PsychSmart INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 20111

PsychSmart INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY


CHAPTER SEVEN:CHAPTER SEVEN:

THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCEINTELLIGENCE


Thinking and ReasoningThinking and Reasoning

What is thinking?What is thinking?

What processes underlie reasoning and What processes underlie reasoning and decision making? decision making?

How do people approach and solve How do people approach and solve problems?problems?

What are the major obstacles to problem What are the major obstacles to problem solving?solving?


Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Branch of psychology that focuses on the Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision makingjudging, and decision making


ThinkingThinking

Manipulation of mental representations of Manipulation of mental representations of informationinformation


Mental ImagesMental Images

Representations in the mind of an object or Representations in the mind of an object or eventevent Not just visual representations but every Not just visual representations but every

modalitymodality


ConceptsConcepts

ConceptsConcepts Categorizations of objects, events, or people Categorizations of objects, events, or people

that share common propertiesthat share common properties PrototypesPrototypes

Highly representative examples of a concept Highly representative examples of a concept Example: Vehicle Example: Vehicle


Algorithms and HeuristicsAlgorithms and Heuristics AlgorithmAlgorithm

Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problema solution to a problem aa² + ² + bb² = ² = cc²²

HeuristicHeuristic Cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solutionCognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution

Representativeness heuristicRepresentativeness heuristic Rule that one applies when he judges people by the Rule that one applies when he judges people by the

degree to which they represent a certain category or degree to which they represent a certain category or group of peoplegroup of people

Availability heuristic Availability heuristic Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how

easily the event can be recalled from memoryeasily the event can be recalled from memory


Solving ProblemsSolving ProblemsSteps in Problem SolvingSteps in Problem Solving

Figure 2 of Chapter 7


Solving ProblemsSolving Problems

Preparation: Understanding and Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing ProblemsDiagnosing Problems Well-defined ProblemWell-defined Problem

Both the nature of the problem itself and the Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and information needed to solve it are available and clearclear

Ill-defined ProblemIll-defined Problem Not only the specific nature of the problem is Not only the specific nature of the problem is

unclear, but the information required to solve the unclear, but the information required to solve the problem is less obviousproblem is less obvious



Preparation: Understanding and Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing ProblemsDiagnosing Problems Kinds of ProblemsKinds of Problems

Arrangement problemsArrangement problems Problems of inducing structureProblems of inducing structure Transformation problemsTransformation problems



3 Major Categories 3 Major Categories of Problemsof Problems



Solving ProblemsSolving ProblemsSolutions to Problems on Previous SlideSolutions to Problems on Previous Slide




Production: Generating Solutions Production: Generating Solutions Means-end AnalysisMeans-end Analysis

Involves repeated tests for differences between the Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists desired outcome and what currently exists

Most frequently applied heuristic in problem Most frequently applied heuristic in problem solvingsolving

SubgoalsSubgoals Involves dividing a problem into intermediate steps Involves dividing a problem into intermediate steps



Judgment: Evaluating the SolutionsJudgment: Evaluating the Solutions Final stage in problem solvingFinal stage in problem solving If solution is less concrete or if there is not a If solution is less concrete or if there is not a

single correct solution, evaluating solutions single correct solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficultbecomes more difficult


Solving ProblemsSolving Problems Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving

Functional FixednessFunctional Fixedness Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its

typical usetypical use Mental SetMental Set

Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persistpersist

Inaccurate Evaluation of SolutionsInaccurate Evaluation of Solutions Confirmation biasConfirmation bias

Problem solvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore Problem solvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutionshypotheses or solutions


Solving ProblemsSolving Problems3 Candle Problem: 3 Candle Problem: Place the three candles at eye level on a Place the three candles at eye level on a

door so that the wax will not drip on the floor as the candles door so that the wax will not drip on the floor as the candles burn – using only the materials shown in the figure below.burn – using only the materials shown in the figure below.




Solution to the 3 Candle ProblemSolution to the 3 Candle Problem



Creativity and Problem SolvingCreativity and Problem Solving

CreativityCreativity Ability to generate original ideas or solve Ability to generate original ideas or solve

problems in novel waysproblems in novel ways Divergent thinkingDivergent thinking

Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questionsproblems or questions

Convergent thinkingConvergent thinking Produces responses that are based primarily on Produces responses that are based primarily on

knowledge and logic knowledge and logic


Learning to be a Better Learning to be a Better ThinkerThinker

Redefine problemsRedefine problems

Use subgoalsUse subgoals

Adopt a critical perspectiveAdopt a critical perspective

Consider the oppositeConsider the opposite

Think divergentlyThink divergently

Experiment with various solutionsExperiment with various solutions


Language Language

How do people use language? How do people use language?

How does language develop? How does language develop?


LanguageLanguage

Communication of information through Communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic symbols arranged according to systematic rulesrules


Grammar: The Rules of Grammar: The Rules of LanguageLanguage

GrammarGrammar System of rules that determines how our System of rules that determines how our

thoughts can be expressedthoughts can be expressed PhonologyPhonology

Study of the smallest basic units of speechStudy of the smallest basic units of speech Phonemes Phonemes

SyntaxSyntax Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be

combined to form sentencescombined to form sentences

Semantics Semantics Meanings of words and sentencesMeanings of words and sentences


Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

BabblingBabbling Speechlike but meaningless soundsSpeechlike but meaningless sounds

Critical periodCritical period

Production of LanguageProduction of Language Telegraphic speechTelegraphic speech Overgeneralization Overgeneralization


Theories of Language Theories of Language AcquisitionAcquisition

Learning Theory ApproachLearning Theory Approach

Nativist approachNativist approach Universal grammarUniversal grammar Language-acquisition deviceLanguage-acquisition device

Interactionist approachInteractionist approach Genetically determined predispositions and Genetically determined predispositions and

environmental circumstances that help teach environmental circumstances that help teach languagelanguage


Intelligence?Intelligence?

What are the different definitions and What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence? conceptions of intelligence?

What are the major approaches to What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure? intelligence tests measure?


Intelligence?Intelligence?

How can the extremes of intelligence be How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized?characterized?

Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?

To what degree is intelligence influenced To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment, and to what degree by by the environment, and to what degree by heredity?heredity?


IntelligenceIntelligence

Capacity to understand the world, think Capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challengeswhen faced with challenges


Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

GG-factor-factor General factor for mental ability General factor for mental ability Was thought to underlie performance in every Was thought to underlie performance in every

aspect of intelligenceaspect of intelligence Recent theories view intelligence as a Recent theories view intelligence as a

multidimensional conceptmultidimensional concept



Fluid IntelligenceFluid Intelligence Reflects information-processing capabilities, Reflects information-processing capabilities,

reasoning, and memoryreasoning, and memory

Crystallized IntelligenceCrystallized Intelligence Accumulation of information, skills, and Accumulation of information, skills, and

strategies that people learn through strategies that people learn through experienceexperience



Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: The Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: The Many Ways of Showing IntelligenceMany Ways of Showing Intelligence Eight or more different forms of intelligenceEight or more different forms of intelligence

Information Processing as IntelligenceInformation Processing as Intelligence Information-processing approachInformation-processing approach

Way people store material in memory and use Way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks that material to solve intellectual tasks

Speed of processing Speed of processing


Theories of IntelligenceTheories of IntelligenceGardner’s Multiple IntelligencesGardner’s Multiple Intelligences




Practical Intelligence and Emotional Practical Intelligence and Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

Practical IntelligencePractical Intelligence Related to overall success in living Related to overall success in living

Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment,

evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotionsevaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions



Major Approaches to IntelligenceMajor Approaches to Intelligence



Measuring IntelligenceMeasuring Intelligence

Intelligence TestsIntelligence Tests Quantify and measure intelligence in an Quantify and measure intelligence in an

objective mannerobjective manner

Sir Frances GaltonSir Frances Galton



The Development of IQ TestsThe Development of IQ Tests Alfred BinetAlfred Binet

Mental age (MA)Mental age (MA) Chronological age (CA)Chronological age (CA) Intelligence quotient (IQ)Intelligence quotient (IQ)

IQ score = MA/CA IQ score = MA/CA x 100 100

Deviation IQ scoresDeviation IQ scores Bell-shaped distributionBell-shaped distribution



Intelligence Distribution CurveIntelligence Distribution Curve




Contemporary IQ TestsContemporary IQ Tests

Achievement and Aptitude TestsAchievement and Aptitude Tests Achievement testAchievement test

Designed to determine a person’s level of Designed to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a specific subject areaknowledge in a specific subject area

Aptitude testAptitude test Designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular Designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular

area or line of workarea or line of work



Reliability and Validity of TestsReliability and Validity of Tests ReliabilityReliability

Tests measure consistently what they are trying to Tests measure consistently what they are trying to measuremeasure

ValidityValidity Tests actually measure what they are supposed to Tests actually measure what they are supposed to

measuremeasure NormsNorms

Standards of test performance that permit the Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test to comparison of one person’s score on a test to scores of othersscores of others


Variations in Intellectual Variations in Intellectual AbilityAbility

Mental Retardation (Intellectual Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities)Disabilities) Disability characterized by significant Disability characterized by significant

limitations both in intellectual functioning and limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skillsskills MildMild with an IQ of 55 to 69with an IQ of 55 to 69 Moderate with an IQ of 40 to 54Moderate with an IQ of 40 to 54 Severe with an IQ of 25 to 39Severe with an IQ of 25 to 39 Profound with an IQ below 25Profound with an IQ below 25


Variations in Intellectual AbilityVariations in Intellectual Ability Mental RetardationMental Retardation

Fetal alcohol syndromeFetal alcohol syndrome Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while

pregnantpregnant Down SyndromeDown Syndrome Familial retardation Familial retardation

No apparent biological defect exists, but there is a No apparent biological defect exists, but there is a history of retardation in the familyhistory of retardation in the family

The Intellectually GiftedThe Intellectually Gifted Have IQ scores greater than 130Have IQ scores greater than 130


Group Differences in Group Differences in IntelligenceIntelligence

Background and experiences of test-Background and experiences of test-takers have the potential to affect resultstakers have the potential to affect results

Some standardized IQ tests contain Some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate against elements that discriminate against minority-group members whose minority-group members whose experiences differ from those of the white experiences differ from those of the white majority majority


Nature, Nurture, and IQNature, Nurture, and IQ

Culture-fair IQ TestCulture-fair IQ Test One that does not discriminate against the One that does not discriminate against the

members of any minority groupmembers of any minority group

HeritabilityHeritability Measure of the degree to which a Measure of the degree to which a

characteristic can be attributed to genetic, characteristic can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors inherited factors

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PsychSmart INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY