Psychology Teacher Networ is published by the Educatiok n ... · everything about the issue is clear, makes sense, and fits together. At the core of the process is a kind of reo-

Psychology Teacher NetworkEducation DirectorateAmerican Psychological Association750 First Street, NEWashington, DC 20002-4242

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Psychology Teacher Network is published by the EducationDirectorate of the American Psychological Association. Sub-scriptions are free to High School Teacher Affiliates of the APAand APA Members and $15 a year for all others. Address edito-rial correspondence to Psychology Teacher Network, EducationDirectorate, APA, 750 First St., N.E., Washington, DC 20002-4242.Address inquiries regarding membership or affiliation to theMembership Office, APA, at the same address.

Senior Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Julie GoldsteinTOPSS Editorial Board . . . . . . . . . .Nancy Grippo, Alan FeldmanCommunity College Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Martha Ellis Ph.D.APA’s Pre-College and

Undergraduate Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Peter Petrossian

The Education and TrainingAwards Committee of APA pre-sents these awards in recogni-tion of the efforts of psycholo-gists who have made distin-guished contributions to educa-tion and training, who haveproduced imaginative innova-tions, or who have been in-volved in the developmentalphases of programs in educa-tion and training in psychology.These contributions might in-clude important research oneducation or training; the de-

velopment of effective materials for instruction;the establishment of workshops, conferences, ornetworks of communication for education andtraining; achievement and leadership in admin-istration that facilitates education and training;and activity in professional organizations thatpromote excellence.

Each year the committee presents two ofthese awards. The Distinguished Career Contri-bution Award recognizes continuous significantcontributions made over a lifelong career in psy-chology; the Distinguished Contribution Awardrecognizes a specific but major contribution toeducation and training.

The 1996 Distinguished Contribution to Ed-ucation and Training Award is presented toDiane Halpern, Ph.D. As an undergraduate atthe University of Pennsylvania, Dr. Halpern wassoon convinced that nothing else would be as in-teresting as the study of psychology, a belief thatshe still holds today despite all of the years sincethen that have been spent as an academic psy-

chologist. Dr. Halpern went on to obtain a mas-ter’s degree at Temple University, then a secondmaster’s degree and doctorate at University ofCincinnati, where she benefitted from the men-toring of Drs. William Dember and Joel Warm.

Dr. Halpern’s first academic position was asa Visiting Professor at the University of Califor-nia, Riverside. She later moved to CaliforniaState University, San Bernardino where she isnow chair of the Psychology Department.

Dr. Halpern has a broad range of interestsbeginning with her earlier work in visual percep-tion and, more recently, with individual differ-ences in cognition and using the principles of cog-nitive psychology to help students improve howthey think. Her texts on these topics, Thoughtand Knowledge: An Introduction to CriticalThinking (3rd edition) and Sex Differences inCognitive Abilities (3rd edition in preparation),have greatly influenced the field. Dr. Halpern isan active advocate for psychology. She served onthe APA’s Board of Educational Affairs and as thepast-president of the Division of General Psychol-ogy and is president-elect of the Society for theTeaching of Psychology. She has also worked onseveral state and national committees to shapepublic policy with regard to higher education in-cluding the California Postsecondary EducationCommission, the Technical Advisory Commiteefor the Graduate Record Examination, and theU.S. Department of Education’s National Goalsfor Post-Secondary Education.

Very few scholars have made so many im-portant and diverse contributions to the ad-vancement of quality education as has DianeHalpern. She has applied the theories, empirical

See Awards, page 4

January-February 1997•Volume 7•Issue 1

APA EDUCATION DIRECTORATE

APA Presents 1996 Education and Training Awards

For Teachers of Introductory Psychology

Inside:Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . .

What Is Knownand Unknown AboutIntelligence . . . . . . . . . .

What a Long StrangeTrip It’s Been . . . . . . . . .

Dear Doctor. . . . . . . . . .

Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Activity: Concept Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . .

New Members. . . . . . . .

Announcements . . . . . .

PTNPSYCHOLOGY TEACHER NETWORK

Diane F. Halpern, Ph.D.

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2 Psychology Teacher Network January-February 1997

BRIEFING

The book Productive Thinking byGestalt psychologist Max Wert-heimer, published just over a halfcentury ago (two years after the au-thor’s death), has been translatedinto several foreign languages andhas been reissued repeatedly in Eng-lish; it continues to be cited repeat-edly in the Social Science CitationIndex. Why are people still reading it,still citing it?

Wertheimer introduced hisbook by asking, “What occurswhen, now and then, thinking reallyworks productively? What happenswhen, now and then, thinkingforges ahead? What is really goingon in such a process?”

His answer was that what char-acterizes productive thought is its fitwith the situation to which it is ap-plied. Productive thinking involvesgoing from a state of confusion aboutsome issue that is blind to the corestructural features and properties ofthat issue, to a new state in whicheverything about the issue is clear,makes sense, and fits together. At thecore of the process is a kind of reor-ganization or restructuring, goingfrom a state that makes no sense toone that does make sense, displaysinsight, is crystal clear.

In his lectures on thinking,and in his book, Wertheimer usednumerous concrete examples to il-lustrate his principles. They mayhelp clarify his approach. Considerfirst a perceptual illustration ofwhat he meant by “reorganiza-tion,” “restructuring,” “insight,”“understanding.”

What does the followingmean?: Pas de l’y a Rhône quenous. This example comes fromWilliam James (1890). The Frenchmight be translated roughly as “Notof there is Rhône (a river) than we,”which makes no sense at all. Try

saying it out loud. Does that help?Try reading it with an American ac-cent: “Pah de’l ya rown ke-new” —or “Paddle your own canoe.” Thereorganization achieves a transitionfrom meaninglessness to a newstructure, in which the sequence ofsounds symbolized by the lettersnow makes some sense.

A rebus almost cries out for re-organization.

stoodWhat does this well mean?

view

“Well” is under “stood,” andboth are over “view” — which,slightly reorganized, becomes“well” under “stood” over “view,”or well-understood overview.That’s what you need to generateabout any problem, to think aboutit productively.

Such “catching on” character-izes productive thinking and prob-lem solving as well, whether inphysics, geometry, or any otherfield, and Wertheimer analyzeddozens of concrete examples. Here’sone instance: why is any sequenceof three repeated digits (abc,abc or,efg,efg; 276,276 or 341,341, etc.)divisible without remainder by 13?The solution requires realizing thatthe factors of the number abc,abcare abc — and 1001 (1001 timesabc equals abc,abc), and that 1001is divisible by 13 without remainder.Think it through!

A striking example of reorgani-zation is an extension of a popularpuzzle. A hunter sees a bear onemile due south of him. He aims hisgun, shoots, and misses. The hunternext walks the one mile due south towhere the bear was when he firedthe shot, then walks one mile dueeast, then one mile due north —

and finds himself standing at ex-actly the same place he had beenstanding when he shot his gun. Theusual version next asks, “What colorwas the bear?” For someone whohas never heard this story, the ques-tion is astonishing. How could theinformation provided have anythingto do with the color of the bear? Tosolve the problem, the query has tobe reformulated into, “Where on thesurface of the earth might it be pos-sible to go successively one mile duesouth, then one mile due east, thenone mile due north, and end upstanding at the same place onestarted from?” Most readers will al-ready know that the spot is thenorth pole. From there, you go onemile due south, then turn left 90 de-grees and walk exactly one mile dueeast, then turn left again and go ex-actly one mile due north — and endup standing on the north pole again.The spherical triangle the huntertraversed looks a bit different froma plane triangle (all three sides arecurved and the sum of its interiorangles is 270 rather than 180 de-grees), but the north pole clearlysatisfies the specified constraints.What can you conclude about thecolor of the bear? Of course: anybear in the arctic is apt to be apolar bear, so the color of the bearmust be white.

But that is where the exten-sion of this problem starts. Whereelse on the earth’s surface, otherthan at the north pole, can one goone mile due south, then one miledue east, then one mile due north,and end up standing at the sameplace one started from? Perhapsyou should stop here and ponderthe puzzle for a while.

Such examples may help con-vey what Max Wertheimer meant by“reorganizing” or “restructuring.”

A Contemporary Perspective on the Psychology of Productive ThinkingBy Michael Wertheimer, Ph.D., University of Colorado at Boulder

Dr. Wertheimer recentlyretired from the University ofColorado after a teaching ca-reer that spanned more thanfour decades. Dr. Wertheimerhas spent the last few yearson a biography of his father,the Gestalt psychologist,Max Wertheimer.

Psychology Teacher Network January-February 1997 3

He argued that productive thinkingrequires an insightful revision ofone’s representation of the problemdomain, to use more modern termi-nology. In summary, he proposedthree broad generalizations aboutproductive problem solving, all ofwhich can be viewed as challengesto modern cognitive psychology, andall of which have been addressed bycontemporary writers. First, produc-tive thought involves transformingthe representation of a problemfrom a vague, fuzzy, incomplete andconfused one that is blind to essen-tial structural features of the prob-lem to one that is clear, has no gapsin it, makes sense, and views eachpart of the problem in terms of itsplace, role, and function within theproblem as a whole.

Second, such transformationsare (a) hampered by blind search,“functional fixedness,” empty asso-ciations, “and-sums,” conditioning,school drill, bias, and so on, and are(b) aided by open-minded explo-ration of the problem, searching forits essential, crucial features, and its“rho relations.” By “functionalfixedness” Wertheimer meant that ifan object is seen as fulfilling a par-ticularly useful function in one con-text, it makes it less likely that onewill see that it could perform a dif-ferent function as well in anothercontext. An “and-sum” is a mereconglomeration of items that are ar-bitrarily connected, without regardto the attributes of those items ortheir meaningful relations to one an-other. The term “rho relation” wasused by Wertheimer to indicate afeature that is crucial to the essenceof a problem. For example if you areto build a toy bridge of woodenblocks, there is a rho relation be-tween the distance separating thetwo uprights and the length of thehorizontal member (it can’t beshorter than the distance betweenthe two uprights), as well as a rhorelation between the heights of thetwo vertical blocks — they must beat least roughly comparable if thebridge is to stand. But the color of

the blocks bears no rho relation towhether the bridge will stand or not.

Third, this perspective gener-ates several potentially productiveareas for research: (a) laws govern-ing segregation, grouping, center-ing, and structural transposability,(b) how relations between parts andtheir wholes govern the possible op-erations on parts that take into ac-count the part’s place, role andfunction within the whole of whichit is a part, and (c) the nature of“outstanding wholes,” “goodGestalten,” indeed of “rho rela-tions” themselves.

Wertheimer illustrated theseobservations with numerous exam-ples, ranging from finding the areaof a parallelogram to how AlbertEinstein formulated the theory ofrelativity. To paraphrase Ericssonand his colleagues in their preface tothe 1982 edition of ProductiveThinking, the examples set a chal-lenge for the modern cognitive psy-chologist — indeed for anythoughtful human being. They con-trast pure memory, or reproductivethinking, which can be accountedfor reasonably well by the associa-tionist paradigm that prevailed halfa century ago (and by its moderncounterpart, the connectionist ap-proach to computer modeling) withproductive thinking, or insight-based reasoning, which is not soeasily handled by an associationistor connectionist strategy. Examplesof productive problem solving andthinking compel consideration ofcomplex mental structures andprocesses, typically ones that areidiosyncratic to a particular prob-lem and do not generalize from oneproblem domain to another.

The advent of the computer afew decades ago generated what isnow called the “cognitive revolu-tion.” The computer became themodel for the human mind. Newell,Shaw and Simon (1958, 1962),Newell and Simon (1972), andSimon (1978) formalized what hasbecome the prototype of the kindsof paradigms that have been taken

for granted by cognitive psycholo-gists ever since. Problem solving isconceived as goal-directed searchamong possible perceived solutionswithin a specified domain called the“problem space.” Such a concep-tion works well in simulations of theproblem-solving efforts of noviceswho have little experience with at-tempting to solve novel problems,but cannot readily account for howexperts like chess masters, physicistsor designers, who have a thoroughknowledge and an organized under-standing of a domain, go about solv-ing difficult problems in the area oftheir expertise. One consequence ofthis failure was the postulation byKintsch (e.g. Kintschand van Dijk, 1978)and others of complexabstract knowledgestructures such asschemas, scripts, orframes to account fortext comprehensionand other complexcognitive processes.From this perspective,as Greeno (1977) putit, “insight” involvesthe discovery of theapplicability of an ex-isting general schemato a novel situation.But what processes generate gen-uinely productive thinking, that is,yield representations that can infact be used successfully to solve anovel problem, remained — andremains — elusive. Blind schema-generalization cannot work; the re-structuring and insight emphasizedby Wertheimer are missing in com-puter models of cognitive processes.Ericsson and his co-authors in 1982(pp. xv-xvi) concluded that whilemodern cognitive science has madesome modest progress on several is-sues raised in the book ProductiveThinking, “it has by no meanssolved all of them. All of Wert-heimer’s examples raise seriousproblems for an associationistic par-adigm of mental processes. Today,

See Productive Thinking, page 6

...productive thinking requires

an insightful revision of one’s representation of

the problem domain...


Awards, from page 1methods, and knowledge of cogni-tive psychology and psychometricsto educational practices that aredesigned to help students becomebetter thinkers and learners. Herextensive work on the assessmentof educational outcomes, individualdifferences in cognition, and thedevelopment of critical thinking re-flect her unique contributions tounderstanding the thinking andlearning process and its real life im-plications. Dr. Halpern’s outstand-ing contributions to the educationof the next generation reflect herlifetime commitment to teachingand learning excellence.

The 1996 Distinguished CareerContribution to Education andTraining Award is presented to Cyn-thia D. Belar, Ph.D. for her pio-neering work in the field of healthpsychology. Beginning in the mid-1970s, Dr. Belar created and imple-mented a number of academic, re-search and clinical programs thatopened the way to both APA recogni-tion of health-based psychology pro-grams and institutional acceptanceof the practice of psychology as avital part of physical health care.

Dr. Belar earned her doctorateat Ohio University after an intern-ship at Duke University MedicalCenter. She soon became Director

of Internship Training at the Uni-versity of Florida Health SciencesCenter, and served as Chief Psy-chologist at Kaiser Permanente,Los Angeles from 1983 until 1990.In 1990, Dr. Belar returned to theUniversity of Florida Health Sci-ence Center where she is currently

Professor and Director of the Clini-cal Psychology Doctoral Program.

Dr. Belar has made numerousnational contributions. In additionto participation on various boardsand committees, she has chairednational conferences on internship(1987), scientist-practitioner (1990)and postdoctoral (1992) educationand training in professional psychol-ogy. Each of these conferences es-

tablished guidelines for educationalprograms subsequently adopted byvarious groups in psychology, in-cluding adaptations by the APACommittee on Accreditation for theaccreditation of postdoctoral pro-grams.

Key words in describing Dr.Belar’s career to date are initiativeand innovation. As a professor,scholar, clinician, educator and ad-ministrator, Cynthia D. Belar hasgreatly influenced graduate educa-tion, internship training, postdoc-toral fellowship opportunities,diplomate recognition and emerg-ing areas of health psychology. Sheis widely recognized as the mostexperienced, tactful and zealousorganizer of national conferences inpsychology. Most recently, she de-veloped national conferences to ex-amine the Scientist PractitionerModel and Postdoctoral Education.These conferences are universallyrecognized as being invaluablecontributions to our field. She alsowas the first person to initiateHMO postdoctoral fellowship pro-grams in Behavioral Medicine. Forher commitment and dedication toinnovative roles for psychologistsand her leadership in national dis-cussion of cutting edge issues,Cynthia D. Belar is honored withthis award.

Cynthia D. Belar, Ph.D.

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TOPSS is proposing two 1 1/2-day workshops forteachers of introductory psychology to be held on April18-19, 1997. One of the workshops will be held in con-junction with the Rocky Mountain Psychological Associa-tion’s Regional Meeting in Reno, NV, and the other inFort Worth, TX, in conjunction with the SouthwesternPsychological Association’s Regional Meeting. Theseworkshops encourage teachers and presenters to worktogether toward improving psychology education for allstudents.

TOPSS workshops, highly rated by teachers, serveas a model for providing teachers with an opportunity togain a greater knowledge and understanding of psychol-ogy by building on teachers’ current knowledge of psy-chology content. Presenters offer innovative ways for

teachers to share concepts and skills, explore scientificways of thinking, examine scientific processes and princi-ples, engage teachers in problem-solving and decision-making activities, and provide a forum for the exchangeof ideas and experiences among teachers.

TOPSS workshop presenters create an environmentconducive to active learning, model multiple teachingstrategies for teachers to use, and help teachers to becomefamiliar with a wide range of psychology curricula, re-sources, and other scientific literature. Workshops incor-porate activities and materials that can be used in theclassroom.

Look for specific workshop registration informationin the next issue of PTN or call APA’s Education Direc-torate at (202)336-6076 for more information.

Proposed Spring Teacher Workshops


Question 1: What are the significant conceptualizations of intel-ligence at this time?Known:• Most of our knowledge on intelligence is based on research from psy-

chometric testing.• Most traditional intelligence tests focus on analytic abilities.• Some psychometricians focus on the differences and patterns of spe-

cific abilities.• Some psychometricians are concerned with correlations of specific

abilities and finding an overall general intelligence factor (g).In Dispute:• What is the definition of g? Is it a form of mental energy, an abstract

reasoning ability, a measure of neural processing speed, or a merestatistical regularity?

• Should measures of intelligence include musical, bodily-kinesthetic,interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and broader forms of spatialabilities?

• How do we distinguish between talents and intelligence?• Should intelligence tests measure creative and practical abilities as

well as analytic skills?• How can intelligence tests reflect the factors of significance within

specific cultures? (Anglo-Americans stress cognitive abilities as impor-tant in the concept of intelligence; people from other cultures viewmotivation, social skills, and practical school skills as more important.)

Unknown:• How do brain functions relate to intelligence? (With current improve-

ments in technology, research is still in the early stages.)

Question 2: What do intelligence test scores mean, what do theypredict, and how well do they predict it?Known:• Tests of intelligence usually have subtests to measure specific abilities.• Intelligence test scores correlate fairly well with school grades (.50)

but this correlation accounts only for 25% of the overall variance.(Culture and type of schooling are important variables contributing toschool achievement.)

• IQ scores are relatively stable throughout development.• Intelligence test scores are the best single predictor of how long an

individual will remain in school.• Psychometric intelligence is only one of the many factors that affect

social status.• Intelligence test scores are weakly related to job performance.• Correlations between intelligence test scores and juvenile crime are

negative and extremely low.• Perceptual and cognitive speed are correlated with psychometric

intelligence.Unknown:• Are factors such as interpersonal skills and aspects of personality more

important than intelligence in predicting job performance?• Does speed or “neural efficiency” promote increases in intelligence or

do more intelligent individuals just find quicker ways to complete per-ceptual and cognitive tasks?

Question 3: Why do individuals differ in intelligence and espe-cially in their scores on intelligence tests?Known:• Intelligence is the joint product of both genetic and environmental

factors.• Failure to attend school has a negative effect on intelligence scores.• Preschool programs usually have a positive effect on intelligence scores

but the gains tend to fade with time.• Exposure to lead has a negative effect on intelligence.• Prenatal exposure to high levels of alcohol has a negative effect on

intelligence.• Malnutrition is a negative factor for intelligence.• In the last 50 years, mean IQ scores world-wide have increased more

than 15 points (called the “Flynn effect”).In Dispute:• Can dietary supplements of micro-nutrients increase intelligence

scores in well-nourished individuals?Unknown:• How do genes contribute to individual differences in intelligence?• What level of nutrition is required to maintain intelligence?• Which factors contribute to the recent world-wide increase in intelli-

gence test scores (Flynn effect): improved nutrition, cultural changes,experience with testing, shifts in schooling or child-rearing methods,or other unknown considerations?

Question 4: Do various ethnic groups display different patternsof performance on intelligence tests and if so what might ex-plain those differences?Known:• There are no important gender differences in overall IQ scores.• Males tend to score higher on visual-spatial and (starting in middle-

childhood) mathematical skills, while females tend to achieve higherscores on several verbal scales.

• Sex hormone levels as well as social factors are responsible for genderdifferences.

• Intelligence distributions among groups overlap widely.See Record, page 8

Setting the Record Straight: What is Known andUnknown About Intelligence

By Virginia Nichols Quinn, Northern Virginia Community College

After the publication of Hernnstrein and Murray’s controversial book The Bell Curve, The APA’s Board of Scientific Affairs (BSA) established a TaskForce to prepare an authoritative report on research findings related to intelligence. The Task Force focused on five specific questions and indicated whatis known from scientific evidence, what is currently in dispute, and what is still unknown. The following is a summation of the Task Force findings. Theoriginal article detailing the Task Force’s findings appears in the February 1996 issue of American Psychologist.


Productive Thinking, from page 3the information-processing psychologist considers the so-lution of the issues raised by Wertheimer central toprogress in [the] understanding of problem solving andproductive thinking. Many of the examples so lucidlydiscussed by Wertheimer remain only partially under-stood and continue to represent significant challenges tocognitive scientists.”

I have proposed (1985) that the inherently blindconnections that make up a computer and a computerprogram can never achieve insight: understanding andmeaning are in principle outside the capacity of anycomputer or computer program; to the extent that aprogram might be able to mimic or simulate productivethinking, the insight or understanding is not in the pro-gram or computer itself, but in the programmer.

Library research and suggestions of several col-leagues yielded many recent publications that are clearlyrelevant to the issues raised in Wertheimer’s book. Peopleare still thinking about, writing about, and doing empiri-cal work on these matters. Consider a brief sample ofthese publications. The question about all these items, Ibelieve, should be whether recent developments demon-strate real progress on the central problem that MaxWertheimer addressed in his analyses of productive think-ing: the crucial role of reorganization, of restructuring, ofinsight. An old friend, Ward Edwards of southern Califor-nia, a long-time systems analyst, wrote me in anothercontext that he believes that one should let computers dowhat they do well, the “intellectual” processes of evalua-tion, inference, and decision — and let people do whatthey are good at, which are the tasks required to structurethe problem in the first place and to provide inputs tothose three processes. To repeat, computers and an infor-mation-processing model are, because they are inherentlyblind, excruciatingly literal, and incapable of processingmeaning, in principle unable to simulate the most criticalproperty of productive thinking, restructuring.

Holyoak and Spellman’s chapter on thinking for the1993 Annual Review of Psychology contrasts what theycall the production-systems approach of Simon and hiscolleagues, which handles “well-defined” problems thathave clear goals, a clear starting state, and obvious opera-tors reasonably well, with the approach to less well-de-fined problems on which Gestalt psychologists like MaxWertheimer worked, that typically require “restructuring”of the problem representation if a solution is to beachieved. They write (p. 269) that “It is unlikely... thatconnectionism will undermine the traditional view thathuman thinking requires a symbol system,” and (p. 273)give credit to Tweney (1990) for indicating that the com-plex interrelatedness of hypotheses provides a major chal-lenge for computational theories of scientific reasoning.

Holyoak and Spellman point out that “A crucialquestion for theories of thinking concerns relevance,” orwhat Wertheimer meant by rho relations. Yet another

issue (p. 297) is transfer, the transfer of knowledgelearned in one context to other related situations: “Essen-tially by definition, transfer is based on the perceptionthat prior knowledge is relevant to the current context.”How can a computer be programmed to make suchmetaphorical and analogical jumps? Another aspect of therelevance issue is stated as follows by Holyoak and Spell-man (p. 302): “A crucial aspect of the general characteri-zation of a representational system is that it involves spec-ifying which aspects of the represented world are rele-vant.” Once again: how do you program a computer so itwill be able to recognize the difference between rho rela-tions and trivial, superficial attributes of a problem?

Sternberg and Davidson’s 1995 book, The Nature ofInsight, is full of references to Productive Thinking, andMurray published a book in 1995 entitled Gestalt Psy-chology and the Cognitive Revolution. Murray claims,and documents in detail, that “the Gestalt psycholo-gists... foreshadowed the cognitive revolution” (p. xi); he“emphasizes the value of the insights of Gestalt psychol-ogy for our understanding of cognitive psychology, andargues that we need to re-evaluate many of Gestalt psy-chology’s ignored insights” (back cover).

A paper by Newell (1980) extolled the virtues of theconcept of a problem space, arguing that people con-struct and improve such spaces as they gain experiencein a problem domain, and that the problem-space idea(p. 715) “has strong implications for the transfer ofskill.... If a [person] maps a task into an existing problemspace, then the transfer of this knowledge to the newtask is implied.” But Newell does not address the criticalissue of rho relations: how does one know into which (al-ready-familiar) problem space to transfer a new prob-lem? Studies by Metcalfe (e.g., 1986) and her colleaguesprovide an empirical, functional distinction between theprocessing of memory tasks and of problem-solvingtasks, the same distinction that Wertheimer made be-tween reproductive and productive thinking. While peopleare generally able to predict their future performance onreproductive memory tasks (p. 292), they cannot predictfuture performance on productive problems that requiretransformation of the problem representation for theirsolution. Kounios and Smith (1995) provide comparablefindings, using a sophisticated method to study the time-course of partial information accumulation during theprocessing of anagram tasks, which require some degreeof reorganization or insight. Both of these lines of re-search imply that it may be inherently impossible for thecurrent continuity models of information processing toaccount for the all-or-none or discontinuity features ofproblem solving that requires a changed representation.

Winston, Chaffin and Herrmann (1987), in theirtaxonomy of part-whole relations, recognize that such relations are not limited to logical inclusion or classmembership — indeed there are many kinds of part-

See Productive Thinking, page 8


Editor’s Note: Psychology Teacher Network en-joys highlighting the contributions that APA affiliatesand members have made to the advancement of teach-ing introductory psychology. Bob McDermott, aTOPSS member from Lehman High School in NewYork, had the opportunity last year to take a sabbati-cal from his teaching job to travel. For his destina-tions, he chose the high schools of several TOPSSmembers. These teachers, who are preparing studentsto think critically by exposing them to the scientificbasis of psychology, work daily to bring psychology totoday’s youth in innovative ways. It is with pleasurethat we share with you their thoughts and ideas aboutintroductory psychology.

My first stop was with George Mager atGranville Senior High School in upstate New York.George likes teaching psychology because it not onlyprepares young people for exciting careers, but alsoaddresses their daily needs. His aim is to help stu-dents to make informed and intelligent decisionsabout issues in their everyday lives. At last year’sEastern Psychological Association’s annual meeting inBoston, George did a wonderful demonstration of thelearned helplessness phenomenon using anagramsand an audience of high school psychology instruc-tors. George sees two challenges for high school psy-chology teachers: First, there is a continuing need tofind new and improved ways to trigger the intrinsicmotivations of students as there is competition fortheir attention with television and computers. Second,it is important to keep up with the voluminous quan-tity of research data and findings generated by thescience of psychology.

My next stop was in Massachusetts to meet withPat Marinos. Pat is busily incorporating a more bio-logical emphasis into her courses. On the day I visitedher classroom, I watched her students present theirversions of the brain and its processes. Each groupmember became a part of the brain and, in turn, thelimbic system, the cerebellum, the corpus callosumwere each labelled and explained.

I then ventured to another town in Massachu-setts where I spent time with Dr. John Sullivan. Isat in on a parenting group in which they discussedthe difficulties of raising teenage children. From Feb-ruary through May, John keeps his class after hoursfor supplementary preparation for the AP exam. Nev-ertheless, his classes are filled every semester provingthe complementary nature of inspiration and perspi-ration. To prepare his students for the free responsechallenge, John is fond of having his students write

group essays. One such exercise has each of four stu-dents in a group prepare an exposition of the philoso-phy behind one of four major perspectives: humanis-tic, biological, cognitive-behavioral or psychoanalytic.When ready, these discourses are shared not only withother group members, but with the entire class. Johnfeels that psychology is an indispensable part of ahigh school student’s education because as a disci-pline it is primarily concerned with the motivationsand behaviors of people, precisely the terrain thatteenagers need to explore as they search for identity.

Mariann Paolantonio, from Pennsylvania, wasthe next teacher that I visited. Fond of independentstudy, Mariann’s seniors work on semester-long pro-jects on topics as varied as the brain and child psy-chology. Ultimately they produce portfolios of theirwork. Instead of merely requiring her students tomemorize the parts of the brain, she explores brainfunctioning, its effect on human behavior, and theneurotransmitters that make it all possible.

I took my tour of high schools across the borderinto Montreal where I met with Victoria Cattell ofSt. George Middle/High School. Tori teaches fine artsas well as psychology. She has worked hard to raiseher level of expertise in psychology and combines thiswith a love of fine arts. The result is wonderful inter-disciplinary opportunities like the exploration of sen-sation and perception from both artistic and psycho-logical perspectives. She is also fond of inviting in-structors from other departments to help explain

See Strange Trip, page 13

What a Long Strange Trip It’s BeenBy Bob McDermott, Lehman High School, Bronx, NY

Pat Rowan demon-strates the StroopEffect to his class.

Photo C


Productive Thinking, from page 6whole relationships, some relatively empty and some rel-atively rich and pregnant. Rho relations again? The au-thors do not mention them, nor do they refer to an ap-pendix in the later editions of Productive Thinking inwhich Wertheimer distinguished at length between “arbi-trary components” and “necessary parts.”

Kaplan and Simon’s 1990 paper, “In search of in-sight,” refers extensively to the Gestalt literature andthen reports empirical work on a classic mathematicalpuzzle, the mutilated-checkerboard problem. Attaining“insight,” they write, requires discovering an effectiveproblem representation, and the likelihood that such arepresentation will be discovered is related to the searchfor invariants, what they call the “notice invariantsheuristic.” Yet it is unlikely that such a heuristic could begeneralized to other problems since it is specific to thisparticular problem — and it also remains unclear howone should go about generating a good problem repre-sentation in the first place. What commands could onegive a computer that would have this desired effect? No-body knows yet how to program a computer so that itcan be sensitive to rho relations.

Most of the chapters in Sternberg and Davidson’s1995 book on insight are directly relevant. Mayer’sopening chapter, for instance, is on “The Search for In-sight: Grappling with Gestalt Psychology’s UnansweredQuestions.” Dominowski and Dallob, in “Insight andProblem Solving,” deal with characteristics of problemsolving, the difference between reproductive and pro-ductive thinking, the nature of insight, understanding,functional fixedness, and restructuring. Schooler et al.’s“epilogue,” entitled “Insight in Perspective,” touches onthe definition of insight, the causes of impasses duringthe process of solving a problem, how impasses areovercome, coherence, and other crucial issues.

Two things remain. First, will the modern com-puter-based information-processing paradigm that isdominating cognitive psychology be able to deal ade-quately with the central issue of productive thinking? Iwon’t belabor my answer to that question. In any event,people today are still reading and pondering MaxWertheimer’s book, Productive Thinking. Its striking de-scriptions and analyses of insights are as fresh today asthey were a half century ago, and pose a serious chal

See Productive Thinking, Page 13

Record, from page 5• Ethnic differences show complex

patterns and are difficult togeneralize.

• While Chinese and JapaneseAmericans have outstandingschool achievement, their IQscores are similar to those of Eu-ropean Americans (Whites) al-though their spatial scores areslightly higher.

• Hispanic Americans (Latinos)score somewhat lower thanWhites, but many Hispanics areless familiar with English.

• African Americans (Blacks) scoreabout 15 points below Whites.

• Empirical evidence shows littlesupport for genetic explanationsof the Black/White IQ differential.

In Dispute:• Can the Flynn effect explain the

Black/White IQ differential?Unknown:• What cultural factors lead to

differences in IQ scores?• Can sex differences in brain

structures and functions ex-plain differences in patterns ofintelligence?

Question 5: What significant

scientific issues are presentlyunresolved?• Why does the genetic impact on

intelligence increase with age?• What aspects of schooling are

critical to the development ofintelligence?

• What is the role of nutrition inintelligence?

• How should the correlation be-tween information processingspeed and psychometric intelli-gence be interpreted?

• Why have mean intelligencescores risen more than 15 pointsin the last 50 years?

• What causes the differences inscores between Blacks andWhites?

• How are such factors as creativ-ity, wisdom, practical sense, andsocial sensitivity related tointelligence?

Possible Activities for Introduc-tory Psychology Students:

Assign students to read the as-signed chapter (or pages) on “intel-ligence” in their text. Each studentmust outline their text’s author’sviews on:1) Known information on intelli-

gence;2) Issues that are currently in dis-

pute; and 3) Concepts that are unknown and

require further study.In the next class distribute

copies of this article and invite stu-dents to compare their text outlineswith the outline of the Task Force.

and/orDistribute copies of this article anddivide the class into five groups. As-sign one of the five questions to eachof the groups and instruct them topropose a study that could resolveone of the items listed as “in dis-pute” or “unknown.” Suggest thateach group of students begin byusing “known” information andthen design strategies to collect ad-ditional empirical evidence thatwould either solve the dispute orprovide an answer to an issue that iscurrently unsolved.

Article adapted from: Neisser, U.,Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T.J., Boykin,A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S.J., Halpern,D.F., Loehlin, J.C., Perloff, R., Stern-berg, R.J., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intel-ligence: Knowns and unknowns.American Psychologist, 51, 2, 77-101.

DEAR DOCTOR


The world of science is fraughtwith bits of folklore that are takenas truth. One of these concernsRandy Gardner, the 17 year oldhigh school student who, in Janu-ary 1964, supposedly proved howeasily we can do without sleep. Themyth is that he stayed awake 264hours (11 days) with no ill effects.This conclusion is so widespreadthat it has now become a stock“fact” presented in virtually anypsychology or psychiatry book thathas a chapter on sleep. Unfortu-nately the claim that Randy had noproblems was based upon only twoobservations, the first being thatthere were no obvious lasting phys-ical problems, at least none thatdidn’t disappear after he startedsleeping again. The second wasbased on the casual observation ofone researcher who, on Day 10 ofthe experiment, took Randy to arestaurant. While there, they spenta little time playing a pinball gameand the researcher later noted thatRandy played the game well andeven beat him at it. Although this isan interesting story, and shows thatthere were times when Randyseemed normal despite his sleeploss, the actual scientific datashows that Randy was actually suf-fering during his vigil.

Lieutenant Commander JohnJ. Ross of the US Navy MedicalNeuropsychiatric Research Unit inSan Diego monitored Randy’smarathon. In his notes we findthat by Day 2, Randy was havingintermittent difficulty focusing his

eyes and the visual problems werebad enough that he gave upwatching television for the rest ofthe marathon. On Day 3, therewas evidence of moodiness andsigns that Randy’s physical coordi-nation and strength were deterio-rating. Randy could now no longereven recite simple tongue twisters.On Day 4, he was showing somehallucinations, such as seeing astreet sign as a person, and had adelusional episode in which heimagined that he was a famousblack football player. This delusionsoon combined with his negativemood shifts and he began to showresentment and anger about whathe felt were racist motivated state-ments about his ability as a foot-ball player. This was interpreted asa form of delusional paranoia, acondition in which people believethat others dislike them and aretrying to do them harm. Thingscontinued to go downhill. Overtime his speech became very slowand by Day 8 it had “a soft, slow,slurred, mush quality”. By Day 9Randy was starting to showepisodes of fragmented thinkingand he frequently began, but didnot finish, his sentences. On Day11, the last day, he was given a fullneurological examination. Physi-cally he seemed fine, and couldmove his hands and legs with nor-mal coordination and had ade-quate balance although some mus-cle tremors were noticeable in hisfingers. There was also a slightheart murmur which disappeared

two days after he resumed sleep-ing. His eyes were showing rotarydrifts and an inability to focuswell. His face was described as“expressionless”. His speech wasslurred and without intonation andhe had to be encouraged to talk toget him to respond at all. His at-tention span was very short andhis mental abilities were dimin-ished. An example of this involvedthe so-called “serial sevens” test.In this test a person is told to startwith the number 100 and to gobackwards by subtracting 7 eachtime. Thus a person should go“100, 93, 86, 79...” and so forth.Randy got back to 65 (that’s only5 subtractions) and then stopped.When Dr. Ross asked him why hehad stopped he informed him thathe couldn’t remember what hewas supposed to be doing!

Obviously there were lots of illeffects of going without sleep forRandy Gardner. Probably the onlyreason that he lasted as long as hedid, at all, was because he wasvery young and healthy to beginwith. Other studies, on adults aged20 to 35, indicate that for the typi-cal person, it is seldom possible togo beyond around 60 hours with-out sleep. With that degree of sleepdeprivation most people showenough physical and mental dete-rioration to force an end to thestudy for their own safety. Fromthis it should be clear that sleepdeprivation has very substantialand very negative effects on healthand behavior.

Question: I understand that lack of sleep can be very detrimental to your health. However inthe 1960s a high school student, Randy Gardner, stayed up for 264 hours for a science fair pro-ject with supposedly no ill effects. Is this really possible? Could you also describe the effects ofsleep deprivation?

Submitted by Bates Mandel, Ben Franklin High School, Philadelphia, PA

Answered by Stanley Coren,Ph.D., University of BritishColumbia, Vancouver, Can-anda

A panel of noted clinical, ex-perimental and academicpsychologists has graciouslyagreed to reply in this col-umn to questions submittedby teachers and students.We invite you to send yourquestions to:

DEAR DOCTOR, PTN,Education Directorate, 750First Street, NE, Washing-ton, DC 20002-4242

Stanley Coren, Ph.D

PHOTO D

The Education Directorate and the American Psychological Association wish you a very happy, healthy and productive New Year!


REVIEW

The Other Side of Psychology: How Experimental Psychologists Find Out Aboutthe Way We Think and Act

The news media, TV and radio talkshows, and self-help books have in-creased awareness and interest inclinical psychology within the generalpublic. However, experimental psy-chology is largely unknown. In orderto inform the public about the “otherside of psychology,” Denise D. Cum-mins, Ph.D. has written a very read-able and interesting book that coversa variety of experimental topics.

The material covered in thisbook appears to have been carefullyselected. Each of the nine chaptersfocuses on the impact experimentalpsychologists have had on particularareas of psychology. The topics pre-sented are those covered in typicalintroductory psychology texts.These topics include social psychol-ogy, biological psychology, percep-tion, memory, consciousness, emo-tion, learning, language, and think-ing. However, the order of the chap-ters varies somewhat from typicalintroductory texts. Instead of begin-ning the book with the biologicalbasis of behavior, Cummins beginswith social cognition. This approachseems reasonable since studentsoften find biology related chaptersdifficult to understand but are in-trigued by recent events such as theRodney King beating and the Waco,Texas incident which highlightracial tension and obedience to au-thority. Therefore, the first chapterpresents information related to is-sues currently in the public con-science. This automatically demon-strates the relevance of experimentalpsychology and captivates the inter-est of the reader.

Due to the structure of thebook, chapters could easily be in-corporated into introductory psy-chology courses. The average chap-ter length is 22 pages. In addition,Cummins often provides a differentperspective than that given in mostintroductory texts. For instance, inthe perception chapter, she presentsvision research from a developmen-tal perspective. Clinical examplesalso attract the attention of thereader throughout the book andshow the tie between the experi-mental and clinical sides of psychol-ogy. The choice of examples is sig-nificant since, in general, most peo-ple are primarily interested in de-velopmental and clinical issues.Therefore, the chapters could serveas interesting and valuable supple-mental material.

A brief history of experimentalpsychology is presented in the pro-logue. Although short, the historydoes mention most of the peoplewho fostered the early growth of ex-perimental psychology, such asDescartes, Locke, Helmholtz, Don-ders, and Wundt. Chapter one pre-sents social psychology research.Milgram’s research on obedience isthoroughly covered. Conformity,bystander apathy, and cognitive dis-sonance are also covered in detail.Research on attraction and leader-ship styles is presented as well.Chapter two is very well written forthe intended audience. Basic brainanatomy and function are presentedin a readable novel-like style. Thechapter on perception focuses on vi-sion development.

Memory is discussed in chapterfour. Differences between implicitand explicit memory are drawn.Sperling’s paper on iconic memoryand Miller’s “seven plus-or-minustwo” are also presented. Conscious-ness is discussed in regard to dichoticlistening tasks, split-brain research,multiple personalities, sleep, and theeffects of anesthesia. The “natureversus nurture” debate is presentedin the chapter on emotion followedby examples of how our emotions areinfluenced biologically, environmen-tally, and perceptually. Classical andoperant conditioning are described asadaptive mechanisms in chapterseven which covers learning and howlearning research contributes to otherareas of psychology, including clini-cal. The eighth chapter deals withlanguage and begins with an illustra-tion from Jurassic Park to emphasizethe significance of language. Brainstructures involved in language, suchas Wernicke’s area, are described.Developmental constraints on lan-guage are also presented. Finally,chapter nine highlights research re-lated to thinking. Categorization,reasoning, and problem-solving arekey topics discussed in this chapter.

Cummins has succeeded inwriting a non-text book source aboutexperimental psychology that con-tains a lot of text book findings. TheOther Side of Psychology would bean excellent tool for increasing stu-dent awareness of the important roleof experimental psychology. Thebook would also be an excellent li-brary addition for those interested inexploring the field of psychology.

Author: Denise D. Cummins, Ph.D.Publisher: St. Martins’ Press 175 Fifth Avenue

New York, NY 10010Date of Publication: 1995

ISBN: 0-312-13577-7Reviewed by: Christopher Koch, Ph.D.,

George Fox University, Newberg, OR


ACTIVITY

Inquiries, Demonstrations, Experiments and Activities

Concept:

Instructions:

Concept Mapping: A Strategy For Promoting Active LearningBy Laura Lincoln Maitland, Mepham High School, Bellmore, NY

Teaching with a constructivist approach involves “structuring learning around ‘big ideas’ or primary concepts” and“assessing student learning in the context of teaching,” according to Brooks and Brooks (1993). Concept mapping isa technique that integrates effective instruction, curricula and assessment.

In concept mapping the learner constructs a diagram that indicates interrelationships among concepts thatrepresent meaning in specific domains. As an instructional technique, concept mapping involves students in theirown learning, encourages youngsters to link prior knowledge with new information, deals with curriculum content,encourages problem solving and planning, and enables them to see where they need to fill in gaps in their knowl-edge. As an assessment technique, concept mapping is integrated with instruction to continue progress in learning.Concept mapping can measure personal progress and achievement, and promote self-reflection by providing feed-back on learning progress. The teacher can assess concept maps by examining them for number of concepts, qualityof linkages, appropriateness of the hierarchical organization, and richness of cross linkages.

Students in my classes can work individually, in pairs or triads to create a map using paper and post-it notes(or at the computer using the program C-Map). A concept map is often based on a summary or a subsection of aunit. As a facilitator, I circulate during map construction and encourage students by asking questions such as: Canyou see a relationship between these two concepts? What else do you know about this concept that would be rele-vant to the map? How could you rearrange this map to make it easier to read or interpret?

Students report that concept mapping helps them understand and remember information better. They rate itas an enjoyable and worthwhile activity. I find that it helps to dispel misconceptions by revealing them to the learnerand facilitator. Concept mapping also meets the needs of visual and kinesthetic learners.

A concept map is a diagram that shows how ideas in a particular topic are related. In a concept map, the mostgeneral concept appears at the top of the map. Under it is more specific concept or concepts. The concept map pro-ceeds downward to the most specific concepts often ending with examples. Concepts are connected by linking lineslabeled with words that show the relationship between the concepts they connect. Concept maps branch to differenti-ate among more specific concepts that are related to the same more general concept. Cross links show a relationshipbetween concepts on one branch of the hierarchy with concepts on another branch. To construct your concept map:1. Write each concept word or words on a separate mini post-it note.2. Select the most general or broadest concept note from the group. Place this at the top of your large sheet of paper.3. Sort your remaining concept notes into a small number of piles of related concepts. You can discuss this with you

partner or group, and/or use references if you would like.4. For each pile, choose the most general concept note, and place them next to each other in a row under the top

concept.5. Pencil in a linking line between the top concept and each of the concepts in the second row. Label each linking

line with linking words that indicate the relationship between the concepts connected by that line. Examples oflinking words are: to form, have, are, like, produces, including, resulting in.

6. For each pile arrange the remaining concept notes from general to specific. Place them on your map so that itlooks like an upside-down branching tree.

7. Pencil in top down linking lines and label each. Make sure that the linking words express the relationship be-tween the two concepts.

8. Look for cross links between concepts on different branches of your map. Indicate connections between conceptswith a dotted line. Label cross links with linking words.

9. Rearrange your map so that it makes the most sense to you.10. Where appropriate, add specific examples at the end of a branch.11. When you are satisfied with your concept map, make a permanent copy.

A sample concept map appears on the next page for the following set of concepts: autonomic nervous system,brain, central nervous system, nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, peripheral nervous system, somaticnervous system, spinal cord, sympathetic nervous system.


NEWS FROM TOPSS

ArizonaSanford Braver,

Arizona State Univ, Tempe

CaliforniaChristy Alexander, LafayetteJeff Craig, Simi ValleyEric DeMeulenaere, Burton HS,

San FranciscoLieilani Johnson, ModestoDana Nelson, Fremont

ColoradoDiana Adams, LongmontLita van Cleaue, Colorado Springs

ConnecticutTerry Marselle, Briston

District of ColumbiaDorothy Jackson

FloridaIvette Alvarez, MiamiMaylisa Angers, ClearwaterPaola Arechabala, MiamiDennia Bouley, LongwoodLisa Direnzo, Coconut CreekVicki Ryan, Winter Haven

IllinoisPeggy Bradford, Elgin

IndianaAndrew Owen, Ft. Wayne

IowaPhil McDonald, West Des MoinesJanet Wessel, Iowa City

KansasMichelle Phifer, Wichita

KentuckyDana Davis, FlorenceJoe Ott, Moore HS, Louisville

LouisianaDeborah Bateman, Bogalusa

MaineErnie Wood, Eliot

MarylandTroy Schockley, Bowie

MassachusettsJoseph Balvin, Clinton HS, ClintonJohn Denzer, BrightonMark Sullivan, Barnstable HS,

HyannisJanice Swartz, Lexington

MichiganKathy Riegle, BloomfieldChuck Schira, Portage

MinnesotaSandy Trierweiler, Annandale

MississippiDenise Stewart, Meridian

MissouriGerald Clary, SpringfieldJanna Hechler, ColumbiaGina Mason, Canton

New HampshireDonna Robinson, Thayer HS,

Winchester

New JerseyAngela Cerza, Glen GardnerTara Pignoli, Edison

New YorkArnold Feinblatt, New YorkJanice Hart, CortlandValerie Liese, Garden City ParkPatricia Poggi, Pleasant ValleyPeter Suski, Stony Brook

North CarolinaMichael Everhart, AshevilleJoAnne Hilton, Charlotte

OhioDon Kober, HollandSandra Tober, Perrysburg

OklahomaPriscilla Kinnick, Stillwater

OregonRob Cavasher, WilsonvilleFrederick Ruhnke, Portland

PennsylvaniaJohn Brenner, West Snyder HS,

Beaver Springs

Randall Bukowski, North EastGlenda Cribbs, ClymerGregg Davis, HersheyKristen Lorence, Plymouth

Whitemarsh HS, Plymouth MtgRandy Peters, BerwickJames Salas, Pleasant Hills

TennesseeEmma Hall, BurnsVondle Shipley, Knoxville

TexasJ.J. Colburn, AustinNicholas Derado, Sugar Land Lisa Johnson, SweetwaterPatricia Riley, San AntonioKathie Wells, Sulphur SpringsKerry Smith, Southlake

UtahHarold Miller, Provo

VirginiaElva Card, Fairfax

WisconsinPatrick Jucken, ManitowacLisa Steiner, Ashland

WashingtonM. Eileen Mathews, YakimaJanie Vandeberg, Cheney

WisconsinJeanne Cissne, Milwaukee

New TOPSS Members

Psychology Teacher Network is looking for good ideas, activities and experiments to share with our readers. Please submit any activities to Psychology Teacher Network, Education Directorate.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRALNERVOUS SYSTEM

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

SPINAL CORDBRAINAUTONOMIC

NERVOUS SYSTEM

SOMATICNERVOUS SYSTEM

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

is subdivided into

is subdivided into is subdivided into

branches into branches into

is subdivided into is subdivided into

is subdivided into

Sample Concept Map:

References: Availableupon request to

Psychology Teacher Network.

Activity, from previous page


Strange Trip, from page 7ideas to her students, such as the math teacher to in-struct her students in statistical methods.

I met Pat Rowan, of New Jersey, at a BeaverCollege summer institute. Pat says the experience re-vitalized and changed his career. At the summer insti-tute, he learned new methodologies and techniques.He is now collating his own instructional materials forsubmission to TOPSS. Pat feels that psychology playsan important role in the culmination of a high schoolstudent’s science studies. He captures the awarenessof his classes by walking them through psychobiologybefore sharing with them tales of schizophrenia. Ear-lier studies are thus connected to present investiga-tions and pupils develop deep regard for the intercon-nections that keep psychology vibrant.

I next met with Frank Hollingsworth inCoatesville, Pennsylvania. He is the founding presi-dent of the Mid-Atlantic Association of High SchoolPsychology Teachers. He enrolls sophomores as wellas upperclassmen in his introductory course where heuses riveting demonstrations of human neuronalchains and play dough brain molding to teach con-cepts. He feels that psychology is the one subject thatmost directly encourages teenagers to learn aboutthemselves and consequently accept responsibility forthemselves and their education. Psychology can, anddoes, provide the insights and empowerment to en-able young people to decide wisely.

My last stop in Pennsylvania was with JereWynegar at Dover Area High School. He is the onlyinstructor I know who teaches a high school sportspsychology course. While his introductory psychologystudents are enjoying a maze learning exercise, hissports psychologists may be perfecting their jugglingskills or practicing the ancient art of tai chi. He ex-plained that maze learning is an excellent reinforcer ofthe understanding of the basic principles of both op-

erant and trial-and-error learning. It also employs theuse of cognitive maps as an aid to problem solving.Juggling helps students identify brain locations andfunctions as well as comprehend the importance oflearning curves and plateaus. Jere had the jugglersquantify their efforts, successes and failures with ap-propriate graph work on paper.

In Florida, I met with Joe Cravens of Dr.Phillips High School. Joe teaches Psychology I and IIas well as a college course. Joe came to psychologyfrom the United States Marine Corps, where heworked as a civilian training specialist doing analysesand evaluations of Marine Corp training programs. Itwas his responsibility to establish the validity of wargames used to teach recruits what they needed toknow about strategy and tactics. When he completeshis dissertation, his degree will be, as he describes it, ahybrid of educational psychology and curriculum in-struction.

My final stop was with Swazette Young ofBowie High School in Silver Spring, Maryland. Myvisit coincided with a school-wide science fair. Thecontributions from psychology students to the posterboards and projects was impressive. Swazette wastrained in social studies, special education and clini-cal community psychology. She not only instructs atBowie, but also repeats her introductory course at alocal college for adult students. She feels that via theAdvanced Placement course, pupils learn to readand think critically, to analyze research problems,and to generally adopt scientific methods as theystudy. She also feels that studying psychology pro-vides the opportunity for learning to live well in apluralistic society.

I was fortunate to have the opportunity to traveland not only meet my peers but see them in action. Itwas a pleasure sharing these TOPSS members’ ac-complishments, suggestions and positive thoughts.

Productive Thinking, from page 8lenge to any blind or mechanical models of humanthinking. No theory of cognition can afford to ignore thatproductive thought is often insightful, indeed sometimesexhilarating.

The other item concerns spherical triangles. Whereon the surface of the earth, other than at the north pole,can you go one mile south, then one mile east, then onemile north, and end up at the spot you started from?The solution requires a major reorganization of the con-cept of a triangle. Start anywhere one mile north of acircle just north of and surrounding the south pole, thatis exactly one mile in circumference. You go a mile southto that circle, go east around the circle, and then headnorth for one mile, exactly retracing, in the opposite di-

rection, the route you had taken south. This spherical tri-angle doesn’t look anything like a plane triangle. Fur-ther: the locus of points from which you could start is acircle, but that circle is not the only solution. The criticalcircle on which you go east need not be exactly one milein circumference; any perfect fraction of a mile wouldwork just as well. If it were, say, one third of a mile incircumference, you could walk one mile due south to thecircle, then go east around it three times, then head backnorth for one mile, exactly retracing the route you hadgone south. It’s a fascinating problem; you might enjoythinking about it some more.

References: Available upon request to PsychologyTeacher Network.


ANNOUNCEMENTS

Advanced Placement WorkshopsMiddle States Regional OfficeSuite 410, 3440 Market StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19104-3338(215) 387-7600

February 8, 1997Catonsville High School, Baltimore, MD

Western Regional OfficeSuite 480, 2099 Gateway PlaceSan Jose, CA 95110-1017(408) 452-1400

February 1, 1997Aragon High School, San Mateo, CA

March 15, 1997U.C. Irvine, Irvine, CA

February 15, 1997Willamette University, Salem, OR

Midwest Regional OfficeAPP, 1800 Sherman Avenue #401Evanston, IL 60201(708) 866-6082.The registration fee is $60 per per-son. Registrations must be post-marked 14 days prior to the confer-ence to avoid a late registration fee.

February 27Augustana College, Rock Island, IL

March 15Triton Community College, RiverGrove, IL

March 20Calvin College, Grand Rapids, MI

March 28University of Missouri, Columbia, MO

April 4Avila College, Kansas City, MO

April 16Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, IL

April 23University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire, WI

The College Board, viaits regional offices, is spon-soring one-day conferenceson the psychology AdvancedPlacement course. For moreinformation or to register,call or write your local Col-lege Board office. All work-shops are subject to cancel-lation due to inadequate reg-istration.

Smithsonian Lecture SeriesExplore the latest thinking in this compelling series based on themes from the American Psychological Association’s en-gaging exhibition, “PSYCHOLOGY: It’s More Than You Think!” on view at the American Association for the Ad-vancement of Science. The exhibition and this lecture series combine hands-on experiences and talks on how we think,feel, grow, remember, and interact with others.

All sessions will be held at AAAS 1200 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, DC.

Smithsonian Associates rates are $72 for the entire series and $15 for a single session. General admission rates are $96for the entire series and $19 for a single session. TOPSS members may register at the Smithsonian Associates rate. Foradditional information or to register, please call the Smithsonian Association information line at (202) 357-3030.

A lecture/discussion se-ries presented by The Smith-sonian Associates in collabo-ration with the American Psy-chological Association andthe American Association forthe Advancement of Science

The series will be mod-erated by William C. Howell,PhD, Executive Director forScience, American Psycho-logical Association.

Lynn Liben, PhDMonday, February 36- 7:30 pm“Is What You See What You Get?

Art Glenberg, PhDMonday, February 106 - 7:30 pm“The Meaning of Meaning”

Linda Camras, PhDMonday, February 246- 7:30 pm“Are Facial Expressions Really Universal?”

David Myers, PhDMonday, March 36 - 7:30 pm“The New Scientific Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy?

Paul Rozin, PhDMonday, March 106- 7:30 pm“What We Eat and Why We Eat It”

Arthur P. Shimamura, PhDMonday, March 176- 7:30 pm“Human Memory, Aging and the Brain”


Summer InstitutesAnnouncedNebraska Wesleyan University — With funds fromthe Arthur Vining Davis Foundations, we will pro-vide a two-week summer institute from June 22 toJuly 3, 1997. It is intended for high school teachersof psychology and will provide updates on scientif-ic psychology, demonstrations, communicationstechnology, & critical thinking. Outstanding highschool and college faculty from across the U.S. willserve as instructors. Teachers selected will receivefree room & board, resource materials, graduatecredit, and limited travel stipends. For more infor-mation, interested persons should contact: KenKeith, Professor & Chair, Dept. of Psychology,Nebraska Wesleyan University, 5000 Saint PaulAvenue, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68504-2796, (402) 465-2431, or via e-mail: [email protected].

Northern Kentucky University — The PsychologyDepartment at Northern Kentucky University(located just across the river from Cincinnati) ispleased to announce: Teaching the SCIENCE of Psy-chology: A Summer Institute for High School Psy-chology Teachers. This institute, funded by theNational Science Foundation with additional sup-port from the Northern Kentucky Foundation, isfor high school teachers of psychology who wish toimprove the scientific content and methods of theircourses. It will run from July 6 to August 1, 1997.The thirty-two participants will work in smallgroups to enhance their understanding of the con-tent and methods of psychology as a scientific dis-cipline. Teachers who complete the institute willreceive free room and board (individual dormroom), textbooks and other teaching materials,reimbursement for one round trip to and from theinstitute, and a $1200 stipend.

Participants will be guided by award-winninghigh school and university teachers chosen for theircontent expertise and teaching excellence. Theinstitute director is Perilou Goddard, Ph.D.; co-directors are Charles Blair-Broeker and GeorgeGoedel, Ph.D.

For an application and a brochure describingthe institute in more detail, write Perilou Goddardor George Goedel at Department of Psychology,Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights,KY 41099, or call (606) 572-6185.

ANNOUNCEMENTS

The Division of Adult Develop-ment and Aging (Division 20) ofthe American Psychological Associ-ation is sponsoring a series ofawards for student research. Re-search on any topic related to psy-chological issues in adult develop-ment and aging is eligible for theseawards. Funding for these awardshas been provided by the Retire-ment Research Foundation, whichwas founded by John D.MacArthur in 1978 to supportprograms, research, and publicpolicy studies to improve the qual-ity of life of older Americans.

At least one award of $300 willbe made to a high school student toconduct an original research pro-ject. Students interested in apply-ing for this award should workwith a teacher (or research advisor)to develop a research question anda plan for answering it. Awardswill be made based on the creativ-ity and soundness of a 10- to 20-page proposal written by the stu-dent under the guidance of a men-tor. The deadline for receipt ofproposals is May 1, 1997. Studentwinners are expected to completetheir research projects during the1997-1998 academic year. Forfurther information or to requestan application, please contact:Elizabeth A. L. Stine-Morrow, De-partment of Psychology, ConantHall, University of New Hamp-shire, Durham, NH 03824, (603)862-3806, [email protected].

Student ResearchAwards in AdultDevelopment andAging

Documents

Psychology Teacher Networ is published by the Educatiok n ... · everything about the issue is clear, makes sense, and fits together. At the core of the process is a kind of reo-