregional sub-entities of the IIAS.

Public administration 10

Also the International Committee of the US-based Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration(NASPAA) has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and Nationalforums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.[33]

The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, this regionalnetwork of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in theregion.[34] The Institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network ofPublic Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it isthe only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working inpublic administration and policy analysis. It has more than 49 members from top research schools in variouscountries throughout the hemisphere.[35]

NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration inCentral and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.[36] The US publicadministration and political science associations like NASPAA, American Political Science Association (APSA)[37]

and American Society of Public Administration (ASPA).[38] These organizations have helped to create thefundamental establishment of modern public administration.

Notes and references[1] Random House Unabridged Dictionary (http:/ / dictionary. infoplease. com/ public-administration)[2] Handbook of Public Administration. Eds Jack Rabin, W. Bartley Hildreth, and Gerard J. Miller. 1989: Marcel Dekker, NY. p. iii[3] Robert and Janet Denhardt. Public Administration: An Action Orientation. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.[4] Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009. The Politics of the Administrative Process. Washington D.C.: CQ Press.[5][5] Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger

Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62[6][6] UN Economic and Social Council. Committee of Experts on Public Administration. Definition of basic concepts and terminologies in

governance and public administration. 2006[7][7] Wilson, Woodrow. June, 1887. The Study of Administration, Political Science Quarterly 2.[8] Public administration. (2010) In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved August 18, 2010, from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.[9][9] Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007. Classics of Public Administration. Wadsworth: Boston.[10] Appleby, Paul 1947. "Toward Better Public Administration," Public Administration Review Vol. 7, No. 2 pp. 93-99.[11] Clapp, Gordon. 1948. "Public Administration in an Advancing South." Public Administration Review Vol. 8. no. 2 pp. 169-175. Clapp

attributed part of this definition to Charles Beard.[12] Shields, Patricia. 1998. "Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public Administration (https:/ / digital. library. txstate. edu/

handle/ 10877/ 3954)" Research in Public Administration Vol. 4. pp. 195-225.[13] Shields, Patricia. 1998. "Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public Administration (https:/ / digital. library. txstate. edu/

handle/ 10877/ 3954)" Research in Public Administration Vol. 4. pp. 199.[14] Kernaghan, Kenneth. "Public administration" in The Canadian Encyclopedia. Available online at: http:/ / thecanadianencyclopedia. com/

index. cfm?PgNm=TCE& Params=A1ARTA0006540Accessed August 20, 2010.[15] THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION by Donald F. Kettl. Available online at: http:/ / www. h-net. org/ ~pubadmin/ tfreport/

kettl. pdf Accessed on October 25, 2010.[16] Definition Public Administration (NAICS 91). Available online at: http:/ / www. ic. gc. ca/ cis-sic/ cis-sic. nsf/ IDE/ cis-sic91defe. html

Accessed October 25, 2010[17] http:/ / nces. ed. gov/ ipeds/ cipcode/ cipdetail. aspx?y=55& cipid=88560 accessed 09.03.2011[18][18] Second Treatise on Government[19][19] Declaration of Independence[20][20] Ryan, M., Mejia, B., and Georgiev, M. (Ed). 2010. AM Gov 2010. McGraw Hill: New York.[21] Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma

Publications. ISBN 978-983-195-253-5[22] Frederick W. Taylor. (1856-1915). 'Principles of Scientific Management.' New York & London: Harper Brothers; Also see, Jeong Chun Hai

@Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN978-983-195-253-5

[23] http:/ / www. aspanet. org/ scriptcontent/ ASPAgeneral. cfm[24][24] Fry, Brian R. 1989. Mastering Public Administration; from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House

Publishers, Inc. page 80[25] Public Administration Review, Vol. 56, No. 3 (May – Jun., 1996), pp. 247–255

Public administration 11

[26] Patrick Dunleavy, Helen Margetts et al, 'New public management is dead: Long live digital era governance',Journal of PublicAdministration Research and Theory, (July 2006).

[27] Diane Stone, (2008) 'Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks,' Journal of Policy Sciences.[28][28] Denhardt , Robert B. and Janet Vinzant Denhardt (2000). "The New Public Service: Serving Rather than Steering." Public Administration

Review 60(6)[29] Aucoin, Peter (2008). New Public Management and the Quality of Government: Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada,

Conference on "New Public Management and the Quality of Government", SOG and the Quality of Government Institute, University ofGothenburg, Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p.14.

[30] Corduneanu-Huci, Cristina,; Alexander Hamilton and Issel Masses Ferrer (2012) Understanding Policy Change: How to Apply PoliticalEconomy Concepts in Practice. The World Bank: Washington DC. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books/ about/ Understanding_Policy_Change.html?id=oKShuAAACAAJ. )

[31] Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008. P. 33[32] Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008 p. 34[33] http:/ / www. GlobalMPA. net[34] http:/ / www. clad. org. ve[35] http:/ / www. ebape. fgv. br/ inpae[36] http:/ / www. nispa. sk/ _portal/ homepage. php[37] http:/ / www. apsanet. org[38] http:/ / www. aspanet. org

External links• Gov Monitor (http:/ / www. thegovmonitor. com/ ): A public administration, policy and public sector website• Public Administration Theory Network (PAT-Net) (http:/ / www. patheory. org/ ): This is an international

network of professionals concerned with the advancement of public administration theory.• The Global Public Administration Resource (http:/ / www. linkedin. com/ groups/

Global-Public-Administration-Resource-3818311): A forum where practitioners, academics and students candiscuss topics in public administration.

• United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN) (http:/ / www. unpan. org/ ): A body which aims toestablish an Internet-based network that links regional and national institutions devoted to public administration.

•  George W. Kirchwey (1905). "Civil Administration". New International Encyclopedia.

Suggested reading• Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of

decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–727.• Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction.

Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN 978-983-195-253-5• Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. Public Administration — Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of

Government, ISBN 1-933220-04-X• White,Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice.1994.• Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and

Opportunity. New York: M. E. Sharpe.

12

In academia

Master of Public Administration

Example of a diploma from Harvard Universityconferring the MPA degree.

The Master of Public Administration (M.P.Adm., M.P.A. or MPA)is a professional post-graduate degree in Public Administration whichis the public sectors offering equivalent to the private sector's Master ofBusiness Administration.

The MPA program is a business degree for the public sector and itprepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of local,state/provincial, and federal/national government, and increasingly innongovernmental organization (NGO) and nonprofit sectors; it places afocus on the systematic investigation of executive organization andmanagement. Instruction includes the roles, development, andprinciples of public administration; public policy management andimplementation. Through its history, the MPA degree has becomemore interdisciplinary by drawing from fields such as economics,sociology, law, anthropology, political science, and regional planningin order to equip MPA graduates with skills and knowledge covering abroad range of topics and disciplines relevant to the public sector. Acore curriculum of a typical MPA program usually includes courses onmicroeconomics, public finance, research methods / statistics, policyprocess and policy analysis, public financial management, managerialaccounting, ethics, public management, leadership, planning & Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and programevaluation/performance measurement. Depending on their interest, MPA students can focus their studies on a varietyof public sector fields such as urban planning, emergency management, transportation, health care (especially publichealth), economic development, urban management, community development, education, non-profits, informationtechnology, environmental policy, cultural policy, criminal justice, etc.

MPA graduates currently serve in some important positions within the public sector including Prime Minister ofSingapore Lee Hsien Loong, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, former CIA Director David Petraeus, President ofLiberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Former President of Mexico Felipe Calderón, Foreign Minister of Serbia Vuk Jeremić,NYC Police Commissioner Raymond W. Kelly, Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius, formerTreasurer of Australia Wayne Swan, former Health Minister of Australia Tanya Plibersek, former Commandant ofthe U.S. Coast Guard Thad Allen.[1]

In recent years, there has been a gradual convergence between the MPA and the Master of Public Policy (MPP)degrees. Today, the course offerings of most MPA and MPP programs overlap to some degree, but MPP programstend to provide more focused training in policy analysis and policy design, while MPA programs usually stillprovide more focused coursework in program implementation and public management.Many educational institutions are now offering MPA degrees via online instruction. There are also Executive MPAprograms for professionals who have prior work and management experience.Outside the United States, the MPA degree increasingly includes a substantial element of management education sitting alongside public policy and public administration thereby bringing it closer to the MBA degree. However,

Master of Public Administration 13

some MPA programs in the United States are housed in Business schools (see BYU's Marriott School ofManagement and LSU's E. J. Ourso College of Business). In other cases, they bring together multidisciplinaryapproaches and methodologies as to give their students a more comprehensive overview of the current challenges ofpublic administration. (see School of Government, LUISS Guido Carli) [2]

Schools Offering the Master's of Public AdministrationA Master's of Public Administration can be acquired at various institutions. List of schools offering MPA degrees.

References[1] http:/ / www. uscg. mil/ FLAG/ cg00. asp[2] http:/ / www. sog. luiss. it

External links• National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (http:/ / naspaa. org/ ) - Accrediting body

for MPA and MPP programs in the U.S.• Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management (http:/ / www. appam. org/ )• American Society for Public Administration (http:/ / www. aspanet. org/ ) - Professional society for public

administration (PA) practitioners and educators

Doctor of Public AdministrationThe Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.) is a terminal applied-research doctoral degree in the field of publicadministration (government), which is a sub-discipline of political science. The D.P.A. requires significantcoursework beyond the masters level and a dissertation that contributes to theory or practice. Upon successfulcompletion, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. or DPA can be used.

Ph.D. vs D.P.A.Like a Ph.D., a D.P.A. is normally a terminal research degree. The U.S. Department of Education and the U.S.National Science Foundation (NSF) recognize the D.P.A. as an academically equivalent degree to the more commonPh.D. and they do not discriminate between the two degrees.In many cases, D.P.A. programs are identical to Ph.D. programs. Additionally, the D.P.A. dissertation is usually atthe same level as a Ph.D. in terms of effort, rigour, contribution to knowledge, supervision and assessment. A studypublished by the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration titled What's in a Name?Comparing DPA and Ph.D. Programs "finds few differences between the programs, noting that degree title is moreinformative about the type of students recruited than outputs" (Journal of Public Affairs Education, v5 n4 p309-17Oct 1999).D.P.A. research is both theoretical and practical, but the research focus of the typical D.P.A. addresses appliedissues, with the results providing professional outcomes that are of direct relevance to practice. While also intendedto prepare graduates for academic careers, the D.P.A., by virtue of its focus on application of theory, has morepractical application in managerial settings than the Ph.D degree. Most D.P.A. graduates lead careers as senior-levelpractitioners, while others enter academia. This is similar to other professional research doctorates such as theDoctor of Business Administration (DBA) and Doctor of Education (Ed.D).A Ph.D. is more concentrated on developing theory and conducting specialized scholarly research. This degree ismore appropriate for people who wish to become professional researchers, or who wish to pursue a career in

Doctor of Public Administration 14

academia. Most Ph.D. graduates lead careers as university researchers and professors or as senior researchers inbusiness or government.

Structure of ProgramsMost D.P.A. programs require about 90 credit hours of combined graduate coursework. Students are expected to takea number of core classes, electives, research/method classes, and dissertation credits. Some programs also requirecomprehensive examinations. All programs require a doctoral dissertation that contributes to knowledge. Candidatestypically work with a committee and advisors throughout the process and the dissertation eventually requires an oraldefense to the student's committee. Curricula may be offered on a full-time or part-time basis. The normal durationof a doctorate should correspond to 3–5 years of full-time graduate study or 7–10 years of sustained part-timegraduate study.The D.P.A. is preceded by a masters degree, typically the Master of Public Administration or the Master of PublicPolicy. D.P.A. programs are most common in the United States and the Philippines. The D.P.A. degree may have aspecialization such as management science, organizational behavior, implementation, non-profit management, publicfinance, national security, defense policy, education policy, environmental policy, international trade andimmigration, policy making, policy evaluation, program evaluation, criminal justice, civil rights, health and welfare,federalism, strategic management, public health, administrative law, social welfare, tax policy, government-businessrelations, economic policy, public management, etc.Like many Ph.D. programs, D.P.A. programs typically require a master’s degree and significant work experiencebefore proceeding.

PurposeThe Doctor of Public Administration program is designed to provide senior-level public managers, or quasi-publicmanagers, with the substantive skills, knowledge and values necessary in this area. Students in most programsdevelop a thorough knowledge of the legal, ethical and political environments of public administrators. Studentsunderstand the administrative functions of governmental agencies and gain expertise in strategic planning, advancedmanagement techniques, program implementation and results-based leadership.The official policy of NASPAA is that the doctorate is a research degree, regardless if degree title is PhD or DPA. Its"Policy on Doctoral Education in Public Affairs/Public Administration" (1983,1987,1) states that: "Doctoralprograms in public administration...should prepare students to undertake significant research in their subsequentcareers, whether in government, academic life, or other settings; the capacity to do significant research, rather thanaccess to a particular career setting, is the appropriate goal of doctoral training."

PracticeD.P.A. holders typically practice in senior level positions in federal, state, or local governments—including electedoffice or practice in non-profit organizations or private sector organizations with some nexus to government. SomeD.P.A. holders enter academia. The average experienced doctoral degree holder in the United States makes$100,511, but this can vary significantly depending on function, location, experience, skills, and sector.[1] Doctorateholders typically earn more if practicing and less in academia.

Doctor of Public Administration 15

DemandWith the expansion of public government in size and scope, more public administration career opportunities existthan ever before. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics, www.bls.gov, notes that public administration employees willbe required for a variety of public, state or municipal agencies. Significant demand for public administration comesfrom 1996 legislation that empowers more local public governments to administer federal programs. Additionally, assome public sector activities become privatized, there is an increasing need for public administration-related skills,knowledge, and abilities in the private sector. Obtaining a doctor's degree in public administration earns the graduatea great deal of civic recognition and reward.

Sample Dissertations/Research•• David Edward Freed of Lansing, Mich., earned a D.P.A. The title of his dissertation was "Implementing

Organizational Change in a Public Agency."•• Warren Charles Gregory of New Castle, Pa., earned a D.P.A. The title of his dissertation was "Symbolic Politics:

Government's War on the Working Class."•• Roxana Marie Hopkins of Marshall, Mich., earned a D.P.A. The title of her dissertation was "Site-Based

Management and Student Achievement."•• David Paul Moxley of Lathrup Village, Mich., earned a D.P.A. The title of his dissertation was "Foundations of

Board Development: Theory and Practice in Community Service Organizations."•• Riste Simnjanovski of Beaumont, Calif., earned a D.P.A. The title of his dissertation was "Military Preparedness,

Educational Policy Isomorphism: An Examination of Convergence Between Presidential Oratory and EducationalPolicy."

References[1] http:/ / www. payscale. com/ research/ US/ Degree=Doctorate_(PhD)/ Salary

16

Supporting articles

Administrative law

Administrative lawGeneral principles

•• Administrative court•• Delegated legislation•• Exhaustion of remedies•• Justiciability•• Legitimate expectation•• Ministerial act•• Natural justice•• Nondelegation doctrine• Ouster clause (privative clause)•• Patently unreasonable•• Polycentricity•• Prerogative writ

•• Certiorari•• Habeas corpus•• Mandamus•• Prohibition•• Quo warranto

•• Rulemaking•• Ultra vires

Administrative law incommon law jurisdictions

•• Australia•• Canada•• Singapore•• South Africa•• United Kingdom

•• Scotland•• United States

Administrative law incivil law jurisdictions

•• China•• Mongolia•• Ukraine

Related topics

•• Constitutional law•• Judicial review

•• v•• t• e [1]

Administrative law 17

Administrative law in the United States often involves the regulatoryactivities of so-called "independent agencies", such as the Federal

Trade Commission ("FTC"), whose Washington D.C. headquartersare shown above.

Administrative law is the body of law that governs theactivities of administrative agencies of government.Government agency action can include rulemaking,adjudication, or the enforcement of a specificregulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered abranch of public law. As a body of law, administrativelaw deals with the decision-making of administrativeunits of government (for example, tribunals, boards orcommissions) that are part of a national regulatoryscheme in such areas as police law, international trade,manufacturing, the environment, taxation,broadcasting, immigration and transport.Administrative law expanded greatly during thetwentieth century, as legislative bodies worldwidecreated more government agencies to regulate the increasingly complex social, economic and political spheres ofhuman interaction.

Civil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these decisions. The plurality ofadministrative decisions contested in administrative courts are related to taxation.[citation needed]

Administrative law in common law countriesGenerally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicialreview that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures arecoupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking.Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profitcorporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of aparticular group or entity.While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions couldbe reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process(United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from anadministrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which thedecision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined,usually by a higher body in the agency.[citation needed] This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law incommon law countries.The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action isultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrativedecision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standardby the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitraryand capricious (under U.S.) Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laiddown by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which wererecognized but not applied by English Courts viz. legitimate expectation and proportionality.The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed fromthe royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certainCommon Law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteedpower. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.

Administrative law 18

United StatesIn the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although afew are part of the judicial or legislative branches.In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments,which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many important independentagencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federalexecutive departments but are still part of the executive branch.Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas ofadministrative law.The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. Inresponse to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below),Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate asminiature versions[citation needed] of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (throughrulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings),and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United StatesConstitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA toestablish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agencyprocedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agencypractice.The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the Administrative Law Review, aquarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.

Historical development

Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice since 1994, divides the history of administrative law in the UnitedStates into six discrete periods, according to his book, Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy (3d Ed., 1992):• English antecedents & the American experience to 1875• 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law•• The New Deal• 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law• 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process• 1985 – ?: retreat or consolidation

Agriculture

The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in variousways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant componentof the discipline of Agricultural Law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such asthe Agricultural Marketing Service [2] are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrativebodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well.

Administrative law 19

Administrative law in civil law countriesUnlike most Common-law jurisdictions, the majority of civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections todeal with administrative cases which, as a rule, will apply procedural rules specifically designed for such cases anddifferent from that applied in private-law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.

FranceIn France, most claims against the national or local governments are handled by administrative courts, which use theConseil d'État (Council of State) as a court of last resort. The main administrative courts are the tribunauxadministratifs and appeal courts are the cours administratives d'appel. The French body of administrative law iscalled "droit administratif".

GermanyAdministrative law in Germany, called “Verwaltungsrecht”de:Verwaltungsrecht (Deutschland), generally rules therelationship between authorities and the citizens and therefore, it establishes citizens’ rights and obligations againstthe authorities. It is a part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the publicadministration. It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrativeagencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admission offices andfiscal authorities etc. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles.•• Principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without

a law.•• Principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of nonretroactivity• Principle of proportionality, which says that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate[3]

Administrative law in Germany can be divided into general administrative law and special administrative law.

General administrative law

The general administration law is basically ruled in the Administrative Procedures Law(Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz [VwVfG]). Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts(Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscallaw (Abgabenordnung [AO]).[4]

Administrative Procedures Law

The Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz (VwVfG), which was enacted in 1977,[5] regulates the main administrativeprocedures of the federal government. It serves the purpose to ensure a treatment in accordance with the rule of lawby the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protectionagainst the authorities. The VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federalagencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the central clause is § 35 VwVfG.It defines the administrative act, the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against acitizen. The definition in § 35 [6] says, that an administration act is characterized by the following features:It is an official act[7] of an authority[8] in the field of public law[9] to resolve an individual case[10] with effect to theoutside.[11]

§§ 36 – 39, §§ 58 – 59 and § 80 VwV––fG rule the structure and the necessary elements of the administrative act. §48 and § 49 VwVfG have a high relevance in practice, as well. In these paragraphs, the prerequisites for redemptionof an unlawful administration act (§ 48 VwVfG [12]) and withdrawal of a lawful administration act (§ 49 VwVfG[13]), are listed.[14]

Administrative law 20

Other legal sources

Administration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), which was enacted in 1960, rules the courtprocedures at the administrative court. The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of thecourts,[15] action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements.[16]

In absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung [ZPO]) and thejudicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz [GVG]).[17] In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure,the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure. § 68 VwVGOrules the preliminary proceeding, called “Vorverfahren” or “Widerspruchsverfahren”,[18] which is a stringentprerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority isaimed.[19] The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, thepossibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court. The prerequisites to openthe public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO. Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict inpublic law[20] without any constitutional aspects[21] and no assignment to another jurisdiction.[22]

The social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law are less important for theadministrative law. They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, suchas social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc.

Special administrative law

The special administrative law consists of various laws. Each special sector has its own law. The most importantones are the•• Town and Country Planning Code (Baugesetzbuch [BauGB])•• Federal Control of Pollution Act (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz [BImSchG])•• Industrial Code (Gewerbeordnung [GewO])•• Police Law (Polizei- und Ordnungsrecht)• Statute Governing Restaurants (Gaststättenrecht [GastG]).[23]

In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative courtBundesverwaltungsgericht. There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law(Bundessozialgericht) and tax law (Bundesfinanzhof).

The NetherlandsIn The Netherlands, administrative law provisions are usually contained in separate laws. There is however a singleGeneral Administrative Law Act ("Algemene wet bestuursrecht" or Awb) that applies both to the making ofadministrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. On the basis of the Awb, citizens canoppose a decision ('besluit') made by a public body ('bestuursorgaan') within the administration and apply for judicialreview in courts if unsuccessful.Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regularcourts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal inadministrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in thejudicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it. This is called "bezwaar". This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of bezwaar, a different system is used called "administratief beroep" (administrative appeal). The difference with bezwaar is that administratief beroep is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. Administratief beroep is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney ("officier van

Administrative law 21

justitie"), after which the decision can be appealed in court.

Sweden

The Stenbockska Palace is the seat of theSupreme Administrative Court of Sweden.

In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considersonly administrative law cases, and is completely separate from thesystem of general courts.[24] This system has three tiers, with 12 countyadministrative courts (förvaltningsrätt) as the first tier, fouradministrative courts of appeal (kammarrätt) as the second tier, and theSupreme Administrative Court of Sweden (HögstaFörvaltningsdomstolen) as the third tier.

Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within thesystem general administrative courts. Three of the administrativecourts serve as migration courts (migrationsdomstol) with theAdministrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the MigrationCourt of Appeal (Migrationsöverdomstolen).

BrazilIn Brazil, unlike most Civil-law jurisdictions, there is no specialized court or section to deal with administrativecases. In 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of the President Fernando Henrique Cardoso,introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has beenstrongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 ofFederal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.

ChileThe President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or otherauthorities with ministerial rank. Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through publicservices the actual satisfaction of public needs. There is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against theAdministrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.

People's Republic of ChinaAdministrative law in the People's Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform erainitiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, the People's Republic of China has constructed a new legal frameworkfor administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committeesfor the Communist Party of China. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequatein terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weakjudiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption.

In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行 政 检 查 条 例) and the Administrative ReconsiderationRegulations (行 政 复 议 条 例) were passed. Both regulations have since been amended and upgraded into laws.The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国 家 公 务 员 暂 行 条 例) changed the waygovernment officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, andintroduced a rotation system. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国 家 赔 偿 法) was passed, followed by theAdministrative Penalties Law (行 政 处 罚 法) in 1996.

Administrative law 22

UkraineAs a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence, the administrative law of Ukraine ischaracterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.[25]

References[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Administrative_law& action=edit[2] http:/ / www. ams. usda. gov[3] Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht pp. 12–14[4][4] Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht p. 148[5][5] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar No. 1 and 26[6] http:/ / www. gesetze-im-internet. de/ vwvfg/ __35. html[7][7] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No.59[8][8] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No.65[9][9] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No.70[10][10] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No. 118[11][11] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz Kommentar §35 No. 124[12] http:/ / www. gesetze-im-internet. de/ vwvfg/ __48. html[13] http:/ / www. gesetze-im-internet. de/ vwvfg/ __49. html[14] Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht 161–163[15] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar pp. 1–94[16][16] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar p. 605,1517,1760,1882[17][17] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar §173 No. 1[18][18] Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht p. 211[19][19] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar §68 No.1[20][20] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar §40 No. 6[21][21] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar $40 No. 31[22][22] Kopp / Rammsauer Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung Kommentar § 40 No. 48[23][23] Oberath, öffentliches Wirtschaftsrecht[24] The Swedish courts (http:/ / www. domstol. se/ templates/ DV_InfoPage____2317. aspx), accessed on February 20, 2009[25] Administrative law of Ukraine nowadays (the beginning of the 21st century): monograph. Edited by Valentyn Galunko. – Kherson, 2010.

(http:/ / www. law-property. in. ua/ images/ books/ apuvsu. pdf)

Further reading

Library resources aboutAdministrative law

• Resources in your library (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=wp& su=Administrative+ law)• Resources in other libraries (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=wp& su=Administrative+ law& library=0CHOOSE0)

• Davis, Kenneth Culp (1975). Administrative Law and Government. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.

Build-Operate-Transfer 23

Build-Operate-TransferBuild–operate–transfer (BOT) or build–own–operate–transfer (BOOT) is a form of project financing, wherein aprivate entity receives a concession from the private or public sector to finance, design, construct, and operate afacility stated in the concession contract. This enables the project proponent to recover its investment, operating andmaintenance expenses in the project.Due to the long-term nature of the arrangement, the fees are usually raised during the concession period. The rate ofincrease is often tied to a combination of internal and external variables, allowing the proponent to reach asatisfactory internal rate of return for its investment.Examples of countries using BOT are Thailand, Turkey, Taiwan, Saudi Arabia, Israel, India, Iran, Croatia, Japan,China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, Egypt, and a few US states (California, Florida, Indiana, Texas, andVirginia). However, in some countries, such as Canada, Australia ,New Zealand and Nepal, the term used isbuild–own–operate–transfer (BOOT). Traditionally, such projects provide for the infrastructure to be transferred tothe government at the end of the concession period. In Australia, primarily for reasons related to the borrowingpowers of states, the transfer obligation may be omitted. For the Alice Springs – Darwin section of theAdelaide–Darwin railway the lease period is 50 years, see AustralAsia Rail Corporation.Forms of project finance are listed in the sections below.

BOT (build–operate–transfer)BOT finds extensive application in the infrastructure projects and in public–private partnership. In the BOTframework a third party, for example the public administration, delegates to a private sector entity to design andbuild infrastructure and to operate and maintain these facilities for a certain period. During this period the privateparty has the responsibility to raise the finance for the project and is entitled to retain all revenues generated by theproject and is the owner of the regarded facility. The facility will be then transferred to the public administration atthe end of the concession agreement, without any remuneration of the private entity involved. Some or even all ofthe following different parties could be involved in any BOT project:• The host government: Normally, the government is the initiator of the infrastructure project and decides if the

BOT model is appropriate to meet its needs. In addition, the political and economic circumstances are mainfactors for this decision. The government provides normally support for the project in some form. (provision ofthe land/ changed laws)

•• The concessionaire: The project sponsors who act as concessionaire create a special purpose entity which iscapitalised through their financial contributions.

• Lending banks: Most BOT project are funded to a big extent by commercial debt. The bank will be expected tofinance the project on “non-recourse” basis meaning that it has recourse to the special purpose entity and all itsassets for the repayment of the debt.

•• Other lenders: The special purpose entity might have other lenders such as national or regional developmentbanks

• Parties to the project contracts: Because the special purpose entity has only limited workforce, it will subcontracta third party to perform its obligations under the concession agreement. Additionally, it has to assure that it hasadequate supply contracts in place for the supply of raw materials and other resources necessary for the project

Build-Operate-Transfer 24

BOT model

A BOT Project (build operate transfer project) is typically used todevelop a discrete asset rather than a whole network and is generallyentirely new or greenfield in nature (although refurbishment may beinvolved). In a BOT Project the project company or operator generallyobtains its revenues through a fee charged to the utility/ governmentrather than tariffs charged to consumers. A number of projects arecalled concessions, such as toll road projects, which are new build andhave a number of similarities to BOTs.In general, a project is financially viable for the private entity if therevenues generated by the project cover its cost and provide sufficient return on investment. On the other hand, theviability of the project for the host government depends on its efficiency in comparison with the economics offinancing the project with public funds. Even if the host government could borrow money on better conditions than aprivate company could, other factors could offset this particular advantage. For example, the expertise and efficiencythat the private entity is expected to bring as well as the risk transfer. Therefore the private entity bears a substantialpart of the risk. These are some types of the most common risks involved:

• Political risk: especially in the developing countries because of the possibility of dramatic overnight politicalchange.

•• Technical risk: construction difficulties, for example unforeseen soil conditions, breakdown of equipment• Financing risk: foreign exchange rate risk and interest rate fluctuation, market risk (change in the price of raw

materials), income risk (over-optimistic cash-flow forecasts), cost overrun risk

BOOT (build–own–operate–transfer)A BOOT structure differs from BOT in that the private entity owns the works. During the concession period theprivate company owns and operates the facility with the prime goal to recover the costs of investment andmaintenance while trying to achieve higher margin on project. The specific characteristics of BOOT make it suitablefor infrastructure projects like highways, roads mass transit, railway transport and power generation and as such theyhave political importance for the social welfare but are not attractive for other types of private investments. BOOT &BOT are methods which find very extensive application in countries which desire ownership transfer and operationsincluding. Some advantages of BOOT projects are:•• Encourage private investment•• Inject new foreign capital to the country•• Transfer of technology and know-how•• Completing project within time frame and planned budget•• Providing additional financial source for other priority projects•• Releasing the burden on public budget for infrastructure development

BOO (build–own–operate)In a BOO project ownership of the project remains usually with the project company for example a mobile phonenetwork. Therefore the private company gets the benefits of any residual value of the project. This framework isused when the physical life of the project coincides with the concession period. A BOO scheme involves largeamounts of finance and long payback period. Some examples of BOO projects come from the water treatment plants.This facilities run by private companies process raw water, provided by the public sector entity, into filtered water,which is after returned to the public sector utility to deliver to the customers.

Build-Operate-Transfer 25

BLT (build–lease–transfer)Under BLT a private entity builds a complete project and leases it to the government. On this way the control overthe project is transferred from the project owner to a lessee. In other words the ownership remains by theshareholders but operation purposes are leased. After the expiry of the leasing the ownership of the asset and theoperational responsibility are transferred to the government at a previously agreed price. For foreign investors takinginto account the country risk BLT provides good conditions because the project company maintains the propertyrights while avoiding operational risk.

DBFO (design–build–finance–operate)Design–build–finance–operate is a project delivery method very similar to BOOT except that there is no actualownership transfer. Moreover, the contractor assumes the risk of financing till the end of the contract period. Theowner then assumes the responsibility for maintenance and operation. Some disadvantages of DCMF are thedifficulty with long term relationships and the threat of possible future political changes which may not agree withprior commitments.This model is extensively used in specific infrastructure projects such as toll roads. The privateconstruction company is responsible for the design and construction of a piece of infrastructure for the government,which is the true owner. Moreover the private entity has the responsibility to raise finance during the constructionand the exploitation period. The cash flows serve to repay the investment and reward its shareholders. They end upin form of periodical payment to the government for the use of the infrastructure. The government has the advantagethat it remains the owner of the facility and at the same time avoids direct payment from the users. Additionally, thegovernment succeeds to avoid getting into debt and to spread out the cost for the road over the years of exploitation.

DBOT (design–build–operate–transfer)[1]

DCMF (design–construct–manage–finance)Some examples for the DCMF model are the prisons or the public hospitals. A private entity is built to design,construct, manage, and finance a facility, based on the specifications of the government. Project cash flows resultfrom the government’s payment for the rent of the facility. In the case of the hospitals, the government has theownership over the facility and has the price and quality control. The same financial model could be applied on otherprojects such as prisons. Therefore this model could be interpreted as a mean to avoid new indebtedness of publicfinance.

References[1][1] Design-Build-Approacheshttp://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_worli-haji-ali-sea-link-will-be-ready-in-4-years_1402669

Civil society 26

Civil society

Part of a series on

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•• v•• t• e [1]

The term civil society has a range of meanings in contemporary usage. It is sometimes considered to include thefamily and the private sphere, and referred to as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government andbusiness.[2] Dictionary.com's 21st Century Lexicon defines civil society as 1) the aggregate of non-governmentalorganizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens or 2) individuals and organizations in asociety which are independent of the government.[3] Sometimes the term is used in the more general sense of "theelements such as freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, etc, that make up a democratic society" (CollinsEnglish Dictionary).[4]

Volunteering is often considered a defining characteristic of the organizations that constitute civil society, which inturn are often called NGOs, or NPOs. Most authorities have in mind the realm of public participation in voluntaryassociations, trade unions and the like,[5] but it is not necessary to belong to all of these to be a part of civil society.

EtymologyThe term 'civil society' goes back to Aristotle's phrase koinōnía politikḗ (κοινωνία πολιτική), occurring in hisPolitics where it refers to a ‘community’, commensurate with the Greek city-state (polis) characterized by a sharedset of norms and ethos, in which free citizens on an equal footing lived under the rule of law. The ‘telos’ or end ofcivil society, thus defined, was common wellbeing (tò eu zēn: τὸ εὖ ζῆν), in as man was defined as a ‘political(social) animal’ (zōon politikón:ζῷον πολιτικόν ).[6][7][8][9] Though the concept was mentioned in Roman writers,such as Cicero, it entered into Western political discourse following the translation of Aristotle’s works into Latin,(societas civilis) by late medieval and early Renaissance writers such as William of Moerbeke and Leonardo Bruni,where it often referred to the ancient notion of a republic (res publica). With the rise of a distinction betweenmonarchical autonomy and public law, the term then gained currency to denote the corporate estates (Ständestaat) ofa feudal elite of land-holders as opposed to the powers exercised by the prince.[10] It had a long history in statetheory, and was revived with particular force in recent times, in Eastern Europe, where dissidents such as VáclavHavel employed it to denote the sphere of civic associations threatened by the intrusive holistic state-dominatedregimes of Communist Eastern Europe.[11]

Civil society 27

DemocracyThe literature on relations between civil society and democratic political society have their roots in early classicalliberal writings like those of Alexis de Tocqueville. However they were developed in significant ways by 20thcentury theorists like Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, who identified the role of political culture in a democraticorder as vital.[12]

They argued that the political element of political organizations facilitates better awareness and a more informedcitizenry, who make better voting choices, participate in politics, and hold government more accountable as aresult.[13] The statutes of these organizations have often been considered micro-constitutions because they accustomparticipants to the formalities of democratic decision making.More recently, Robert D. Putnam has argued that even non-political organizations in civil society are vital fordemocracy. This is because they build social capital, trust and shared values, which are transferred into the politicalsphere and help to hold society together, facilitating an understanding of the interconnectedness of society andinterests within it.Others, however, have questioned how democratic civil society actually is. Some have noted that the civil societyactors have now obtained a remarkable amount of political power without anyone directly electing or appointingthem.[14] It has also been argued that civil society is biased towards the global north.[15] Partha Chatterjee has arguedthat, in most of the world, "civil society is demographically limited."[16] For Jai Sen civil society is a neo-colonialproject driven by global elites in their own interests.[17] Finally, other scholars have argued that, since the concept ofcivil society is closely related to democracy and representation, it should in turn be linked with ideas of nationalityand nationalism.[18] Latest analyses show that civil society is a neoliberal ideology legitimizing antidemocratic attackof economic elites on institutions of the welfare state through development of third sector as its substitute.[19]

Constitutional economicsConstitutional economics is a field of economics and constitutionalism which describes and analyzes the specificinterrelationships between constitutional issues and functioning of the economy including budget process. The term“constitutional economics” was used by American economist – James M. Buchanan – as a name for a new academicsub-discipline that in 1986 brought him the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his “development of thecontractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making.” Buchanan rejects“any organic conception of the state as superior in wisdom, to the individuals who are its members.” Buchananbelieves that a constitution, intended for use by at least several generations of citizens, must be able to adjust itselffor pragmatic economic decisions and to balance interests of the state and society against those of individuals andtheir constitutional rights to personal freedom and private happiness.[20] The standards of constitutional economicswhen used during annual budget planning, as well as the latter's transparency to the civil society, are of the primaryguiding importance to the implementation of the rule of law. Also, the availability of an effective court system, to beused by the civil society in situations of unfair government spending and executive impoundment of any previouslyauthorized appropriations, becomes a key element for the success of any influential civil society.[21]

GlobalizationCritics and activists currently often apply the term civil society to the domain of social life which needs to be protected against globalization, and to the sources of resistance thereto, because it is seen as acting beyond boundaries and across different territories.[22] However, as civil society can, under many definitions, include and be funded and directed by those businesses and institutions (especially donors linked to European and Northern states) who support globalization, this is a contested use.[23] Rapid development of civil society on the global scale after the fall of the communist system was a part of neo-liberal strategies linked to the Washington Consensus. Some studies have also been published, which deal with unresolved issues regarding the use of the term in connection with the

Civil society 28

impact and conceptual power of the international aid system (see for example Tvedt 1998). On the other hand, otherssee globalization as a social phenomenon expanding the sphere of classical liberal values, which inevitably led to alarger role for civil society at the expense of politically derived state institutions.The integrated Civil Society Organizations (iCSO) System [24], developed by the Department of Economic andSocial Affairs (DESA), facilitates interactions between civil society organizations and DESA. Civil Societydelegates turn in their United Nations badges and walk out of Rio+20 Summit [25]

HistoryFrom a historical perspective, the actual meaning of the concept of civil society has changed twice from its original,classical form. The first change occurred after the French Revolution, the second during the fall of communism inEurope.

Western AntiquityThe concept of civil society in its pre-modern classical republican understanding is usually connected to theearly-modern thought of Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century. However, it has much older history in the realmof political thought. Generally, civil society has been referred to as a political association governing social conflictthrough the imposition of rules that restrain citizens from harming one another.[26] In the classical period, theconcept was used as a synonym for the good society, and seen as indistinguishable from the state. For instance,Socrates taught that conflicts within society should be resolved through public argument using ‘dialectic’, a form ofrational dialogue to uncover truth. According to Socrates, public argument through ‘dialectic’ was imperative toensure ‘civility’ in the polis and ‘good life’ of the people.[27] For Plato, the ideal state was a just society in whichpeople dedicate themselves to the common good, practice civic virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation and justice,and perform the occupational role to which they were best suited. It was the duty of the ‘Philosopher king’ to lookafter people in civility. Aristotle thought the polis was an ‘association of associations’ that enables citizens to share inthe virtuous task of ruling and being ruled. His koinonia politike as political community.The concept of societas civilis is Roman and was introduced by Cicero. The political discourse in the classicalperiod, places importance on the idea of a ‘good society’ in ensuring peace and order among the people. Thephilosophers in the classical period did not make any distinction between the state and society. Rather they held thatthe state represented the civil form of society and ‘civility’ represented the requirement of good citizenship.Moreover, they held that human beings are inherently rational so that they can collectively shape the nature of thesociety they belong to. In addition, human beings have the capacity to voluntarily gather for the common cause andmaintain peace in society. By holding this view, we can say that classical political thinkers endorsed the genesis ofcivil society in its original sense.The Middle Ages saw major changes in the topics discussed by political philosophers. Due to the unique politicalarrangements of feudalism, the concept of classical civil society practically disappeared from mainstream discussion.Instead conversation was dominated by problems of just war, a preoccupation that would last until the end ofRenaissance.

Pre-modern historyThe Thirty Years' War and the subsequent Treaty of Westphalia heralded the birth of the sovereign states system.The Treaty endorsed states as territorially-based political units having sovereignty. As a result, the monarchs wereable to exert domestic control by emasculating the feudal lords and to stop relying on the latter for armed troops.[28]

Henceforth, monarchs could form national armies and deploy a professional bureaucracy and fiscal departments,which enabled them to maintain direct control and supreme authority over their subjects. In order to meetadministrative expenditures, monarchs controlled the economy. This gave birth to absolutism.[29] Until themid-eighteenth century, absolutism was the hallmark of Europe.

Civil society 29

The absolutist concept of the state was disputed in the Enlightenment period.[30] As a natural consequence ofRenaissance, Humanism, and the scientific revolution, the Enlightenment thinkers raised fundamental questions suchas “What legitimacy does heredity confer?”, “Why are governments instituted?”, “Why should some human beingshave more basic rights than others?”, and so on. These questions led them to make certain assumptions about thenature of the human mind, the sources of political and moral authority, the reasons behind absolutism, and how tomove beyond absolutism. The Enlightenment thinkers believed in the inherent goodness of the human mind. Theyopposed the alliance between the state and the Church as the enemy of human progress and well-being because thecoercive apparatus of the state curbed individual liberty and the Church legitimated monarchs by positing the theoryof divine origin. Therefore, both were deemed to be against the will of the people.Strongly influenced by the atrocities of Thirty Years' War, the political philosophers of the time held that socialrelations should be ordered in a different way from natural law conditions. Some of their attempts led to theemergence of social contract theory that contested social relations existing in accordance with human nature. Theyheld that human nature can be understood by analyzing objective realities and natural law conditions. Thus theyendorsed that the nature of human beings should be encompassed by the contours of state and established positivelaws. Thomas Hobbes underlined the need of a powerful state to maintain civility in society. For Hobbes, humanbeings are motivated by self-interests (Graham 1997:23). Moreover, these self-interests are often contradictory innature. Therefore, in state of nature, there was a condition of a war of all against all. In such a situation, life was“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” (Ibid: 25). Upon realizing the danger of anarchy, human beings becameaware of the need of a mechanism to protect them. As far as Hobbes was concerned, rationality and self-interestspersuaded human beings to combine in agreement, to surrender sovereignty to a common power (Kaviraj 2001:289).Hobbes called this common power, state, Leviathan.John Locke had a similar concept to Hobbes about the political condition in England. It was the period of theGlorious Revolution, marked by the struggle between the divine right of the Crown and the political rights ofParliament. This influenced Locke to forge a social contract theory of a limited state and a powerful society. InLocke’s view, human beings led also an unpeaceful life in the state of nature. However, it could be maintained at thesub-optimal level in the absence of a sufficient system (Brown 2001:73). From that major concern, people gatheredtogether to sign a contract and constituted a common public authority. Nevertheless, Locke held that theconsolidation of political power can be turned into autocracy, if it is not brought under reliable restrictions (Kaviraj2001:291). Therefore, Locke set forth two treaties on government with reciprocal obligations. In the first treaty,people submit themselves to the common public authority. This authority has the power to enact and maintain laws.The second treaty contains the limitations of authority, i. e., the state has no power to threaten the basic rights ofhuman beings. As far as Locke was concerned, the basic rights of human beings are the preservation of life, libertyand property. Moreover, he held that the state must operate within the bounds of civil and natural laws.Both Hobbes and Locke had set forth a system, in which peaceful coexistence among human beings could beensured through social pacts or contracts. They considered civil society as a community that maintained civil life, therealm where civic virtues and rights were derived from natural laws. However, they did not hold that civil societywas a separate realm from the state. Rather, they underlined the co-existence of the state and civil society. Thesystematic approaches of Hobbes and Locke (in their analysis of social relations) were largely influenced by theexperiences in their period. Their attempts to explain human nature, natural laws, the social contract and theformation of government had challenged the divine right theory. In contrast to divine right, Hobbes and Lockeclaimed that humans can design their political order. This idea had a great impact on the thinkers in theEnlightenment period.The Enlightenment thinkers argued that human beings are rational and can shape their destiny. Hence, no need of an absolute authority to control them. Both Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a critic of civil society, and Immanuel Kant argued that people are peace lovers and that wars are the creation of absolute regimes (Burchill 2001:33). As far as Kant was concerned, this system was effective to guard against the domination of a single interest and check the tyranny of the

Civil society 30

majority (Alagappa 2004:30).

Modern historyG.W.F. Hegel completely changed the meaning of civil society, giving rise to a modern liberal understanding of it asa form of market society as opposed to institutions of modern nation state. Unlike his predecessors, the leadingthinker of the Romanticism movement considered civil society as a separate realm, a "system of needs", that is the,“[stage of] difference which intervenes between the family and the state.”[31] Civil society is the realm of economicrelationships as it exists in the modern industrial capitalist society,[32] for it had emerged at the particular period ofcapitalism and served its interests: individual rights and private property.[33] Hence, he used the German term"bürgerliche Gesellschaft" to denote civil society as "civilian society" – a sphere regulated by the civil code. Thisnew way of thinking about civil society was followed by Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx as well. For Hegel,civil society manifested contradictory forces. Being the realm of capitalist interests, there is a possibility of conflictsand inequalities within it (ex: mental and physical aptitude, talents and financial circumstances). He argued that theseinequalities influence the choices that members are able to make in relation to the type of work they will do. Thediverse positions in Civil Society fall into three estates: the substantial estate (agriculture), the formal estate (tradeand industry), and the universal estate (civil society).[34] A man is able to choose his estate, though his choice islimited by the aforementioned inequalities. However, Hegel argues that these inequalities enable all estates in CivilSociety to be filled, which leads to a more efficient system on the whole.Karl Marx followed Hegelian way of using concept of civil society. For Marx, civil society was the ‘base’ whereproductive forces and social relations were taking place, whereas political society was the 'superstructure'. Agreeingwith the link between capitalism and civil society, Marx held that the latter represents the interests of thebourgeoisie.[35] Therefore, the state as superstructure also represents the interests of the dominant class; undercapitalism, it maintains the domination of the bourgeoisie. Hence, Marx rejected the positive role of state put forthby Hegel. Marx argued that the state cannot be a neutral problem solver. Rather, he depicted the state as the defenderof the interests of the bourgeoisie. He considered the state to be the executive arm of the bourgeoisie, which wouldwither away once the working class took democratic control of society.[36]

The above view about civil society was criticized by Antonio Gramsci (Edwards 2004:10). Departing somehow fromMarx, Gramsci did not consider civil society as coterminous with the socio-economic base of the state. Rather,Gramsci located civil society in the political superstructure. He viewed civil society as the vehicle for bourgeoishegemony, when it just represents a particular class. He underlined the crucial role of civil society as the contributorof the cultural and ideological capital required for the survival of the hegemony of capitalism.[37] Rather than posingit as a problem, as in earlier Marxist conceptions, Gramsci viewed civil society as the site for problem-solving.Misunderstanding Gramsci, the New Left assigned civil society a key role in defending people against the state andthe market and in asserting the democratic will to influence the state.[38] At the same time, Neo-liberal thinkersconsider civil society as a site for struggle to subvert Communist and authoritarian regimes.[39] Thus, the term civilsociety occupies an important place in the political discourses of the New Left and Neo-liberals.

Post-modern historyIt is commonly believed that the post-modern way of understanding civil society was first developed by politicalopposition in the former Soviet bloc East European countries in the 1980s. However, research shows that communistpropaganda had the most important influence on the development and popularization of the idea instead, in an effortto legitimize neoliberal transformation in 1989. According to theory of restructurization of welfare systems, a newway of using the concept of civil society became a neoliberal ideology legitimizing development of the third sectoras a substitute for the welfare state. The recent development of the third sector is a result of this welfare systemsrestructuring, rather than of democratization.

Civil society 31

From that time stems a practice within the political field of using the idea of civil society instead of political society.Henceforth, postmodern usage of the idea of civil society became divided into two main : as political society and asthe third sector – apart from plethora of definitions. The Washington Consensus of the 1990s, which involvedconditioned loans by the World Bank and IMF to debt-laden developing states, also created pressures for states inpoorer countries to shrink. This in turn led to practical changes for civil society that went on to influence thetheoretical debate. Initially the new conditionality led to an even greater emphasis on “civil society” as a panacea,replacing the state's service provision and social care,[] Hulme and Edwards suggested that it was now seen as “themagic bullet.”By the end of the 1990s civil society was seen less as a panacea amid the growth of the anti-globalization movementand the transition of many countries to democracy; instead, civil society was increasingly called on to justify itslegitimacy and democratic credentials. This led to the creation by the UN of a high level panel on civil society.[40]

However, in the 1990s with the emergence of the nongovernmental organizations and the new social movements(NSMs) on a global scale, civil society as a third sector became treated as a key terrain of strategic action toconstruct ‘an alternative social and world order.’ Post-modern civil society theory has now largely returned to a moreneutral stance, but with marked differences between the study of the phenomena in richer societies and writing oncivil society in developing states.

Link to the public sphereJürgen Habermas said that the public sphere encourages rational will-formation; it is a sphere of rational anddemocratic social interaction.[41] Habermas argues that even though society was representative of capitalist society,there are some institutions that were part of political society. Transformations in economy brought transformations tothe public sphere. Though these transformations happen, a civil society develops when it emerges as non-economicand has a populous aspect, and when the state is not represented by just one political party. There needs to be a locusof authority, and this is where society can begin to challenge authority. Jillian Schwedler points out that civil societyemerges with the resurrection of the public sphere when individuals and groups begin to challenge boundaries ofpermissible behaviour — for example, by speaking out against the regime or demanding a government response tosocial needs — civil society begins to take shape.[42]

Enemies of Civil SocietyJohn A. Hall lists 5 distinct enemies of civil society:•• Despotism: this is this idea of fear which discourages any type of group that's formed between society and

government.•• Revival of the tradition of republican civic virtues: these are qualities that hold a moral value or moral principle

and amount to dispositions to obey.•• Specific forms of nationalism: this would be where the rule of majority wins, and assimilation is used in order to

form an ideal society.•• Totalizing ideologies• Essentialist cultural ideals: these would be social cages of individuals that determine the function and value of

that person in society.[43]

Civil society 32

Institutions•• academia•• activist groups•• charities• citizens' militia•• civic groups•• clubs (sports, social, etc.)• community foundations•• community organizations•• consumers/consumer organizations• cooperatives• churches•• cultural groups• environmental groups•• foundations•• intermediary organizations for the voluntary and non-profit sector•• men's groups• non-governmental organizations (NGOs)• non-profit organizations (NPOs)•• policy institutions•• political parties•• private voluntary organizations (PVOs)•• professional associations•• religious organizations• social enterprises•• support groups• trade unions• voluntary associations•• women's groups

Notes[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Politics_sidebar& action=edit[2] What is Civil Society (http:/ / www. civilsoc. org/ whatisCS. htm) civilsoc.org[3] http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ civil+ society?r=66[4] Civil society Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved 2nd August 2012 from CollinsDictionary.com

website: http:/ / www. collinsdictionary. com/ dictionary/ english/ civil-society[5][5] Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, 1994:55-56[6] Aristotle, Politics, Bk.1 passim, esp. 1252a1-6[7] Jean L. Cohen,Civil Society and Political Theory, MIT Press, 1994 pp.84-85.[8] Bruno Blumenfeld The Political Paul: Democracy and Kingship in Paul's Thought, Sheffield Academic Press, 2001 pp.45-83[9] Michael Davis,The Politics of Philosophy: A Commentary on Aristotle's Politics, Rowman & Littlefield 1996 pp.15-32[10] Jean L. Cohen,Civil Society and Political Theory, MIT Press, 1994 p.86.[11] Frederick W. Powell,The Politics of Civil Society: Neoliberalism Or Social Left?, Policy Press, 2007 pp.119-120,pp.148-149.[12] Almond, G., & Verba, S.; 'The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes And Democracy In Five Nations; 1989; Sage[13][13] 'ibid'[14] Agnew, John; 2002; 'Democracy and Human Rights' in Johnston, R.J., Taylor, Peter J. and Watts, Michael J. (eds); 2002; Geographies of

Global Change; Blackwell[15] (http:/ / ccs. ukzn. ac. za/ default. asp?3,28,11,1994) Pithouse, Richard (2005) Report Back from the Third World Network Meeting Accra,

2005. Centre for Civil Society : 1-6.[16][16] The Politics of the Governed: Popular Politics in Most of the World, 2004

Civil society 33

[17] Paper: Interrogating the Civil. Engaging Critically with the Reality and Concept of Civil Society (http:/ / p2pfoundation. net/Engaging_Critically_with_the_Reality_and_Concept_of_Civil_Society), 2010

[18] Pollock, Graham.'Civil Society Theory and Euro-Nationalism' , Studies In Social & Political Thought, Issue 4, March 2001, pp. 31–56[19] Pawel Stefan Zaleski, Neoliberalizm i spoleczenstwo obywatelskie (Neoliberalism and Civil Society), Wydawnictwo UMK, Torun 2012[20] Buchanan Entry at Nobel site (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ economics/ laureates/ 1986/ buchanan. html)[21] Peter Barenboim, Natalya Merkulova. " The 25th Anniversary of Constitutional Economics: The Russian Model and Legal Reform in

Russia, in The World Rule of Law Movement and Russian Legal Reform (http:/ / philosophicalclub. ru/ content/ docs/ worldruleoflaw. pdf)",edited by Francis Neate and Holly Nielsen, Justitsinform, Moscow (2007).

[22][22] Mann, Michael; 1984; The Autonomous Power of The State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results; European Journal of Sociology 25:pp185-213

[23] United Nations: Partners in Civil Society (http:/ / www. un. org/ partners/ civil_society/ home. htm)[24] http:/ / esango. un. org/ civilsociety/ login. do[25] http:/ / vimeo. com/ 44625148[26][26] Edwards 2004. p 6.[27][27] O'Connell 1999[28][28] Brown 2001:70[29] Knutsen 1997:80–118[30][30] Chandhoke 1995:88[31][31] Hegel, G. F. W. Philosophy Of Right, edited by Allen W. Wood (Cambridge University Press, 1991) §184[32] Stillman, Peter G. Hegel’s Civil Society: A Locus of Freedom, appearing in Polity, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Summer 1980) pp. 622 – 646. p. 623[33][33] Dhanagare 2001:169[34][34] Hegel, G. F. W. Philosophy Of Right, edited by Allen W. Wood (Cambridge University Press, 1991) §202[35][35] Edwards 2004:10[36] See Lenin, 2010, for a summary of Marx's thought on the State and an introduction to Marxist thought on the state up until 1917. For a

detailed discussion of Marx's thought on the state and civil society see Draper, 1977 & 1986 (Volumes 1 and 2)[37][37] Ehrenberg 1999:208[38][38] Ibid:30[39][39] Ibid: 33[40] http:/ / www. un. org/ reform/ civilsociety/ bios. shtml[41] Habermas, J. (1974). The public sphere: an encyclopaedia article. New German Critique, 3, 49-55.[42][42] Schwedler, 1995:5[43][43] Hall, J. (1995). Civil society: Theory, history, comparison . Polity

References• Alagappa, Muthiah. Civil Society and Political Change in Asia. Stanford: Standford University Press, 2004. ISBN

0-8047-5097-1• Edwards, Michael. Civil Society. Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7456-3133-9.• Draper, Hal Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (Volume 1: State and Bureaucracy, Volume 2: The Politics of

Social Classes). New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977 & 1986.• Gosewinkel, Dieter: Civil Society (http:/ / nbn-resolving. de/ urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025280), European History

Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: August 24, 2011.• Hemmati, Minu. Dodds, Felix. Enayati, Jasmin. and McHarry,Jan downloadable copy of Multistakeholder

Processes for Governance and Sustainability:Beyond Deadlock and Conflict (http:/ / www. earthsummit2002.org/ msp/ book. html)

• O'Connell,Brian.Civil Society: The Underpinnings of American Democracy.Medford, Mass:Tufts UniversityPress, 1999. ISBN 0-87451-924-1.

• Perlas, Nicolas, Shaping Globalization – Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding. ISBN 0-9583885-8-X .• Pollock, Graham. Civil Society Theory and Euro-Nationalism (http:/ / www. sussex. ac. uk/ cspt/ documents/

issue4-3. pdf), Studies In Social & Political Thought, Issue 4, March 2001, pp. 31–56• Tvedt, Terje. Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats. NGOs & Foreign Aid. Oxford: James Currey, 1998.• Whaites, Alan, Let's get civil society straight: NGOs and Political Theory, Development in Practice, 1996, (http:/

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Civil society 34

• Whaites, Alan, NGOs, Civil Society and the State: Avoiding theoretical extremes in real world issues,'Development in Practice 1998 (http:/ / publications. oxfam. org. uk/ oxfam/ display. asp?K=002J0270&sf_20=oxfam_archive_flag& st_20=NOT+ Y& sf_01=CTITLE& st_01=NGOs,+ civil+ society+ and+ state&sort=SORT_DATE/ D& x=0& y=0& m=3& dc=3)Wikipedia:Link rot

• Zaleski, Pawel Stefan, Tocqueville on Civilian Society: A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of SocialReality, Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte Bd. 50/2008

External links• LSE Centre for Civil Society (http:/ / www. lse. ac. uk/ collections/ CCS/ )• UN and Civil Society (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ civilsociety/ index. shtml)• UNEP Global Civil Society Forum (http:/ / www. unep. org/ civil_society/ gcsf/ ).• EU relations with Civil Society (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ civil_society/ index. htm)• UK DFID relations with Civil Society (http:/ / www. dfid. gov. uk/ aboutdfid/ dfidwork/ civilsociety. asp)• Civicus – Worldwide Alliance for Citizen Participation (http:/ / www. civicus. org)• Global civil society (PCDF) (http:/ / www. pcdf. org/ civilsociety/ default. htm).• One World Trust Database of Civil Society Self-regulatory Initiatives (http:/ / www. oneworldtrust. org/

csoproject)• Wiser.org – World Index for Social and Environmental Responsibility (http:/ / www. wiser. org/ ) – formerly

www.civilsociety.org.• Stakeholder Forum for a Sustainable Future engagement in UN stakeholder relations (http:/ / www.

stakeholderforum. org/ 1index. php)• International Society for Third-Sector Research (http:/ / www. istr. org)• Requier-Desjardins Mélanie & Bied-Charreton Marc, 2007. Science and civil society in the fight against

desertification. Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD. Issue 6. 40 pp. (http:/ / www. csf-desertification. eu/ dossier/item/ science-and-civil-society-in-the-fight-against-desertification)

• 100 years of trends in international civil society by the Union of International Associations (http:/ / www. uia. be/node/ 164111)

• Interface journal special issue (http:/ / interfacejournal. nuim. ie/ ?p=1127) on civil society and social movements

Regulatory economics 35

Regulatory economicsRegulatory economics is the economics of regulation, in the sense of the application of law by government forvarious purposes, such as centrally-planning an economy, remedying market failure, enriching well-connected firms,or benefiting politicians (see capture). It is not considered to include voluntary regulation that may be accomplishedin the private sphere.Countering, overriding, or bypassing regulation is Regulatory Capture where a regulatory agency created to act inthe public interest, instead advances the commercial or special concerns of interest groups that dominate the industrythat the agency is charged with regulating. The probability of regulatory capture is economically biased, in thatvested interests in an industry have the greatest financial stake in regulatory activity and are more likely to bemotivated to influence the regulatory body than dispersed individual consumers, each of whom has little particularincentive to try to influence regulators. Thus the likelihood of regulatory capture is a risk to which an agency isexposed by its very nature.[1]

RegulationPublic services can encounter conflict between commercial procedures (e.g. maximizing profit), and the interests ofthe people using these services (see market failure), as well as the interests of those not directly involved intransactions (externalities). Most governments therefore have some form of control or regulation to manage thesepossible conflicts. This regulation ensures that a safe and appropriate service is delivered, while not discouraging theeffective functioning and development of businesses.For example, the sale and consumption of alcohol and prescription drugs are controlled by regulation in mostcountries, as are the food business, provision of personal or residential care, public transport, construction, film andTV, etc. Monopolies are often regulated, especially those that are difficult to abolish (natural monopoly). Thefinancial sector is also highly regulated.Regulation can have several elements:•• Public statutes, standards or statements of expectations.•• A process of registration or licensing to approve and to permit the operation of a service, usually by a named

organisation or person.•• A process of inspection or other form of ensuring standard compliance, including reporting and management of

non-compliance with these standards: where there is continued non-compliance, then:•• A process of de-licensing whereby that organisation or person is judged to be operating unsafely, and is ordered

to stop operating or suffer the penalty of acting unlawfully.This differs from regulation in any voluntary sphere of activity, but can be compared with it in some respects. Forexample, when a broker purchases a seat on the New York Stock Exchange, there are explicit rules of conduct thebroker must conform to as contractual and agreed-upon conditions that govern participation. The coerciveregulations of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, for example, are imposed without regard for anyindividual's consent or dissent as to that particular trade. However, in a democracy, there is still collective agreementon the constraint—the body politic as a whole agrees, through its representatives, and imposes the agreement on thesubset of entities participating in the regulated activity.Other examples of voluntary compliance in structured settings include the activities of Major League Baseball, FIFA(the international governing body for professional soccer), and the Royal Yachting Association (the UK's recognizednational association for sailing). Regulation in this sense approaches the ideal of an accepted standard of ethics for agiven activity, to promote the best interests of the people participating as well as the acceptable continuation of theactivity itself within specified limits.

Regulatory economics 36

In America, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the government engaged in substantial regulation of theeconomy. In the 18th century, the production and distribution of goods were regulated by British governmentministries over the American Colonies (see mercantilism). Subsidies were granted to agriculture and tariffs wereimposed, sparking the American Revolution. The United States government maintained a high tariff throughout the19th century and into the 20th century until the Reciprocal Trade Agreement was passed in 1934 under the FranklinD. Roosevelt administration. However, regulation and deregulation came in waves, with the deregulation of bigbusiness in the Gilded Age leading to President Theodore Roosevelt's trust busting from 1901 to 1909, andderegulation and Laissez-Faire economics once again in the roaring 1920's leading to the Great Depression andintense governmental regulation and Keynesian economics under Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal plan. PresidentRonald Reagan deregulated business in the 1980s with his Reaganomics plan.In 1946, the U.S. Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA), which formalized means of assuringthe regularity of government administrative activity, and its conformance with authorizing legislation. The APAestablished uniform procedures for a federal agency's promulgation of regulations, and adjudication of claims. TheAPA also sets forth the process for judicial review of agency action.

Theories of regulationThe development and techniques of regulations have long been the subject of academic research, particularly in theutilities sector. Two basic schools of thought have emerged on regulatory policy, namely, positive theories ofregulation and normative theories of regulation.Positive theories of regulation examine why regulation occurs. These theories of regulation include theories ofmarket power, interest group theories that describe stakeholders' interests in regulation, and theories of governmentopportunism that describe why restrictions on government discretion may be necessary for the sector to provideefficient services for customers. In general, the conclusions of these theories are that regulation occurs because:1.1. the government is interested in overcoming information asymmetries with the operator and in aligning the

operator's interest with the government's interest,2.2. customers desire protection from market power when competition is non-existent or ineffective,3.3. operators desire protection from rivals, or4.4. operators desire protection from government opportunism.Normative economic theories of regulation generally conclude that regulators should1.1. encourage competition where feasible,2.2. minimize the costs of information asymmetries by obtaining information and providing operators with incentives

to improve their performance,3.3. provide for price structures that improve economic efficiency, and4.4. establish regulatory processes that provide for regulation under the law and independence, transparency,

predictability, legitimacy, and credibility for the regulatory system.Alternatively, many heterodox economists working outside the neoclassical tradition, such as in institutionalisteconomics, economic sociology and economic geography, as well as many legal scholars (especially of the legalrealism and critical legal studies approaches) stress that market regulation is important for safeguarding againstmonopoly formation, the overall stability of markets, environmental harm, and to ensure a variety of socialprotections. These draw on a diverse range of sociologists of markets, including Max Weber, Karl Polanyi, NeilFligstein, and Karl Marx as well as the learnt history of government institutions involved in regulatory processes.Principal-agent theory addresses issues of information asymmetry, which in the context of utility regulation, generally means that the operator knows more about its abilities and effort and about the utility market than does the regulator. In this literature, the government is the principal and the operator is the agent, whether the operator is government owned or privately owned. Principle-agent theory is applied in incentive regulation and multipart

Regulatory economics 37

tariffs.[2]

Regulation as red tapeThe World Bank's Doing Business database [3] collects data from 178 countries on the costs of regulation in certainareas, such as starting a business, employing workers, getting credit, and paying taxes. For example, it takes anaverage of 19 working days to start a business in the OECD, compared to 60 in Sub-Saharan Africa; the cost as apercentage of GNP (not including bribes) is 8% in the OECD, and 225% in Africa.The Doing Business project has informed or inspired 120 reforms around the world. It is the World Bank'stop-selling publication and accounts for half of all the media coverage of the World Bank Group.The Worldwide Governance Indicators project at the World Bank recognizes that regulations have a significantimpact in the quality of governance of a country. The Regulatory Quality of a country, defined as "the ability of thegovernment to formulate and implement sound policies and regulations that permit and promote private sectordevelopment" is one of the six dimensions of governance that the Worldwide Governance Indicators measure formore than 200 countries.

DeregulationDuring the late 1970s and 1980s, some forms of regulation were seen as imposing unnecessary 'red tape' and otherrestrictions on businesses. In particular, government support of cartel activity was seen as diminishing economicefficiency. Regulatory agencies were often seen as having been captured by the regulated industries, as a means ofdiminishing competition between industry participants, and so not serving the public interest. As a result, there hasbeen a movement towards deregulation in a number of industries. These include transportation, communications, andsome financial services.One example is the international monetary system: it is now much easier to transfer capital between countries. As aresult, the globalisation of markets has increased.An accompaniment of deregulation has been 'privatisation' of industries that previously had been under governmentcontrol. The hope was that market forces would make these industries more efficient. This program was widelypursued in Britain throughout the later years of the last century. Critics argue that although this has increased choicein services, their standards have declined and wages and employment have been reduced.Some, particularly libertarians, feel there has been little progress in deregulation during recent decades, and controlson small businesses, for example, are greater than ever. They feel deregulation is an aspirational, rather than a real,intention.Others support re-regulation on the basis that deregulation has gone too far and given too much power tocorporations and special interests at the expense of the power of the people's elected representatives.Many criticize the influence of Intellectual Property Rights and other sorts of national regulations on the internet andIT business (software patents, DRM, trusted computing).

Controversy

ProponentsThe regulation of markets is widely acknowledged Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch#Unsupported attributionsas important to safeguard social and environmental values[citation needed] and has been the mainstay of industrialized capitalist economic governance through the twentieth century[citation needed]. Karl Polanyi refers to this process as the 'embedding' of markets in society. Further, contemporary economic sociologists such as Neil Fligstein (in his 2001 Architecture of Markets) argue that markets depend on state regulation for their stability, resulting in a

Regulatory economics 38

long term co-evolution of the state and markets in capitalist societies in the last two hundred years.

OpponentsThere are various schools of economics that push for restrictions and limitations on governmental role in economicmarkets. Economists who advocated these policies do not necessarily share principles, such as Nobel prize-winningeconomists Milton Friedman (Monetarism school), George Stigler (Chicago School of Economics / Neo-ClassicalEconomics), Richard Posner (Chicago School / Pragmatism), and Friedrich Hayek (Austrian School of Economics),have sought substantially to limit economic regulation. Generally, these schools attest that government needs to limitits involvement in economic sectors and focus instead on protecting negative individual rights (life, liberty, andproperty). These schools would assure economic rights equally, rather than diminish individual autonomy andresponsibility for the sake of remedying any sort of putative "market failure." They tend to regard the notion ofmarket failure as a misguided contrivance wrongly used to justify coercive government actions. Wikipedia:Neutralpoint of viewTalk:Regulatory economics#These economists believe that government intervention creates more problems than it is supposed to solve—aswell-meaning as some of these interventions may be—chiefly because government officers are incapable of accurateeconomic calculation, lacking any reliable ability (or true incentive) to gather, integrate, or honestly evaluate the vastamounts of information that guide the "Invisible Hand" of a free market.The Austrian School economists, beginning with Ludwig von Mises, see regulations as problematic not only becausethey disrupt market processes, but also because they tend only to bring about more regulations. According toAustrian theory, every regulation has some consequences besides those originally intended when the regulation wasimplemented. If the unintended consequence are undesirable to those with the power to regulate, there exist twoalternative possibilities: do away with the existing regulation, or keep the existing regulation and institute a new oneas well to treat the unintended consequence of the old one. In practice, regulators very seldom even consider that theproblems they detect may actually be the consequence of prior regulation, so the second option is preferred far moreoften than the first. The new regulation, however, has unintended consequences of its own that bring about this cycleanew. If unchecked, the result over time is regulation so extensive as to amount to a state-run economy.Laissez-faire advocates do not oppose monopolies unless they maintain their existence through coercion to preventcompetition (see coercive monopoly), and often assert that monopolies have historically developed only because ofgovernment intervention rather than a lack thereof. Specifically, every regulation has some associated cost ofcompliance. If these costs increase the total cost of operation enough to block new entry into a market but allowexisting firms to continue to generate a profit, the regulation effectively cartellizes or monopolizes the industry.When existing firms are able to lobby for regulation, this effectively becomes an opportunity to do away withcompetitors.Some economists argue that minimum wage laws cause unnecessary unemployment, for the same reason that aminimum price on anything will decrease the quantity of it that people purchase. If a minimum wage law is passedthat makes it illegal to pay less than M per hour, employers will continue to keep on payroll only those workerswhose hourly work brings in more than M in revenues. Consequently, those workers who are least productive, andare therefore likely to be paid the least without a minimum wage, are also the ones most likely to becomeunemployed after a minimum wage is implemented.Another argument against regulation is that laws against insider trading reduce market efficiency and transparency. If a firm is "cooking the books," insiders, without restraint on insider trading, will take short positions and lower the share price to a level that aggregates both insider and outsider knowledge. If insiders are restrained from using their knowledge to make transactions, the share price will not reflect their insider information. If outsider investors (those whom such laws are supposed to protect) buy shares, their purchase price won't reflect the insider knowledge and will be high by comparison to the price after the insider information becomes public. Outsiders wind up taking an avoidable loss. If insiders were allowed to trade freely, the price would never get as high to begin with, and outsiders

Regulatory economics 39

would lose less money.Another position held by most economists is that government-enforced price-ceilings cause shortages. If the public iswilling to buy Q units of some good at price P, and the sellers of that good are willing to sell Q units at P, then in theabsence of regulation, the market for that good will clear. That is, everyone who wants to buy or sell at price P willbe able to do so. If a regulation imposes a price ceiling below P, sellers will be willing to sell some lesser quantity, Q- a, and buyers will be willing to buy some greater quantity, Q + b, at the new price. In addition to a shortage of a + bunits, there is also the matter of deciding who should get the units offered, since at the regulation price, demand willexceed supply. Such situations typically generate ways to avoid the effects of the market imbalance and clear themarket, such as 'black markets'.

References[1] Gary Adams, Sharon Hayes, Stuart Weierter and John Boyd, "Regulatory Capture: Managing the Risk" (http:/ / www. iceaustralia. com/

apsacc2011/ pdf/ papers07/ day1_24oct07/ StreamA2/ RegulatoryCaptureManagingTheRisks_JohnBoyd. pdf) ICE Australia, InternationalConferences and Events (PDF) (October 24, 2007). Retrieved April 14, 2011

[2] Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure regulation (http:/ / www. regulationbodyofknowledge. org/ general-concepts/ theories-of-regulation/ )Theories of Regulation.

[3] http:/ / www. doingbusiness. org/

• Journal of Regulatory Economics (1989 - ) (http:/ / crri. rutgers. edu/ jre/ )

External links• World Bank "Doing Business project" (http:/ / www. doingbusiness. org)• Worldwide Governance Indicators (http:/ / www. govindicators. org) Worldwide ratings of country performances

on Regulatory Quality and other governance dimensions from 1996 to present.• Simeon Djankov, Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes and Andrei Shleifer (2002), "The Regulation of

Entry" (http:/ / rru. worldbank. org/ Documents/ PapersLinks/ 551. pdf), Quarterly Journal of Economics 117,Feb. 2002

• Move Over, Adam Smith: The Visible Hand of Uncle Sam (http:/ / www. sprott. com/ pdf/ pressrelease/TheVisibleHand. pdf) Report concludes that the U.S. government surreptitiously intervenes in the American stockmarket

• Pharmaceutical Price Controls in OECD Countries Implications for U.S. Consumers, Pricing, Research andDevelopment, and Innovation (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050114192429/ http:/ / www. ita. doc. gov/ td/chemicals/ drugpricingstudy. pdf) by U.S. Department of Commerce

• The Competitive Enterprise Institute has a project on Economic Regulation (http:/ / cei. org/ issues/economic-regulation)

• The Progress and Freedom Foundation (http:/ / www. pff. org/ index. html) houses the Institute for RegulatoryLaw and Economics (IRLE) (http:/ / www. pff. org/ irle/ ) in Washington, D.C.

• Lawrence A. Cunningham, A Prescription to Retire the Rhetoric of 'Principles-Based Systems' in Corporate Law,Securities Regulation and Accounting(2007) (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. cfm?abstract_id=970646)

• Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation (http:/ / www. regulationbodyofknowledge. org)

Government 40

Government

Part of the Politics series

Basic forms ofgovernment

Power structure

•• Confederation•• Federation•• Hegemony•• Empire•• Unitary state

Power source

Democracy

•• Direct democracy•• Representative democracy•• others

Monarchy

•• Absolute monarchy•• Constitutional monarchy

Oligarchy

•• Aristocracy•• Military junta•• Plutocracy•• Stratocracy•• Timocracy

Authoritarianism

•• Autocracy•• Despotism•• Dictatorship•• Totalitarianism

Other

•• Anarchy•• Anocracy•• Kritarchy•• Republic•• Theocracy

Politics portal

•• v•• t• e [1]

Government 41

Part of a series on

Politics

Politics portal

•• v•• t• e [1]

A government is the system by which a state or community is governed. In British English (and that of theCommonwealth of Nations), a government more narrowly refers to the particular executive in control of a state at agiven time—known in American English as an administration. In American English, government refers to the largersystem by which any state is organized. Furthermore, government is occasionally used in English as a synonym forgovernance.In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators, andarbitrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining thepolicy of the state. A form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political systems andinstitutions that make up the organisation of a specific government.Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways. For this reason, politicalscientists generally argue that government should not be studied by itself; but should be studied along withanthropology, economics, history, philosophy, science, and sociology.

Political science

EtymologyFrom Middle English government,[citation needed] from Old French government[citation needed] (French gouvernement),from Latin gubernatio ("management, government"). Government is a compound formed from the Ancient Greekκυβερνάω (kubernaō, "I steer, drive, guide, pilot") and the Latin -mente, ablative singular of mēns (“mind”).• arch-, prefix derived from the Greek archon, 'rulership', which means "higher in hierarchy".[2] The Greek word

κράτος krátos, 'power', which means "right to lead" is the suffix root in words like aristocrat and democracy. Itsmythological personification was the god Kratos, a son of Styx.

Government 42

Classifying governmentIn political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of politicalsystems are not obvious.[3] It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics andinternational relations.On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be easy, as all governments have an official form. TheUnited States is a federal republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. Howeverself-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky.[4] Forexample, elections are a defining characteristic of a democracy,[citation needed] but in practice elections in the formerSoviet Union were not "free and fair" and took place in a single party state. Thus in many practical classifications itwould not be considered democratic.Identifying a form of government is also complicated because a large number of political systems originate associo-economic movements and are then carried into governments by specific parties naming themselves after thosemovements; all with competing political-ideologies. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong tiesthey may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government inthemselves.Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate "distortion or bias" of reasonable technicaldefinitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era.For example: The meaning of "conservatism" in the United States has little in common with the way the word'sdefinition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo (2011) notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the worldcalls liberalism or neoliberalism.[5] Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associatedwith the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives,and they played a key role in the Conservative Coalition that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963."[6]

Every country in the world is ruled by a system of governance that combines at least 2 (or more) of the followingattributes (for example, the United States is not a true capitalist society, since the government actually providessocial services for its citizens). Additionally, one person's opinion of the type of government may differ fromanother's (for example, some may argue that the United States is a plutocracy rather than a democracy since theymay believe it is ruled by the wealthy).[7] There are always shades of gray in any government. Even the most liberaldemocracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another, and even the most tyrannical dictatorships mustorganize a broad base of support, so it is very difficult "pigeonholing" every government into narrow categoriesWikipedia:Please clarify

The dialectical forms of governmentThe Classical Greek philosopher Plato discusses five types of regimes. They are Aristocracy, Timocracy, Oligarchy,Democracy and Tyranny. Plato also assigns a man to each of these regimes to illustrate what they stand for. Thetyrannical man would represent Tyranny for example. These five regimes progressively degenerate starting withAristocracy at the top and Tyranny at the bottom.In Republic, while Plato spends much time having Socrates narrate a conversation about the city he founds withGlaucon and Adeimantus "in speech", the discussion eventually turns to considering four regimes that exist in realityand tend to degrade successively into each other: timocracy, oligarchy (also called plutocracy), democracy andtyranny (also called despotism).

Government 43

Forms of government by associated attributesDescriptions of governments can be based on the following attributes:

By elements of where decision-making power is held

Aristarchic attributes

Governments with Aristarchy attributes are traditionally controlled and organised by a small group of themost-qualified people, with no intervention from the most part of society; this small group usually shares somecommon trait. The opposite of an Aristarchic government is Kakistocracy.

Term Definition

Aristocracy Rule by elite citizens; a system of governance in which a person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. It has come to mean ruleby "the aristocracy" who are people of noble birth. An aristocracy is a government by the "best" people. A person who rules in anaristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, an aristocracywould mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.

Geniocracy Rule by the intelligent; a system of governance where creativity, innovation, intelligence and wisdom are required for those whowish to govern. See Aristocracy of the wise.

Kratocracy Rule by the strong; a system of governance where those strong enough to seize power through physical force, social maneuvering orpolitical cunning. The process can mimic darwinian selection.

Meritocracy Rule by the meritorious; a system of governance where groups are selected on the basis of people's ability, knowledge in a givenarea, and contributions to society.

Timocracy Rule by honor; a system of governance ruled by honorable citizens and property owners. Socrates defines a timocracy as agovernment ruled by people who love honor and are selected according to the degree of honor they hold in society. This form oftimocracy is very similar to meritocracy, in the sense that individuals of outstanding character or faculty are placed in the seat ofpower. European-feudalism and post-Revolutionary America are historical examples of this type; the city-state of Sparta providedanother real-world model for this form of government.

Technocracy Rule by the educated or technical experts; a system of governance where people who are skilled or proficient govern in theirrespective areas of expertise in technology would be in control of all decision making. Doctors, engineers, scientists, professionalsand technologists who have knowledge, expertise, or skills, would compose the governing body, instead of politicians, businessmen,and economists.[8] In a technocracy, decision makers would be selected based upon how knowledgeable and skillful they are in theirfield.

Autocratic attributes

Governments with Autocratic attributes are dominated by one person who has all the power over the people in acountry. The Roman Republic made Dictators to lead during times of war; the Roman dictators only held power fora small time. In modern times, an Autocrat's rule is not stopped by any rules of law, constitutions, or other social andpolitical institutions. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled byautocratic governments. Examples of Autocrats include Idi Amin, Muammar Gaddafi, Adolf Hitler and GamalAbdul Nasser.

Government 44

Term Definition

Autocracy Rule by one individual, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control(except perhaps for implicit threat). Autocrat needs servants while despot needs slaves.

Despotism Rule by a single entity with absolute power. That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group,[1] as in anoligarchy. The word despotism means to "rule in the fashion of a despot" and does not necessarily require a single, or individual,"despot". Despot needs slaves while Autocrat needs servants.

Dictatorship Rule by an individual who has full power over the country. The term may refer to a system where the dictator came to power, andholds it, purely by force; but it also includes systems where the dictator first came to power legitimately but then was able to amendthe constitution so as to, in effect, gather all power for themselves.[9] In a military dictatorship, the army is in control. Usually, thereis little or no attention to public opinion or individual rights. See also Autocracy and Stratocracy.

Fascism Rule by leader base only. Focuses heavily on patriotism and national identity. The leader(s) has the power to make things illegal thatdo not relate to nationalism, or increase belief in national pride. They believe their nation is based on commitment to an organicnational community where its citizens are united together as one people through a national identity. It exalts nation and race above theindividual and stands for severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition.

Monarchic attributes

Governments with Monarchic attributes are ruled by a king/emperor or a queen/emperess who inherits their positionfrom their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are at two opposing types of monarchies: absolutemonarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes orpowers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution. Theconstitution was put in place to put a check to these powers

Term Definition

Absolutemonarchy

Variant of monarchy; a system of governance in which a monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state andhead of government.

Constitutionalmonarchy

Variant of monarchy; a system of governance that has a monarch, but one whose powers are limited by law or by a formalconstitution, such as that in the United Kingdom[10]

Diarchy Variant of monarchy; a system of government in which two individuals, the diarchs, are the heads of state. In most diarchies, thediarchs hold their position for life and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when theydie. Diarchy is one of the oldest forms of government. In modern usage diarchy means a system of dual rule, whether this be of agovernment or of an organization. Such 'diarchies' are not hereditary.

Electivemonarchy

Variant of monarchy; a system of governance that has an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which theoffice is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The democratic manner of election, the nature of candidatequalifications, and the electors vary from case to case.

Emirate Similar to a monarchy or sultanate; a system of governance in which the supreme power is in the hands of an emir (the ruler of aMuslim state); the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority.[11]

Federalmonarchy

Variant of monarchy; a system of governance where a federation of states with a single monarch as over-all head of thefederation, but retaining different monarchs, or a non-monarchical system of government, in the various states joined to thefederation.

Monarchy Rule by royalty; a system of governance where an individual who has inherited the role and expects to bequeath it to theirheir.[12]

Government 45

Pejorative attributes

Regardless of the form of government, the actual governance may be influenced by sectors with political powerwhich are not part of the formal government. Certain actions of the governors, such as corruption, demagoguery, orfear mongering, may disrupt the intended way of working of the government if they are spreaded enough.

Term Definition

Bankocracy Rule by banks; a system of governance where the excessive power or influence of banks and other financial authorities on publicpolicy-making. It can also refer to a form of government where financial institutions rule society.

Corporatocracy Rule by corporations; a system of governance where an economic and political system is controlled by corporations or corporateinterests. Its use is generally pejorative. Examples include company rule in India and business voters for the City of LondonCorporation.

Nepotocracy Rule by nephews; favoritism granted to relatives regardless of merit; a system of governance in which importance is given to therelatives of those already in power, like a nephew (where the word comes from). In such governments even if the relatives aren'tqualified they are given positions of authority just because they know someone who already has authority. Pope Alexander VI(Borgia) was accused of this.

Kakistocracy Rule by the stupid; a system of governance where the worst or least-qualified citizens govern or dictate policies. Due to humannature being inherently flawed, it has been suggested that every government which has ever existed has been a prime example ofkakistocracy. See Idiocracy.

Kleptocracy(Mafia state)

Rule by thieves; a system of governance where its officials and the ruling class in general pursue personal wealth and politicalpower at the expense of the wider population. In strict terms kleptocracy is not a form of government but a characteristic of agovernment engaged in such behavior. Examples include Mexico as being considered a Narcokleptocracy, since its democraticgovernment is perceived to be corrupted by those who profit from trade in illegal drugs smuggled into the United States.

Ochlocracy Rule by the general populace; a system of governance where mob rule is government by mob or a mass of people, or theintimidation of legitimate authorities. As a pejorative for majoritarianism, it is akin to the Latin phrase mobile vulgus meaning"the fickle crowd", from which the English term "mob" was originally derived in the 1680s. Ochlocratic governments are often ademocracy spoiled by demagoguery, "tyranny of the majority" and the rule of passion over reason; such governments can bemore oppressive then autocratic-Tyrants. Ochlocracy is synonymous in meaning and usage to the modern, informal term"Mobocracy," which emerged from a much more recent colloquial etymology.

By elements of who elects the empowered

Authoritarian attributes

Term Definition

Authoritarian Rule by authoritarian governments is identified in societies where a specific set of people possess the authority of the state in arepublic or union. It is a political system controlled by unelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual freedom.

Totalitarian Rule by a totalitarian government is characterized by a highly centralized and coercive authority that regulates nearly every aspect ofpublic and private life.

Democratic attributes

Governments with Democratic attributes are most common in the Western world and in some countries of the eastthat have been influenced by western society, often by being colonised by western powers over the course of history.In democracies, large proportions of the population may vote, either to make decisions or to choose representativesto make decisions. Commonly significant in democracies are political parties, which are groups of people withsimilar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas abouthow the government should handle different problems.

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Term Definition

Demarchy Variant of democracy; government in which the state is governed by randomly selected decision makers who have been selectedby sortition (lot) from a broadly inclusive pool of eligible citizens. These groups, sometimes termed "policy juries", "citizens'juries", or "consensus conferences", deliberately make decisions about public policies in much the same way that juries decidecriminal cases.

Demarchy, in theory, could overcome some of the functional problems of conventional representative democracy, which is widelysubject to manipulation by special interests and a division between professional policymakers (politicians and lobbyists) vs. alargely passive, uninvolved and often uninformed electorate. According to Australian philosopher John Burnheim, randomselection of policymakers would make it easier for everyday citizens to meaningfully participate, and harder for special interests tocorrupt the process.

More generally, random selection of decision makers from a larger group is known as sortition (from the Latin base for lottery).The Athenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all government offices filled by lottery (of full citizens) ratherthan by election. Candidates were almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of wealth and status.

Democracy Rule by a government chosen by election where most of the populace are enfranchised. The key distinction between a democracyand other forms of constitutional government is usually taken to be that the right to vote is not limited by a person's wealth or race(the main qualification for enfranchisement is usually having reached a certain age). A Democratic government is, therefore, onesupported (at least at the time of the election) by a majority of the populace (provided the election was held fairly). A "majority"may be defined in different ways. There are many "power-sharing" (usually in countries where people mainly identify themselvesby race or religion) or "electoral-college" or "constituency" systems where the government is not chosen by a simpleone-vote-per-person headcount.

Directdemocracy

Variant of democracy; government in which the people represent themselves and vote directly for new laws and public policy

Liberaldemocracy

Variant of democracy; a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of liberalism. It ischaracterized by fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties, a separation of powers intodifferent branches of government, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society, and the protection of human rightsand civil liberties for all persons. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, eitherformally written or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. After a period of sustainedexpansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world. A liberaldemocracy may take various constitutional forms: it may be a constitutional republic, such as France, Germany, India, Ireland,Italy, or the United States; or a constitutional monarchy, such as Japan, Spain, or the United Kingdom. It may have a presidentialsystem (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, the United States), a semi-presidential system (France, Taiwan), or a parliamentary system(Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Poland, the United Kingdom).

Representativedemocracy

Variant of democracy; wherein the people or citizens of a country elect representatives to create and implement public policy inplace of active participation by the people.

Socialdemocracy

Variant of democracy; social democracy rejects the "either/or" phobiocratic/polarization interpretation of capitalism versussocialism. It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of capitalist economyinto socialist economy. Social democracy argues that all citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights. These are madeup of universal access to public services such as: education, health care, workers' compensation, public transportation, and otherservices including child care and care for the elderly. Social democracy is connected with the trade union labour movement andsupports collective bargaining rights for workers. Contemporary social democracy advocates freedom from discrimination basedon differences of: ability/disability, age, ethnicity, sex, gender, language, race, religion, sexual orientation, and social class.

Totalitariandemocracy

Variant of democracy; refers to a system of government in which lawfully elected representatives maintain the integrity of anation state whose citizens, while granted the right to vote, have little or no participation in the decision-making process of thegovernment.

Oligarchic attributes

Governments with Oligarchic attributes are ruled by a small group of segregated, powerful and/or influential people,who usually share similar interests and/or family relations. These people may spread power and elect candidatesequally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chanceto change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clearruler, but several rulers.

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Some historical examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Some critics ofrepresentative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. The Athenian democracy used sortition to electcandidates; were almost always male, white, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of land, wealth and status.

Term Definition

Ergatocracy Rule by the proletariat, the workers, or the working class. Examples of ergatocracy include communist revolutionaries and rebelswhich control most of society and create an alternative economy for people and workers. See Dictatorship of the proletariat.Wikipedia:Please clarify

Kritarchy Rule by judges; a system of governance composed of law enforcement institutions in which the state and the legal systems aretraditionally and/or constitutionally the same entity. Kritarchic judges, magistrates and other adjudicators have the legal power tolegislate and administrate the enforcement of government laws, in addition to the interposition of laws and the resolution of disputes.(Not to be confused with "judiciary" or "judicial system".) Somalia, ruled by judges with the tradition of xeer,[13] as well as theIslamic Courts Union, is a historical example.[citation needed]

Netocracy Rule by social connections; a term invented by the editorial board of the American technology magazine Wired in the early 1990s. Aportmanteau of Internet and aristocracy, netocracy refers to a perceived global upper-class that bases its power on a technologicaladvantage and networking skills, in comparison to what is portrayed as a bourgeoisie of a gradually diminishing importance. Thenetocracy concept has been compared with Richard Florida's concept of the creative class. Bard and Söderqvist have also defined anunder-class in opposition to the netocracy, which they refer to as the consumtariat.

Oligarchy Rule by a system of governance with small group of people who share similar interests or family relations.[14]

Plutocracy Rule by the rich; a system of governance composed of the wealthy class. Any of the forms of government listed here can beplutocracy. For instance, if all of the voted representatives in a republic are wealthy, then it is a republic and a plutocracy.[15]

Stratocracy Rule by military service; a system of governance composed of military government in which the state and the military are traditionallyand/or constitutionally the same entity. Citizens with mandatory or voluntary active military service, or who have been honorablydischarged, have the right to govern. (Not to be confused with "military junta" or "military dictatorship".) The Spartan city-state is ahistorical example; its social system and constitution, were completely focused on military training and excellence. Stratocraticideology often attaches to the honor-oriented Timocracy.

Theocracy Rule by a religious elite; a system of governance composed of religious institutions in which the state and the church are traditionallyand/or constitutionally the same entity. Citizens who are clergy have the right to govern.[16] The Vatican's (see Pope) and the Tibetangovernment's (see Dalai Lama) are historically considered theocracies.

Other attributes

Term Definition

Anarchy Anarchy has more than one definition. In the United States, the term "anarchy" typically is used to refer to a society without a publiclyenforced government or violently enforced political authority.[17] When used in this sense, anarchy may[18] or may not[19] beintended to imply political disorder or lawlessness within a society.

Outside of the U.S., and by most individuals that self-identify as anarchists, it implies a system of governance, mostly theoretical at anation state level. There are also other forms of Anarchy that attempt to avoid the use of coercion, violence, force and authority, whilestill producing a productive and desirable society.

Anocracy An anocracy, is a regime type where power is not vested in public institutions (as in a normal democracy) but spread amongst elitegroups who are constantly competing with each other for power. Examples of anocracies in Africa include the warlords of Somalia andthe shared governments in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Anocracies are situated midway between an autocracy and a democracy.

The Polity IV datasetWikipedia:Please clarify recognized anocracy as a category. In that dataset, anocracies are exactly in the middlebetween autocracies and democracies.

Often the word is defined more broadly. For example a 2010 International Alert publication defined anocracies as "countries that areneither autocratic nor democratic, most of which are making the risky transition between autocracy and democracy". Alert noted thatthe number of anocracies had increased substantially since the end of the Cold War. Anocracy is not surprisingly the least resilientpolitical system to short-term shocks: it creates the promise but not yet the actuality of an inclusive and effective political economy, andthreatens members of the established elite; and is therefore very vulnerable to disruption and armed violence.

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Bananarepublic

A banana republic is a politically unstable kleptocratic government that economically depends upon the exports of a limited resource(fruits, minerals), and usually features a society composed of stratified social classes, such as a great, impoverished ergatocracy and aruling plutocracy, composed of the aristocracy of business, politics, and the military. In political science, the term banana republicdenotes a country dependent upon limited primary-sector productions, which is ruled by a plutocracy who exploit the national economyby means of a politico-economic oligarchy. In American literature, the term banana republic originally denoted the fictional Republicof Anchuria, a servile dictatorship that abetted, or supported for kickbacks, the exploitation of large-scale plantation agriculture,especially banana cultivation. In U.S. politics, the term banana republic is a pejorative political descriptor coined by the Americanwriter O. Henry in Cabbages and Kings (1904), a book of thematically related short stories derived from his 1896–97 residence inHonduras, where he was hiding from U.S. law for bank embezzlement.

Maoism The theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), which states that a continuousrevolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to keep in touch with the people.

By elements of how power distribution is structured

Republican attributes

A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter" (Latin: res publica), not theprivate concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected orappointed rather than inherited. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a governmentwhere the head of state is not a monarch.

Term Definition

Republic Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over thegovernment and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.[20] A common simplified definition of a republicis a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have ashare in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.[21]

Constitutionalrepublic

Rule by a government whose powers are limited by law or a formal constitution, and chosen by a vote amongst at least somesections of the populace (Ancient Sparta was in its own terms a republic, though most inhabitants were disenfranchised. Republicsthat exclude sections of the populace from participation will typically claim to represent all citizens (by defining people withoutthe vote as "non-citizens"). Examples include the United States, South Africa, India, etc.

Democraticrepublic

A republic form of government where the country is considered a "public matter" (Latin: res publica), not a private concern orproperty of rulers/3rd world, and where offices of states are subsequently, directly or indirectly, elected or appointed – rather thaninherited – where all eligible citizens have an equal say in the local and national decisions that affect their lives.

Parliamentaryrepublic

A republic, like India, Singapore and Poland, with an elected head of state, but where the head of state and head of governmentare kept separate with the Head of government retaining most executive powers, or a head of state akin to a head of government,elected by a Parliament.

Federalrepublic

A federal union of states or provinces with a republican form of government. Examples include Argentina, Austria, Brazil,Germany, India, Russia, and Switzerland.

IslamicRepublic

Republics governed in accordance with Islamic law. Examples include Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran.

Socialistrepublic

Countries like China and Vietnam are meant to be governed for and by the people, but with no direct elections. The term People'sRepublic is used to differentiate themselves from the earlier republic of their countries before the people's revolution, likeRepublic of China and Republic of Korea.

Federalism attributes

Federalism is a political concept in which a group of members are bound together by covenant (Latin: foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called

Government 49

a federation. Proponents are often called federalists.

Term Definition

Federalism Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the governmentand where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. A common simplified definition of a republic is a governmentwhere the head of state is not a monarch. Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, andaristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.

Federalmonarchy

A federal monarchy is a federation of states with a single monarch as over-all head of the federation, but retaining differentmonarchs, or a non-monarchical system of government, in the various states joined to the federation.

Federalrepublic

A federal union of states or provinces with a republican form of government. Examples include Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Germany,India, Russia, and Switzerland.

Other power structure attributes

Term Definition

Adhocracy Rule by a government based on relatively disorganised principles and institutions as compared to a bureaucracy, its exact opposite.

Anarchism Sometimes said to be non-governance; it is a structure which strives for non-hierarchical voluntary associations among agents.Anarchy is a situation where there is no government. This can happen after a civil war in a country, when a government has beendestroyed and rival groups are fighting to take its place. There are also people called anarchists. They believe that any governmentis a bad thing – this belief is called anarchism. Anarchists think governments stop people organising their own lives. Instead theythink people would be better off if they ruled their own lives and worked together to create a society in any form they choose.

Band Society Rule by a government based on small (usually family) unit with a semi-informal hierarchy, with strongest (either physical strengthor strength of character) as leader. Very much like a pack seen in other animals, such as wolves.

Bureaucracy Rule by a system of governance with many bureaus, administrators, and petty officials

Chiefdom(Tribal)

Rule by a government based on small complex society of varying degrees of centralization that is led by an individual known as achief.

Cybersynacy Ruled by a data fed group of secluded individuals that regulates aspects of public and private life using data feeds and technologyhaving no interactivity with the citizens but using "facts only" to decide direction.

Parliamentarysystem

A system of democratic government in which the ministers of the Executive Branch derive their legitimacy from and areaccountable to a Legislature or parliament; the Executive and Legislative branches are interconnected. It is a political system inwhich the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them.

Presidentialsystem

A system of government where an executive branch is led by a president who serves as both head of state and head of government.In such a system, this branch exists separately from the legislature, to which it is not responsible and which it cannot, in normalcircumstances, dismiss.

Nomocracy Rule by a government under the sovereignty of rational laws and civic right as opposed to one under theocratic systems ofgovernment. In a nomocracy, ultimate and final authority (sovereignty) exists in the law.

Forms of government by other characteristic attributes

By socio-economic system attributesHistorically, most political systems originated as socioeconomic ideologies; experience with those movements inpower, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered asforms of government in themselves.

Government 50

Term Definition

Capitalism In a capitalist or free-market economy, people own their own businesses and property and must buy services for private use, such ashealthcare.

Communism In a communist country, the working class, through cooperatives, owns all businesses and farms and shares the healthcare, educationand welfare.

Feudalism A system of land ownership and duties. Under feudalism, all the land in a kingdom was the king's. However, the king would givesome of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him. These presents of land were called manors. Then the nobles gave some oftheir land to vassals. The vassals then had to do duties for the nobles. The lands of vassals were called fiefs.

Socialism Socialist governments own many of the larger industries and provide education, health and welfare services while allowing citizenssome economic choices

Welfarestate

Concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being ofits citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for thoseunable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.

By significant constitutional attributesCertain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types ofgovernment.• Rule according to higher law (unwritten ethnical principles) vs. written constitutionalism• Separation of church and state vs. state religion• Civilian control of the military vs. stratocracy• Totalitarianism/Authoritarianism vs. liberalism

•• Police state• Majority rule or parliamentary sovereignty vs. constitution or Bill of Rights with separation of powers and

supermajority rules to prevent tyranny of the majority and protect minority rights• Androcracy (Patriarchy) or Gynarchy (Matriarchy), gender quotas, gender equality provision, or silence on the

matter

By approach to regional autonomyThis list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution of sovereignty, and theautonomy of regions within the state.•• Sovereignty located exclusively at the center of political jurisdiction.

•• Empire•• Unitary state

•• Sovereignty located at the centre and in peripheral areas.•• Hegemony• Federation and Federal republic•• Confederation•• Federal Monarchy

•• Diverging degrees of sovereignty.•• Asymmetrical federalism•• Federacy•• Associated state•• Protectorate•• Colonial Dependency•• Thalassocracy

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•• League•• Commonwealth• Decentralization and Devolution (powers redistributed from central to regional or local governments)

Theoretical and speculative attributesThese currently have no citable real-world examples outside of fiction.

Term Definition

Corporaterepublic

Theoretical form of government occasionally hypothesized in works of science fiction, though some historical nations such asmedieval Florence might be said to have been governed as corporate republics. The colonial megacorporations such as the Dutch EastIndia Company should possibly be considered corporate states, being semi-sovereign with the power to wage war and establishcolonies.

While retaining some semblance of republican government, a corporate republic would be run primarily like a business, involving aboard of directors and executives. Utilities, including hospitals, schools, the military, and the police force, would be privatized. Thesocial welfare function carried out by the state is instead carried out by corporations in the form of benefits to employees. Althoughcorporate republics do not exist officially in the modern world, they are often used in works of fiction or political commentary as awarning of the perceived dangers of unbridled capitalism. In such works, they usually arise when a single, vastly powerfulcorporation deposes a weak government, over time or in a coup d'état.

Some political scientists have also considered state socialist nations to be forms of corporate republics, with the state assuming fullcontrol of all economic and political life and establishing a monopoly on everything within national boundaries – effectively makingthe state itself equitable to a giant corporation.

Magocracy Rule by a government ruled by the highest and main authority being either a magician, sage, sorcerer, wizard or witch. This is oftensimilar to a theocratic structured regime and is largely portrayed in fiction and fantasy genre categories.

Uniocracy Ruled by a singularity of all human minds connected via some form of technical or non technical telepathy acting as a form of supercomputer to make decisions based on shared patterned experiences to deliver fair and accurate decisions to problems as they arrive.Also known as the "Hive Mind" principle, differs from voting in that each person would make a decision while in the "hive" thesynapses of all minds work together following a longer path of memories to make "one" decision.

Government 52

Maps

States by their systems of government. For the complete list of systems by country, seeList of countries by system of government.   presidential systempresidential

republics  semi-presidential systemsemi-presidential republics  parliamentaryrepublics  parliamentary republics, An executive presidentexecutive presidency elected by

and dependent on parliamentary systemparliament  parliamentary systemparliamentaryconstitutional monarchyconstitutional monarchies in which the monarch does not

personally exercise power  constitutional monarchyconstitutional monarchies in which themonarch personally exercises power, often alongside a weak parliament  absolute

monarchyabsolute monarchies  states whose constitutions grant only a single-partystatesingle party the right to govern  states where constitutional provisions for

government have been suspended

Countries highlighted in blue are designated "electoral democracies" in Freedom House's2013 survey "Freedom in the World". Freedom House considers democracy in practice,

not merely official claims.

•• Central government•• Civics•• Comparative government•• Constitutional economics•• Legal rights•• List of countries by system of

government•• List of European Union member

states by political system•• Ministry•• Political economy•• Politics•• State (polity)•• Voting system•• World government

References[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index.

php?title=Template:Basic_forms_of_government&action=edit

[2] archon (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/index. php?term=archon). Online EtymologyDictionary. Etymonline.com. Retrieved on2013-03-15.

[3] Lewellen, Ted C. Political Anthropology:An Introduction Third Edition. PraegerPublishers; 3rd edition (30 November 2003)

[4] Comparative politics : interests, identities,and institutions in a changing global order,Jeffrey Kopstein, Mark Lichbach (eds.), 2nded, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN0521708400, p. 4

[5] Leo P. Ribuffo, "20 Suggestions forStudying the Right now that Studying theRight is Trendy," Historically Speaking Jan2011 v.12#1 pp 2–6, quote on p. 6

[6] Kari Frederickson, The Dixicrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968, p. 12, "...conservative southern Democrats viewed warilythe potential of New Deal programs to threaten the region's economic dependence on cheap labor while stirring the democratic ambitions ofthe disfranchised and undermining white supremacy.", The University of North Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-8078-4910-1

[7] "Plutocrats – The Rise of the New Global Super-Rich and the Fall of Everyone Else" (http:/ / www. us. penguingroup. com/ nf/

Government 53

A world map distinguishing countries of the world as monarchies (red) from other formsof government (blue). Many monarchies are considered electoral democracies because the

monarch is largely ritual; in other cases the monarch is the only powerful politicalauthority.

Book/ BookDisplay/ 0,,9781594204098,00.html) Chrystia Freeland is GlobalEditor-at-Large at Reuters news agency,following years of service at the FinancialTimes both in New York and London. Shewas the deputy editor of Canada's Globe andMail and has reported for the FinancialTimes, Economist, and Washington Post.She lives in New York City.

[8] Ernst R. Berndt, (1982). “From TechnocracyTo Net Energy Analysis: Engineers,Economists And Recurring Energy TheoriesOf Value” (http:/ / dspace. mit. edu/bitstream/ handle/ 1721. 1/ 2023/SWP-1353-09057784. pdf), Studies inEnergy and the American Economy,Discussion Paper No. 11, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Revised September 1982[9][9] American 503[10] Fotopoulos, Takis, The Multidimensional Crisis ad Inclusive Democracy. (Athens: Gordios, 2005).( English translation (http:/ / www.

inclusivedemocracy. org/ fotopoulos/ english/ brbooks/ multi_crisis_id. htm) of the book with the same title published in Greek).[11] Field Listing :: Government type (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2128. html). CIA – The World

Factbook. Retrieved on 2013-03-15.[12][12] American 1134[13] Spencer Heath MacCallum (June 1, 1998) A Peaceful Ferment in Somalia (http:/ / www. independent. org/ publications/ article.

asp?id=126). The Independent Institute. Independent.org. Retrieved on 2013-03-15.[14][14] American 1225[15] "Plutocracy Rising" Moyers & Company (http:/ / billmoyers. com/ episode/ full-show-plutocracy-rising/ ). Billmoyers.com (2012-10-19).

Retrieved on 2013-03-15.[16][16] American 1793[17][17] "Anarchy." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2004. The first quoted usage is 1667[18][18] "Anarchy." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2004. The first quoted usage is 1552[19] "Anarchy." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2004. The first quoted usage is 1850.[20] Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Bk. II, ch. 1.[21] Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, Bk. II, ch. 2–3.

Bibliography•• American Heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116:

Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-82517-2

Further reading• Krader, Lawrence (1968). Formation of the State, in Foundations of Modern Anthropology Series. Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. x, 118 p.

External links• The Phrontistery Word List: Types of Government and Leadership (http:/ / phrontistery. info/ govern. html)• What Are the Different Types of Governments? (http:/ / www. lifeslittlemysteries. com/

1096-what-are-the-different-types-of-governments. html)• Types of Governments from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ 20c-govt.

htm)• Other classifications examples from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/

othergov. htm)

Government 54

• World Affairs: Types of Government (http:/ / stutzfamily. com/ mrstutz/ WorldAffairs/ typesofgovt. html)• Regime Types (http:/ / www. polisci. ccsu. edu/ brown/ regime_types. htm)• CBBC Newsround : types of government (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ cbbcnews/ hi/ find_out/ guides/ world/

united_nations/ types_of_government/ )• Bill Moyers: Plutocracy Rising (http:/ / billmoyers. com/ episode/ full-show-plutocracy-rising/ )• Phobiocracy by Chris Claypoole (http:/ / www. ncc-1776. org/ tle2003/ libe229-20030629-03. html)

Public safetyPublic safety [This term is used in many capacities by countries, states, cities, and regions to describe the authorityand responsibilities the entity oversees. The public safety issues a city might grapple with include narcotic use,trespassing, burglary, harassment, juvenile delinquency, unauthorized living, noise, littering, inappropriate socialbehavior, DUIs, and other quality of life issues.] The following definition only looks at a higher level of functionsuch as a country task force: involves the prevention of and protection from events that could endanger the safety ofthe general public from significant danger, injury/harm, or damage, such as crimes or disasters (natural orman-made).

References

Public servicesA public service is a service which is provided by government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly(through the public sector) or by financing private provision of services. The term is associated with a socialconsensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardlessof income. Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, for social and politicalreasons they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors. Public service isalso a course that can be studied at a college and/or university.

SectorsPublic services tend to be those considered to be so essential to modern life that for moral reasons their universalprovision should be guaranteed. They may be associated with fundamental human rights (such as the right to water).The Volunteer Fire Dept. and Ambulance Corps. are institutions with the mission of servicing the community. Aservice is helping others with a specific need or want. Here, service ranges from a doctor curing an illness, to a repairperson, to a food pantry.In modern, developed countries, the term public services often includes:•• Electricity•• Education•• Environmental protection•• Fire service•• Gas•• Health care•• Law enforcement•• Military•• Postal service

Public services 55

•• Public broadcasting•• Public library•• Public security•• Public transportation•• Public housing•• Social services•• Telecommunications•• Town planning•• Waste management•• Water supply network•• NHS•• 999 services

CharacteristicsA public service may sometimes have the characteristics of a public good (being non-rivalrous and non-excludable),but most are services which may (according to prevailing social norms) be under-provided by the market. In mostcases public services are services, i.e. they do not involve manufacturing of goods. They may be provided by local ornational monopolies, especially in sectors which are natural monopolies.They may involve outputs that are hard to attribute to specific individual effort and/or hard to measure in terms ofkey characteristics such as quality. They often require high levels of training and education. They may attract peoplewith a public service ethos who wish to give something to the wider public or community through their work.

HistoryHistorically, the widespread provision of public services in developed countries usually began in the late nineteenthcentury, often with the municipal development of gas and water services. Later, other services such as electricity andhealthcare began to be provided by governments. In most developed countries such services are still provided bylocal or national government, the biggest exceptions being the U.S. and the UK, where private provision is moresignificant. Nonetheless, such privately provided public services are often strongly regulated, for example (in theUS) by Public Utility Commissions.In developing countries public services tend to be much less well developed. For example, water services might onlybe available to the wealthy middle class. For political reasons the service is often subsidised, which reduces thefinance available for expansion to poorer communities.

NationalizationNationalization really took off following the World Wars of the first half of the twentieth century. Across Europe,because of the extreme demands on industries and the economy, central planning was required to make productionmaximally efficient. Many public services, especially electricity, gas and public transport are products of this era.Following the Second World War, many countries also began to implement universal health care and expandededucation under the funding and guidance of the state.

Public services 56

Privatization

A group of Chilean 'Damas de Rojo', volunteerson their local hospital.

There are several ways to privatize public services. A free-marketcorporation may be established and sold to private investors,relinquishing government control altogether. Thus it becomes a private(not public) service. Another option, used in the Nordic countries, is toestablish a corporation, but keep ownership or voting power essentiallyin the hands of the government. For example, the Finnish state owned49% of Kemira until 2007, the rest being owned by private investors.A 49% share did not make it a "government enterprise", but it meantthat all other investors together would have to oppose the state'sopinion in order to overturn the state's decisions in the shareholder'smeeting. Regulated corporation can also acquire permits on theagreement that they fulfill certain public service duties. When a privatecorporation runs a natural monopoly, then the corporation is typicallyheavily regulated, to prevent abuse of monopoly power. Lastly, thegovernment can buy the service on the free market. In many countries,medication is provided in this manner: the government reimburses partof the price of the medication. Also, bus traffic, electricity, healthcareand waste management are privatized in this way. One recentinnovation, used in the UK increasingly as well as Australia and Canada is public-private partnerships. This involvesgiving a long lease to private consortia in return for partly funding infrastructure.

Public services versus Services of General InterestAt the European level, some countries use the name service of general interest, while other prefer public services. Ithas been a discussion, for instance during the writing of the european constitution (the word services of generalinterest has been used).ETUC named its petition "for high quality public services" [1] but explains "Public services are known as Services ofgeneral interest (SGI) and Services of general economic interest (SGEIs) in European Union terminology."

References[1] http:/ / www. petitionpublicservice. eu/

External links• Municipal Services Project (http:/ / www. municipalservicesproject. org)• Public Services International (http:/ / www. world-psi. org)• Public Services International Research Unit (http:/ / www. psiru. org)• publicservice.co.uk – Public Service News (http:/ / www. publicservice. co. uk/ )• Daniel Chavez (ed), Beyond the Market: The Future of Public Services (http:/ / www. tni. org/ detail_pub.

phtml?know_id=96), TNI Public Services Yearbook 2005/6, Transnational Institute / Public ServicesInternational Research Unit (PSIRU), February 2006

• European Centre of Enterprises with Public Participation and of Enterprises of General Economic Interest (http:/ /ceep. eu)

Article Sources and Contributors 57

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Master of Public Administration  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=584907460  Contributors: Ahaqueusa, Amatulic, Andy Marchbanks, Anthony.jenkins6, Arctic.gnome,Astuishin, Avala, Betacommand, Bghbmarl55, Blahblah29, Cdorshorst, Choij, Chris Roy, ChristianH, Corphine, DTanu, Darkcore, Davevibc, Daytona2, Delirium, Demophon, Djharrity,Dpugrad01, Dsramsey, ElKevbo, EtanaLF, Evans1982, Farmanesh, Fatecm, Gary Hoggatt, Gary Jacobsen, Gdazzo, GeoffPet, Ground Zero, Harperlogan, Hbent, Hmains, Hoary, Howardjp,Icairns, Idaltu, Imtolan, JasMaan, Jwmdouglas, K.d.stauffer, Kenrg, Kevink721, King of Corsairs, LibrarianAnnie, Lorenzo valeri, Luisrosales, MPAssistant, Mr. D. E. Mophon, MrRadioGuy,Naniwako, Nitraven, Ntmg05, OlEnglish, PPACC, Ps07swt, Raphnexx, Rgt652, Rkevins, Rlove, Roman123, Ronfernandes, Shanak, Shoreranger, Shrini1, Soobrickay, Soupshot, Specs77, Stapas,Steff, Tgalanis, Theone00, Three-quarter-ten, TiroDeAethra, TooHuge, Ultramandk, Valfontis, Warrenpd86, Ziggurat, Zugzwang1972, 159 anonymous edits

Doctor of Public Administration  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568991105  Contributors: Aespirituii, Amaury, Astuishin, Ben Ben, Bgwhite, Bingrand, Celique,Dmclemore, Doctrix, DuncanBCS, Dynaflow, Eastlaw, Enigmaman, Fratrep, Fuhghettaboutit, GabeIglesia, Howardjp, Integrity1976, Isko1901, Khazar2, Kkcheng, Krove007, LibrarianAnnie,Lowguy, Magioladitis, Mft515, Neverneverstop, Nomorecyber, Pads9701, Sophisticatedme, Zollerriia, 203 anonymous edits

Administrative law  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=584614459  Contributors: Accurizer, Acsenray, Aeusoes1, Agnosticaphid, Al@magec.com, Alan Liefting, Alan.A.Mick,Alex756, AllyUnion, Almaster, Andeggs, Apokrif, BD2412, Baronnet, Bhadani, Blue-Haired Lawyer, Bob98133, Bryan Derksen, Bryan P. C. C., CALR, Chmellti01, Chrism, Chrisvls,ContinueWithCaution, Conversion script, Coolcaesar, D6, DWizzy, David ekstrand, David.Monniaux, Ddye, Dojotony, Dpr, Dtrebbien, DwightKingsbury, Eastlaw, El C, Famspear, GarethGriffith-Jones, Gdamasceno, Gimboid13, Golbez, Guanaco, Hazzl, Hydriotaphia, Inspectoramit, Isaac Rabinovitch, JaGa, Jaqen, Jguk, Jie, Jklamo, John of Reading, Jonkerz, Jurisconsult,KnightRider, Kybing, Lawsonstu, Legalskeptic, Leonardoc, Life of Riley, Ligar, Lightmouse, Ling.Nut, MER-C, Martinvoll, Mervyn Emrys, Michael Hardy, Mikeyoung1976, Mnh123,Mrhurtin, Netraam (renamed), Neutrality, Onionmon, Onthegogo, PPPPMLN, Padraic, Petrb, Pike Granados, Postdlf, Prowsej, PullUpYourSocks, Qypchak, Rd232, Rholton, Rich Farmbrough,Rjwilmsi, Robofish, Romalar, RossF18, Ruodyssey, SchreiberBike, Shino Baku, SimonP, Smuconlaw, TomPhil, Tomas e, Tommy2010, Topbanana, Uncle G, Ungtss, Vanished userfweflklkaskwi4r592uofmoaihr, Vuo, Walshga, Wgarciamachmar, Wikidea, WilliamJE, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Zundark, Zymurgy, 134 anonymous edits

Build-Operate-Transfer  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=487959506  Contributors: Admiral Norton, Aiman abmajid, Altenmann, Antandrus, Arsenikk, Asided m plane,Baeksu, Benlisquare, BigJolly9, Bob1960evens, Btl, CelesJalee, Chinchanchon, ChrisGualtieri, Ciphers, Diedo1982, Eastlaw, Electrobins, Golf Bravo, Hkabla, Hugo999, Imgaril, Ingolfson, JackGreenmaven, JamesBWatson, Jemiller226, JonHarder, Joseph Solis in Australia, Keith D, Kuru, Lsmll, Manjunath.bhat, MarceloB, Materialscientist, Mereda, Molly-in-md, New traffic pattern,NickK, Nuker, Owahab, Patchy1, Philip Trueman, Railpass, RichardMills65, Ronaldo Guevara, Rsrikanth05, Schmiteye, Seaphoto, ShelfSkewed, Shuki, Sluj, Squids and Chips, Station1,Swamilive, Tasma3197, The Bread, Tolly4bolly, Tony1, Tredoli, Usb10, Vincent Lextrait, Vortexrealm, Wai Hong, Wongm, Woohookitty, Wxstorm, Ynhockey, 88 anonymous edits

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Government  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582348454  Contributors: *drew, - ), -Ozone-, 10metreh, 195.149.37.xxx, 20027491, 21655, 28bytes, 334a, 5 albert square, 63.201.32.xxx, 90, 90 Auto, A1ed, A8UDI, AAA765, ADAMAJP28, ALtgLasS, ASSASSIN, AaronS, Aazn, Abasdfasldf kasl;dkf jasl;dkf j, Abiyoyo, Academic Challenger, Acaila wiki, Acather96, Access Denied, Ace Diamond, Ace of Spades, Achowat, Adam Bishop, Adamislolandtaco, Addihockey10, Addshore, Aeonx, Agent Smith (The Matrix), Ageo020, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aixroot, Ajdlinux, AkatDemonSuki, Al-Andalusi, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, AlasdairEdits, Aldaron, Aldrich Hanssen, Ale jrb, Aleeeeeeeexis, Alegoo92, Alexanderj, Alexf, Alexlaker, Alexstobart, Alison, AllStarZ, Allens, Allstarecho, AllyUnion, Almafeta, Alphachimp, Alphathon, Alyoshka, Amaury, Amire80, Anarchist082056, Anarchysm, Anbu121, Anclation, Andre Engels, Andrew Levine, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Andrewman327, Andrewspy007, Andy Marchbanks, Andy120290, Andycjp, Angela, Anger22, Angr, Anna Lincoln, Anon1277, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous1117, Anonymousovereverthing, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Apocalyptor, AppleJuggler, Aprock, Arctic Kangaroo, Ardara, Ariel Pontes, ArielGold, Arjun01, Art LaPella, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Asabih, Assclitt, AstroChemist, Astudent, Atlan, Auror, Autorads, Awardtake, Awesomeface9999, Aznicepeng, BDD, Balkantropolis, Baodo, Barakosamayomomma, Baronnet, Bart133, Barticus88, Baseball Bugs, Basharh, Bekiroflaz, Beland, Ben Arnold, Bencherlite, Benny1boy93, BennyQuixote, Bensaccount, Bento00, Bentogoa, BesselDekker, Bhaddow, Bibliomaniac15, Bibowen, BigThinker, Bingozone, Binksternet, Biosci01, Bird8392, BjörnEF, Bkepisto, Bkonrad, Blue bear sd, Blueflavouredcat, Bluemask, Bms19, Bo, Bob f it, Bobak, Bobby122, Bobdoe, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Boco10296, Bogey97, Boggon155, Boivie, Boki13, Bombs Away, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bounc3, Bowei Huang 2, BradBeattie, Brambleclawx, Brandon, BrendelSignature, Brian the Editor, Brian0918, Brianga, Brownings, Buaidh, BuickCenturyDriver, Builderman, Burzmali, Bwilkins, Bwill6, Byelf2007, Bz2, CTZMSC3, CWii, Caknuck, Caladrieng, Calidore Chase, Caltas, Cambalachero, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canterbury Tail, Canthusus, CapitalistOverlord, Capt. James T. Kirk, Carbonite, CardinalDan, Careless hx, Carmichael, Carolmooredc, Carom, Caseylebaker, Caster23, CasualVisitor, Catgut, Ceradon, Chamal N, Chanvis18, Charphil, Chelseamarie322, Cherkash, Cherubinirules, Chimpanz6, ChongDae, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Chriscf, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Chun-hian, Church, CieloEstrellado, Cielomobile, Cipika, Cit helper, CityOfSilver, Cjnm, ClamDip, ClassicalScholar, Clinton564, CloudNine, Cntras, Coastergeekperson04, Coin945, ColbeagleTheEagle, Cole1234829ah, Confession0791, Conrad5501, ContinueWithCaution, Controlgovernment, Conversion script, Coonhound1235565, Coreyhunter1, Correogsk, Crashtip, Crazysane, Cremepuff222, Crònica, Curps, Czar, D, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBragagnolo, DVdm, Da6thblood, DaemonDice (Gremlin), Dan653, DanCKor, Danger, Daniel5127, DanielCD, Danielfolsom, Dantytoon, DarkFalls, Darkmusashi, Darthwar, David Fuchs, David.Mestel, David91, Dawn Bard, Dawnseeker2000, DeadEyeArrow, Deadcorpse, Dean Wormer, Deathphoenix, Delldot, Demmy, DerHexer, Deus Ex, Dfrg.msc, Dglynch, Diderot's Ghost, Discospinster, Dmn, Doc glasgow, Doctors without suspenders, Dominoe, Don4of4, Doric Nash, Dorond, Douinman, DragonHawk, Drift chambers, Dsacxz, Dscotese, Dtgm, Dude018219293, Dude765434567, Dudez r good, Dungodung, Dycedarg, Dylan Lake, Dysepsion, E. Novachek, ECEstats, EarthPerson, EdGl, Edderso, EditingBandit123, Edwardjacobs123, ElationAviation, Eldarone, Electionworld, Eliteplaya269, Eliz81, Elosensweig97, Emc2, Emogangster, Eog1916, Epeeist smudge, Epiq, Ergjnijvnrtjhnbinb, EricWesBrown, Escape Orbit, EscapingLife, Etale, Eubulides, Euryalus, Everyking, Everything Is Numbers, Evileyelover22, Excirial, Exor674, Extracurricular activities, Eyrian, FETuriousness, FJPB, FY5867, Falcon8765, Falsefacts, Fang 23,

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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:FEMA - 43019 - FEMA National Advistory Council meets in Washington, DC.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington,_DC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: -File:US Navy 020614-N-0552D-001 SPAWAR award winning employee.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Benchill, Illegitimate BarristerFile:Woodrow Wilson (Nobel 1919).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Woodrow_Wilson_(Nobel_1919).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Coyau,Ephraim33, FSII, Fastfission, Infrogmation, Man vyi, Martin H., Materialscientist, PKM, ShakkoFile:Luther Gulick (social scientist).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Harris & EwingphotographerFile:B-52D(061127-F-1234S-017).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:B-52D(061127-F-1234S-017).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USAFFile:School of Government.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:School_of_Government.JPG  License: Free Art License  Contributors: Robert PooreImage:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs, NielsF,Rei-artur, Rocket000File:Título de la Maestría.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Título_de_la_Maestría.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Mr. D. E.Mophon, Santosga, Tony Wills, TransparenciaFile:HQ FTC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HQ_FTC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Walshga at en.wikipediaFile:Riddarholmen 2009f.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Riddarholmen_2009f.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Holger.EllgaardFile:BOT photo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BOT_photo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Creator:TredoliTredoliFile:A coloured voting box.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:AnomieImage:Forms of government.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Forms_of_government.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors:JackarangaFile:Electoral democracies.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electoral_democracies.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Joowwww, updated by 23prootie for2011 and MaGioZal for 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2013File:Formas de governo.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Formas_de_governo.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eduardo Sellan IIIFile:A group of Damas de Rojo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_group_of_Damas_de_Rojo.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Diego Grez

License 60

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/