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General Psychology reviewer
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Gamboa, Lois Danielle L.
BSMT-2A
General Psychology
Chapter 1
Psychology - scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.
Psychology seeks to:
o describe
o explain
o predict
o control behavior and mental processes
A theory (a formulation of relationships
underlying observed events) allows you to:
o propose reasons for relationships
o derive explanations
o make predictions
What Do Psychologists Do
o Research
Pure research - research conducted
without concern for immediate
applications
Applied research - research
conducted in an effort to find
solutions to particular problems
o Practice
o Teaching
Fields of Psychology
o Clinical – help people with
psychological disorders adjust to the
demands of life
o Counseling – use interviews and tests
to define their patients’ problems
o School – identify and assist students
who have problems that interfere with
learning
o Educational – focus on course planning
and instructional methods for a school
system
o Developmental – study the physical,
cognitive, social and emotional
changes that occur throughout the
lifespan
o Personality – identify and measure
human traits and determine influences
on human though processes, feelings
and behavior
o Social – concerned with the nature and
causes of individuals’ thoughts,
feelings and behavior in social
situations
o Environmental – study the ways that
people and the environment influence
one another
o Experimental – specialize in basic
processes such as the nervous system,
sensation and perception, learning and
memory, thought, motivation, and
emotion
o Industrial – focus on the relationships
between people and work
Organizational – behavior of
people in organizations such as
businesses
Human Factors – make technical
systems such as automobile
dashboards more user-friendly
Consumer – behavior of shoppers
in an effort to predict and
influence their behavior
o Health – study the effects of stress on
health problems and guide clients
toward healthier behavior patterns
o Sport – help athletes concentrate on
their performance and not on the
crowd, use cognitive strategies to
enhance performance and to avoid
choking under pressure
o Forensic – apply psychology to the
criminal justice system
Aristotle
o Argued that human behavior is subject
to rules and laws.
o personality, sensation and perception,
thought, intelligence, needs and
motives, feelings, and emotion, and
memory
o Peri Psyches
Democritus
o Suggested that we could think of
behavior in terms of a body and mind
(interaction of biological and mental
processes)
o Behavior is influenced by external
stimulation.
o free will vs. choice
Socrates
o Introspection - deliberate looking
into one’s own cognitive processes to
examine one’s thoughts and feelings
o We should rely on rational thought and
introspection to achieve self
knowledge
o People are social creatures who
influence each other
Gustav Theodor Fechner
o Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
showed how physical events (light and
sounds) are related to psychological
sensations and perceptions
Wilhelm Wundt - First psychology
laboratory (1879)
Structuralism (William Wundt) - the school
of psychology that argues that the mind
consists of three basic elements—
sensations, feelings, and images—that
combine to form experience
o Mind functions by combining objective
and subjective elements of experience
Functionalism (William James) - focused
on behavior in addition to mind and
consciousness
o Used direct observations to
supplement introspection
o Influenced by Darwin’s theory of
evolution
Behaviorism (John Broadus Watson) - the
school of psychology that defines
psychology as the study of observable
behavior and studies relationships, between
stimuli and responses
o B.F. Skinner
Learned behavior is behavior that
is reinforced
o reinforcement – a stimulus that
follows a response and increases the
frequency of the response
Gestalt psychology (Max Wertheimer,
Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler) – the school of
psychology that emphasizes the tendency
to organize perceptions into wholes and to
integrate separate stimuli into meaningful
patterns
o focused on perception and its
influence on thinking and problem
solving
Perception are more than sum of
their parts
Active and purposeful
Insight learning
Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) – the
school of psychology that emphasizes the
importance of unconscious motives and
conflicts as determinants of human behavior
o Influence of unconscious motives and
conflicts
o Theory of personality
o Therapy
Perspectives
o Cognitive – having to do with mental
processes such as sensation and
perception, memory, intelligence,
language, thought, and problem
solving
Concerned with ways we
mentally represent the world and
process information
Memory, perceptions, learning,
problem solving, decision
making, language, planning
o Humanistic — Existential -
Humanism stresses human capacity
for self- fulfillment
Role of consciousness, self-
awareness, decision making
Existentialism stresses free
choice and personal responsibility
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
o Psychodynamic - Neoanalysts focus
more on conscious choice and self-
direction than psychoanalysis
Karen Horney
Erik Erikson
o Perspective on Learning- Social
Cognitive
People modify and create their
environment
Observation
social-cognitive theory – a
school of psychology in the
behaviorist tradition that includes
cognitive factors in the
explanation and prediction of
behavior; formerly termed social
learning theory
o Sociocultural – the view that focuses
on the roles of ethnicity, gender,
culture, and socioeconomic status in
behavior and mental processes.
Diversity within Psychology
o Ethnicity
Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps
Clark - known for research on
school segregation
Jorge Sanchez (1906-1972) –
Latino American, among first to
show how intelligence tests are
culturally biased
Lillian Comas Diaz – edits journal
on multicultural mental health
Richard Suinn – Asian American
psychologist studies mental
health and identity development
among Asian Americans
o Gender
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
Studied as a “guest student” at
Harvard (men only) and
completed the PhD requirements
but was not granted the degree
because of her sex. Harvard
offered her a PhD from Radcliffe
(women’s only) but Calkins
declined in protest. She went on
to become president of APA.
Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913-
1999) Groundbreaking work on
attachment in children
Elizabeth Loftus - contemporary
researcher on memory
Principles of Critical Thinking
o Be skeptical
o Insist on evidence
o Examine definitions of terms
o Examine the assumptions or premises
of arguments
o Be cautious in drawing conclusions
from evidence
o Consider alternative interpretations of
research evidence
o Do not oversimplify
o Do not overgeneralize
o Apply critical thinking to all areas of
life
The Scientific Method
o Formulate a research question
o State the hypothesis - a specific
statement about behavior or mental
processes that is tested through
research
o Test the hypothesis
o Draw conclusions based on findings
o Publish research
o Replicate study
Sample - segment of population
Population - entire group targeted for
study
Representative samples allow
generalization of findings
Random sample - each member of
population has equal chance of selection
Stratified sample - subgroups are
represented proportionally
Volunteer bias - bias represented by
studying people who volunteer to
participate
Case Study - gather information about
individuals or small groups; sometimes used
to investigate rarities
Survey - used to collect information that
cannot be observed directly
Sources of inaccuracies in case studies
—Gaps and factual inaccuracies in memory
Sources of inaccuracies in surveys—
Inaccurate recall and social desirability
(misrepresentations)
Bias in both case study and survey—
social desirability
Naturalistic Observation - observe
subjects in their natural environment;
Unobtrusive measure
Correlation - Mathematical method of
determining a relationship between
variables
o Expresses strength and direction of
relationship between variables
o Does not prove cause and effect
Experimental Method - Demonstrates
cause and effect through scientific method
o Independent variable - a condition in a
scientific study that is manipulated so
that its effects may be observed
o Dependent variable - a measure of an
assumed effect of an independent
variable
experimental groups – in experiments,
groups whose members obtain the
treatment
control groups – in experiments, groups
whose members do not obtain the
treatment, while other conditions are held
constant
placebo – a bogus treatment that has the
appearance of being genuine
blind – in experimental terminology,
unaware of whether or not one has received
a treatment
double-blind study – a study in which
neither the subjects nor the observers know
who has received the treatment
Ethics of Research with Humans
o Ethical review committee and ethical
standards
Promote individual dignity,
human welfare and scientific
integrity
Ensure no harm will come to
subjects
o Informed consent - a participant’s
agreement to participate in research
after receiving information about the
purposes of the study and the nature
of the treatments
o Confidentiality
o Deception
o Debriefing - to explain the purposes
and methods of a completed
procedure to a participant
Ethics of Research with Animals
o Animals are used when research
cannot be carried out with humans
o Animals may be harmed, only when:
there is no alternative, and
benefits of the research justify
the harm
Chapter 2
Neurons - receive and pass messages ; cell
body, dendrites, axon and axon terminals
Glial cells – cells that nourish and insulate
neurons, direct their growth, and remove
waste products from the nervous system
Dendrites – rootlike structures, attached to
the cell body of a neuron, that receive
impulses from other neurons
Axon – a long, thin part of a neuron that
transmits impulses to other neurons from
branching structures called terminal buttons
Myelin – a fatty substance that encases
and insulates axons, facilitating
transmission of neural impulses
Afferent neurons - neurons that transmit
messages from sensory receptors to the
spinal cord and brain. Also called sensory
neurons
Efferent neurons – neurons that transmit
messages from the brain or spinal cord to
muscles and glands. Also called motor
neurons
Neural impulse – the electrochemical
discharge of a nerve cell, or neuron
Polarize – to ready a neuron for firing by
creating an internal negative charge in
relation to the body fluid outside the cell
membranes
Resting potential – the electrical potential
across the neural membrane when it is not
responding to other neurons
Depolarize – to reduce the resting potential
of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts
toward zero
Action potential – the electrical impulse
that provides the basis for the conduction of
a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron
Firing - conduction of neural impulse along
the length of a neuron
Threshold - incoming messages reach a
strength at which neuron will fire
All-or-None principle – the fact that a
neuron fires an impulse of the same
strength whenever its action potential is
triggered
Refractory period – a phase following
firing during which a neuron is less sensitive
to messages from other neurons and will not
fire
Synapse – a junction between the axon
terminals of one neuron and the dendrites
or cell body of another neuron
Neurotransmitters – chemical substances
involved in the transmission of neural
impulses from one neuron to another
Synaptic vesicles - contain
neurotransmitters in the axon terminals
Receptor site – a location on a dendrite of
a receiving neuron tailored to receive a
neurotransmitter
Reuptake – neurotransmitters are
reabsorped
Excitatory neurons - cause other neurons
to fire
Inhibitory neurons - prevent other
neurons from firing
Acetylcholine (Ach) – a neurotransmitter
that controls muscle contractions (↑ =
paralysis, ↓ = Alzheimer’s disease)
Hippocampus – a part of the limbic system
of the brain that is involved in memory
formation
Dopamine – a neurotransmitter that is
involved in Parkinson’s disease and that
appears to play a role in schizophrenia;
Pleasure, voluntary movement, learning,
memory (↑ = schizophrenia, ↓ =
Parkinson’s disease)
Norepinephrine – a neurotransmitter
whose action is similar to that of the
hormone epinephrine and that may play a
role in depression ; Excitatory
neurotransmitter
o Accelerates heart rate, affects
eating, linked to activity levels,
learning and remembering
o ↑ = mania, ↓= Mood disorders,
depression, bipolar disorder
Serotonin – a neurotransmitter,
deficiencies of which have been linked to
affective disorders, anxiety, and insomnia
o ↓= Eating disorders, alcoholism,
depression, aggression, insomnia
o Emotional arousal, attention,
learning, sleep, important in social
behavior
Gamma-amniobutyric acid (GABA) - an
inhibitory neurotransmitter that apparently
helps calm anxiety (low levels = depression)
Endorphins – neurotransmitters that are
composed of amino acids and that are
functionally similar to morphine; inhibit
pain
o May be connected to indifference to
pain
Runner’s high
o Occur naturally within the brain and
bloodstream
Nerves – a bundle of axons from many
neurons
Central nervous system – the brain and
spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system – the part of
the nervous system consisting of the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic
nervous system
Somatic nervous system – the division of
the peripheral nervous system that
connects the central nervous system with
sensory receptors, skeletal muscles, and the
surface of the body
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) – the
division of the peripheral nervous system
that regulates glands and activities such as
heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and
dilation of the pupils
o Sympathetic – the branch of the
ANS that is most active during
emotional responses, such as fear
and anxiety, that spend the body’s
reserves of energy
o Parasympathetic – the branch of
the ANS that is most active during
processes (such as digestion) that
restore the body’s reserves of energy
Spinal cord – a column of nerves within the
spine that transmits messages from sensory
receptors to the brain to muscles and glands
throughout the body
Spinal reflex – a simple, unlearned
response to a stimulus that may involve
only two neurons
Gray matter – the grayish neurons and
neural segments that are involved in spinal
reflexes
White matter – axon bundles that carry
messages from and to the brain
Electroencephalograph (EEG) – a method
of detecting rain waves by means of
measuring the current between electrodes
placed on the scalp
Experimenting with the brain
o Assessing damage from trauma and
disease
o Intentionally damaging parts of a
brain
o Electrical probes to stimulate parts of
the brain
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT
or CT scan) – a method of brain imaging
that passes a narrow X-ray beam through
the head and measures structure that
reflect the rays from various angles,
enabling a computer to generate a three-
dimensional image
Positron Emission Tomography (PET
scan) – a method of brain imaging that
injects a radioactive tracer into the
bloodstream and assesses activity of parts
of the brain according to the amount of
glucose they metabolize
Magnetic Resonance Imaging – a
method of brain imaging that places a
person in a magnetic field and uses radio
waves to cause the brain to emit signals
that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which,
in turn, indicate brain activity
Functional MRI (fMRI) – a form of MRI that
enables researchers to observe the brain
“while it works” by taking repeated scans
Thalamus
o Relay station for sensory stimulation
to the cortex and in the functions of
sleep and attention
o The cerebral cortex also sends
information to the thalamus, which
then sends this information to other
systems
o processes and transmits movement
and sensory information
Hypothalamus
o responsible for controlling hunger,
thirst, emotions, body temperature
regulation, and circadian rhythms.
o controls the pituitary gland by
secreting hormones, which gives the
hypothalamus a great deal of control
over many body functions.
Limbic System
o central in the control of emotional
responses.
o involved in memory and emotion
o 4 structures
Amygdala
Hippocampus
regions of the limbic cortex
septal area
Midbrain
o smallest region of the brain that
acts as a sort of relay station for
auditory and visual information.
Hindbrain
o Medulla – an oblong area of the
hindbrain involved in regulation of
heartbeat and respiration
o Pons – a structure of the hindbrain
involved in respiration, attention, and
sleep and dreaming; connects the
medulla to the cerebellum and helps
coordinate movement on each side
of the body.
o Cerebellum – a part of the hindbrain
involved in muscle coordination and
balance
comprised of small lobes and
receives information from the
balance system of the inner
ear, sensory nerves, and the
auditory and visual systems
It is involved in the
coordination of motor
movements as well as basic
facets of memory and
learning.
Basal Ganglia
o group of large nuclei that partially
surround the thalamus.
o These nuclei are important in the
control of movement
o The red nucleus and substantia nigra
of the midbrain have connections
with the basal ganglia
Reticular Activation System – a part of
the brain involved in attention, sleep, and
arousal
Cerebrum
o Responsible for thinking and
language
Cerebral Cortex
o Surface of cerebrum
Corpus Callosum
o Connects two hemispheres
Occipital Lobe
o Vision
o associated with interpreting visual
stimuli and information
o The primary visual cortex -
receives and interprets information
from the retinas of the eyes
o Damage : can cause visual problems
such as difficulty recognizing objects,
an inability to identify colors, and
trouble recognizing words.
Temporal Lobe
o Hearing and Auditory functions
o also the location of the primary
auditory cortex which is important
for interpreting sounds and the
language we hear
o The hippocampus is also located in
the temporal lobe, which is why this
portion of the brain is also heavily
associated with the formation
of memories.
o Damage : problems with memory,
speech perception, and language
skills.
Parietal Lobe
o associated with processing tactile
sensory information such as
pressure, touch, and pain
o Somatosensory Cortex - the section
of cortex in which sensory
stimulation is projected. It lies just
behind the central fissure in the
parietal lobe.
Frontal Lobe
o Damage to the frontal lobe can lead
to changes in sexual habits,
socialization, and attention as well as
increased risk-taking.
o associated with reasoning,
motor skills, higher level
cognition, and expressive
language
o Motor Cortex - the section of cortex
that lies in the frontal lobe, just
across the central fissure from the
sensory cortex; neural impulses in
the motor cortex are linked to
muscular responses throughout the
body.
Association areas
o Not primarily involved in sensation or
motor activity
o Responsible for learning, thought,
memory and language
Association areas in frontal lobe
o Responsible for executive functions
(problem solving, making plans, and
decision making)
Two hemispheres of the brain mirror
and differ
o Left hemisphere contains language
functions for nearly all people
o If damaged before age 13, speech
functions would transfer to right
hemisphere
o aphasia – a disruption in the ability
to understand or produce language
Wernicke’s Area
o Temporal Lobe
o Wernicke’s aphasia
Impairs ability to comprehend
speech and think of words to
express own thoughts
Angular Gyrus
o Translates visual into auditory
information
o Damage impairs reading ability
Broca’s Area
o Frontal Lobe
o Production of speech
o Broca’s aphasia
Understand language but
speak slowly and laboriously
Left-brained
o Logical and intellectual
Right-brained
o Intuitive, creative and emotional
Hemispheres do not act independently
o Functions overlap and they respond
simultaneously
Left-handed
o Somewhat greater-than-average
probability of language problems and
certain health problems
o More likely than right-handed people
in gifted artists, musicians, and
mathematicians
Origins of handedness
o Genetics
Severe cases of epilepsy may require
split-brain operations
o Examples of “two brain”
phenomenon
Caused by inability of one
hemisphere to communicate
with the other
o epilepsy – temporary disturbances
of brain functions that involve
sudden neural discharges
Endocrine system – the body’s system of
ductless glands that secrete hormones and
release them directly into the bloodstream
Hormone – a substance secreted by an
endocrine gland that regulates various body
functions
Gland – an organ that secretes one or more
chemical substances such as hormones,
saliva, or milk
Pituitary gland – the gland that secretes
growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic
hormone, and other hormones; “master
gland”
o Growth hormone – regulates
growth of muscles, bones, and
glands
o Prolactin – regulates maternal
behavior in lower mammals and
stimulates production of milk in
women
o Vasopressin – inhibits production of
urine when body fluids are low
o Oxytocin – stimulates labor in
pregnant women, connected with
maternal behavior
Pineal gland
o Secretes melatonin
o Helps regulate sleep-wake cycle
o May affect onset of puberty
Thyroid gland
o Produces thyroxin
o Affects body’s metabolism
o Hypothyroidism - Thyroxin
deficiency
o Hyperthyroidism - Too much
thyroxin
o Cretinism - stunted growth and
mental retardation; thyroxin
deficiency in children
Adrenal glands
o Located above the kidneys
o Adrenal cortex secretes cortical
steroids – increase resistance to
stress; promote muscle
development; cause liver to release
stored sugar; makes more energy
available in emergency
o Adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine –
Helps arouse body in threatening
situations
o Cortical steroids
increase resistance to stress
promote muscle development
o Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Helps arouse body in
threatening situations
Steroids
o increase muscle mass,
o heighten resistance to stress,
o increase body’s energy supply
Anabolic steroids
o enhance athletic prowess
o connected with self-confidence,
aggressiveness, memory function
Testosterone
o produced by testes (smaller amounts
from adrenal gland)
o male sex characteristics
Estrogen and progesterone
o produced by ovaries (smaller
amounts from testes)
o female sex characteristics
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
o Struggle for existence
Competition for same
resources
o Natural selection
Adaptive genetic variations
aid in survival
o Mutations
Sudden changes in genes
Evolutionary psychology – the branch of
psychology that studies the ways in which
adaptation and natural selection are
connected with mental processes and
behavior
Species – a category of biological
classification consisting of related
organisms who are capable of
interbreeding; homo sapiens—humans—
make up one species
Instinct – a stereotyped pattern of behavior
that is triggered by a particular stimulus and
nearly identical among members of a
species, even when they are reared in
isolation
Heredity
o Transmission of traits from parent to
offspring, based on genes
Genetics
o Subfield of biology that studies
heredity
Behavioral Genetics
o Focuses on contributions of genes to
behavior
Gene – a basic unit of heredity, which is
found at a specific point on a chromosome
Chromosome - a microscopic rod-shaped
body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that
transmit hereditary traits from generation to
generation; humans normally have 46
chromosomes
DNA – acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid,
the substance that forms the basic material
of chromosomes; it takes the form of a
double helix and contains the genetic code
Genes regulate development of specific
traits
o Some traits are determined by one
gene
o Other traits are polygenic - referring
to traits that are influenced by
combinations of genes
Genotype – one’s genetic makeup, based
on the sequencing of the nucleotides we
term A, C, G, and T
Phenotype – one’s actual development and
appearance, as based on one’s genotype
and environmental influences
Nature – the inborn, innate character of an
organism
Nurture – the sum total of the
environmental factors that affect an
organism from conception onward
Sex chromosomes – the 23rd pair of
chromosomes, whose genetic material
determines the sex of the individual
Down syndrome – a condition caused by
an extra chromosome on the 21st pair and
characterized by mental deficiency, a broad
face, and slanting eyes
Kinship studies - Focus on presence of
traits and behavior patterns in people who
are, or are not related biologically
Monozygotic (MZ) twins – twins that
develop from a single fertilized ovum that
divides in two early in prenatal
development; MZ twins thus share the same
genetic code; also called identical twins
Dizygotic (DZ) twins – twins that develop
from two fertilized ova and who are thus as
closely related as brothers and sisters in
general; also called fraternal twins