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Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 2
Outline
• Interference In the Real-World– Hindsight Bias
– Misinformation Effect
• Implicit Memory– Introduction
– Dissociating Implicit & Explicit Memory
– Transfer Appropriate Processing
• Implicit Learning
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 3
Testing Biased Guessing Hypothesis
• Introduce modified recognition test.• Predictions for recognition accuracy:
– Biased Guessing: Modified Misleading = control
– Memory Change: Modified Misleading < control• misleading info should memory for original info regardless of
test
Initial Event Post-Event Reco Test
Control “Stop” --- “Stop” or “Yield
Standard – Accurate “Stop” “Stop” “Stop” or “Yield”
Standard -- Misleading “Stop” “Yield” “Stop” or “Yield”
Modified – Misleading “Stop” “Yield” “Stop” or “Detour”
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 4
Rationale for Biased Guessing Prediction
Control Condition: “S” no “Y”; test: “S” or “Y”
“S,” no “Y”no “S,” no “Y”
“S,” no “Y”
no “S,” no “Y”
“S,” “Y”
no “S,” “Y”
Standard Test: “S” “Y”; test: “S” or “Y”
Modified Test: “S” “Y”; test: “S” or “Z”
“S,” no “Z”no “S,” no “Z”
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 5
McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985): Method
Stims:– 79 slides of an office theft– 4 s / slide– 4 critical items: coffee jar, magazine, pop can, tool– Post-slide narrative
• 735-words long
• misinformation for 2 items; neutral for 2 items
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 6
McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985): Method
Procedure:
• view slides
• 10 minute filler
• read narrative
• 10 minute filler
• 36-item 2IFC recognition test:
“The man slide the calculator beneath the ___ in his tool box”
standard test: hammer vs screwdrivermodified test: hammer vs wrench
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 7
McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985): Method
Procedure:
• view slides
• 10 minute filler
• read narrative
• 10 minute filler
• 36-item 2IFC recognition test:
“The man slide the calculator beneath the ___ in his tool box”
standard test: hammer vs screwdrivermodified test: hammer vs wrench
On Slide
In Narrative
Never encountered
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 8
McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985): Results
• Standard Test: – replicates Misinformation effect: Misled << Control
• Modified Test:– consistent w/ Biased Guessing: Misled Control
• access to original info unimpaired by post-event info.• Consistent w/ Coexistence & Source Monitoring Accounts
Misled Control
Standardhammer vs screwdriver
37% 72%
Modifiedhammer vs wrench
72% 75%
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 9
Misinformation w/ Modified Procedure: Belli (1992)
Materials:– 44 slides (mother & child arguing)– 4 crit slides (coffeemaker, blender, toaster)– 500 word narrative w/ 2 misleading statements
• 2IFC modified reco test
Slide Narrative Test
Control toaster --- toaster vs blender
Mod Misinfo
toaster coffemaker toaster vs blender
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 10
Misinformation w/ Modified Procedure: Belli (1992)
view slides
Exp1 5-min delay Exp3 5-day delay
read narrative
10 min delay
reco test
Design – manipulates timing of misinformation
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 11
Belli (1992): Results
• W/ 5-min delay: Mod Misled = Control• consistent w/ Biased Guessing
• W/ 5-day delay: Mod Misled < Control • (at lease) consistent w/ Coexistence & RI
Control Mod Mis
Exp 1ns: 5-min delay 95% 95%
Exp 3*: 5-day delay 80% 70%
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 12
Blocking Hypothesis: Belli’s Explanation
Post-event information impairs access to original traces when:
• original trace is weak• post-event information is strong
Original trace
Trace for misinfomation
Effect of mis-info on modified test
strong strong no M&Z
weak weak no?? ??
weak strong yes Belli
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 13
Misinformation Effect: My TakeMemory impairment, coexistence, & source monitoring errors are
not mutually exclusive• As the work on Hindsight bias indicates, new information can:
– modify existing information– coexist w/ existing information– block access to existing information
• Biased guessing is a problem in 2IFC situation – particularly when target & misinformation are of equal strength
• Nonetheless, bias to select foil in standard condition, indicates that post-event information is (some times) accepted as true & incorporated into event representation.
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 14
Inhibitory ProcessesInhibition – well established at neural level.
increased activation of one unit, decreases activation in others.
Inhibition also observed in visual attention/object perceptions
Inhibition Processes in Memory Performance:
retrieval of ITEMI decreases the likelihood that ITEMJ will be retrieved.
Assumption: Inhibition is an active process
Has the flavor of repression/suppression, but functions to increase memory efficient not to “protect the self.”
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 15
Retrieval Induced Forgetting
Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork (1994)
Aim: Demonstrate that retrieval can produce forgetting
Materials:
• category-instance pairs COLOR-red; PET-dog; FRUIT-apple
• 6 pairs/category:
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 16
Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork (1994): Procedure
3-Phase Procedure:• Study – each pair presented once for 5 s• Retrieval Practice
– complete category-stem w/ list instanceFRUIT– ap__
– Each category-stem presented 3 times
20 minute delay• Test Phase
– given each category name recall all instances
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 17
Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork (1994): Results
• Practice Effect: PIPC >> UIUC• UIUC > UIPC
– if not rehearsed, being an instance of a practiced category hinders recall.
• Interpretation: UIPC inhibited during practice in order to make retrieval of practiced items easer.
% Correctly Recalled Instances
81.0% 40.3% 56.0%Practiced Instance from Practiced
Categories
Unpracticed Instances from Practiced Categories
Unpracticed Instances from Unpracticed Categories
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 18
Inhibitory Processes• Inhibitory Processing still not well studied. • Parameters still being explored
– range– strength – duration
• Alternative accounts of retrieval-inducted forgetting being explored.
– Retroactive Interference– Associative Inference (deferential spreading
activation)
Psyco 350 Lec #11– Slide 19
(Episodic) Memory Basic: Implications for Forgetting
• Probability of recall decreases, as # of ERs linked to a cued concept increases. [interference]
----------------------------------------------------------------
Other possible mechanisms:
• decay
• knowledge revision & biased reconstruction
• inhibition
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 21
Implicit Memory
“Any form of memory that does not require consciousness and can operate without a person being aware that he is using his memory.” – Radvansky, p. 112
People “show evidence of memories for experiences that they cannot consciously retrieve.” Anderson, p. 298
“Memory without awareness” – Neath & Supernant, p 139
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 22
Implicit Memory
• Strategy for studying implicit memory:
– Demonstrate that prior experience affects performance on tasks that do not require retrieval or recognition of those prior experiences.
Such test are called Indirect tests.
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 23
Types of Memory Tests
Test
Direct (explicit) Indirect (implicit)
recall, cued recallrecognition, recency
frequency Word-related Test Judgments fragment completion fame
word-stem completion truth perceptual ID liking lexical decision r-w estimation
word-association general-knowledge category-instance generation
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 24
Common Indirect Tests
Fragment Completion• _e_e_c_• recency
Stem Completion• fre_ _ _ _ _ _• frequency
Anagrams:
• ticilipm• implicit
Lexical Decision• word/non-word? TREB
Perceptual Identification
read word (identify object) presented VERY briefly (e.g., 25 ms)
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 25
Evidence for Implicit Memory on Indirect Tests
• Indirect tests typically use improved performance as the measure of implicit memory
• Priming = the improvement in performance on a subsequent occasion due to processing on a previous occasion
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 26
Priming Effects
Exp condition = a prior exposure to stimControl = “no” prior exposure to stim
Priming:• fragment, stem, anagram:
dv – % complete: exp > control• Perceptional Identification:
dv -- % correct: exp > control• Lexical Decision:
dv – RT: exp < control
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 27
Dissociating Implicit & Explicit Memory
Dissociation: One variable affects one task differently than it affects another
_______________________________________
Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982)
Design:
Delay X Test Type .
1 hr fragment completion (indirect)
1 week recognition (direct)
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 28
Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982)
Phase 1 Intentional Study (96 words)
1 hr delay
Phase 2 Recognition48 words
Frag Completion
48 words1 week delay
Phase 3 Frag Completion
48 words Recognition
48 words
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 29
Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982)
Results:• Reco w/ dealy• frag unaffected by delay
Delay causes a dissociation between reco & frag tests.
Implication:
Test tap different “forms” of memory.
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 30
(Double) Dissociating Implicit & Explicit Memory
Jacoby (1983)
Aims: Using same materials demonstrate:
• explicit memory w/ depth of processing
• implicit memory w/ perceptual similarity
Materials selected so that:• as depth of processing , perceptual similarity
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 31
Jacoby (1983)
Design: Encoding Task X Test .
(Antonym) Generation recognition
Read (antonym in context) perceptual ID (40 ms)
Read (target alone)
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 32
Jacoby(1983): Two perspective on Encoding Tasks
Predictions:• Recognition: deeper processing should produce
better performance.• Percp ID: priming should become stronger as study
and test materials become more similar.
Task example LOP perc similarity
Generate hot deep low
Read in context hot – COLD mid mid
Read no context COLD shallow high
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 33
Jacoby (1983): Results• w/out prior exposure
(control): perc ID = 60%• In all conditions:
– Perc ID > 60% – priming
_________________________
• Reco with Depth of Processing
• Perc ID perc similarity (Perc ID LoP)Evidence for 2 types of
memory
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 34
Jacoby (1983): Results• w/out prior exposure
(control): perc ID = 60%• In all conditions:
– Perc ID > 60% – priming
_________________________
• Reco with Depth of Processing
• Perc ID perc similarity (Perc ID LoP)Evidence for 2 types of
memory
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 35
Transfer Appropriate Process: Theory
Assumes:
• Performance depends of match between processing at study and processing at test.
Analogous to encoding specificity.
• Two-types of Processes– Data-driven (perceptual) – processing of
physical features.
– Conceptually-driven (semantic) – processing for meaning
Psyco 350 Lec #10– Slide 36
Transfer Appropriate Processing: Two Types of Indirect Test
Data-driven
(Perceptual):• fragment completion• stem completion• anagram completion• lexical decision• perceptual
identification
Conceptually-driven
(Semantic):• word association
doctor ??• category-instance
generation“name a mammal”
• general knowledge“The capital of the US is
…?”