Psychology for Cambridge International AS & A Level: Revision Guide

for Cambridge International AS & A Level

Craig Roberts

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Acknowledgements

TI1e q11cstio11s, exruuple answer . marks awarded ru1cifor co1u 1:ueuts tl1al appear u1 Llus book wcrr \vtiltcu l>y the autl1or. In cxan1i11atio11, Ll1e way tnarl<s would be ttwardcd to ar\swers like these may be different.

TI1e pul>lisher\voulcl like to thank Lhr following for permission lo tisc L11cir pl1otograpl1s:

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The author anci pul>lishcr arc grateful to the following for pcru1ission Lo rcpriul copyrighl m aterial

h"Win Altman for Lable from l11e Environ1uc'nt and SocitiJ Bt'hu,viour: privucy, pt'rsonul space, temttny, c1-o,vt1ing by Irwin Altman (Brooks/Cole. 1975).

American Psychological Association (APA) for extract. f ro1u tl1c ElasslesJUplifts Scale Questionnaire itl t11e Ap1:>endix to 'TI1c ln1pact of Daily Stre son J·Jeallh and f'lfood: PsycJ1ological ;u1d Socjal Rcsotu·ccs as Mediator: ' by Anita Delongis. Susan Folkman a11rl Riclia.t'cl S Lazarus. ]aum.u.l oj'Pttrsonaliiy and 'ocia1 P:.ychology. Vol 54 (3). 1988. pp 486-495. copyrig11t © 1988 by t11e An1ericru1 Psycl1ological A..;;socialion

Bowling Green State University. Psyd1ology Depart111e11t for extract from the Job Descriptive Index from Tiw MeasurernroL oj· Su LisjilcLio11 in Work und ReLirt'11re11t: u Strategy jor the Study of ALti· Ludes by P C Smith. L M Kendall, and C 1 J-1ulliI1 (Rand McNally, 1969)

Elsevier for the SRRS questiotmaire from "lbe Social Readjustment Rating Scale' by T lI Holn1es & R 1-1 Ral1e. 1ournal of· Pyschoso11iatic Re ·earch, Vol 11: 2 (1967), pp 213-218. copyright © 1967; ai1d extract from '111e Vancouver Obsessional Compttlsive Inventory (VOCI)' by Dana S lborclarso11 e l al: Behaviour Research and Tlterapy, Vol 42 (11), 200'1, JJP 1289-1314. copyiigllt © 2004

Edna B Foa for cxtJCtcl froru U1e Obscssiv~·Cotupl1lsiv<.' lnvc11tory (OCI) questio1u1airt' ti·o1u 'TI1c validalio11ofa 11cw obscssivc--coru puhivc disorclcr scale, Tite obscssiv<:eompulsivc b1vc11tory' by E B f-oa ct al, Psyc1101ogictil A ·se~ureni. Vol 10 (3). 1998. pp 206·211

Irving Gottesman for table from Schizop1irenia Genesis: the Ori· gin oJMad11ess by Irving f Gottcsmai1 PN H Freemau. 1991)

International Journal of Preventive Medicine (IJPM) for tab1& froru 'Toke11 reinforcen1ci1L therape utic a1>proac11 is more eITec-tive tl1ru1 exercise for controlling 11egative syn1ploi1lS of scltlzopltrCJuc J'atients: A ra11do1uizt>d co11lrol trial ' by Agbil Gl1olipotu· el al. Tnternatto11t.11]ournal oj"Prt>Ventive Meu1d11e, Vol 3 (7). 2012. µp 466-70

David J Weiss for extract from the Min11esota Satisfaction Que~tioru1aire in Vocational Psychology Rcseardi by DJ Weiss. G W England, & L 1-1 Lofquist l ln.iversily of Miru1esota. copyrig11l © 1977

John Wiley & Sons for extracts from 'Using route and smvcy information to generate cognitive maps· differences between normally sight ed and visually irut>aircd individuals' by Frank J J M Stcyvcrs & Aart C Koojiruan, Applied Cognitive P..sydto!ogy. Vol 23. 2009. pp 223-235. copyright © john Wiley & Sous Ltd 2009

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Introduction This book has been written to support you throughout your Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology course. The Revision Gu ide works alongside the Student Book to reinforce knowledge and understanding.

The book is divided into two parts: one for the AS Level and one for the A Level. The AS part will guide you through all 20 Core Studies and the A Leve l part will guide you through the two options you have chosen to study (from the five available).

The Revision Guide will also cover marked student examples, which have been written by the author, so you can practice answering exam-style questions to the best of your abilities.

Author Craig is a freelance tutor and author of psychology textbooks. He has been teaching for over 20 years and is an experienced examiner with a number of National and International examination boards.

Acknowledgements I simply have to thank everyone who has made an impact on my life and who support me through every venture I take on. This includes my family, closest friends and cat! I could and would not be doing this without any of you. A special thank you has to go to all the teachers I trained in Florida in February 2014 for making my first training event brilliant.

Another special thank you goes to the teachers I trained in Mumbai and Bangalore in September 2014 who made me so welcome - it was an honour to be in your schools and to meet you. Finally, a big thank you to the incredible Mr.D.

Dedication To Mum & Dad. Always love you .

... 111

• IV

Contents Approaches and perspectives in psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• v

How psychologists research ................................................ 1

IEJ Issues and debates in psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4

II Cognitive Psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7

II Socia I Psychology • ••• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• ••• •• •• • • ••• •• •• •• • 15

II Developmental Psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24

II Physiological Psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34

The psychology of individual differences ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 45

AS Level Exam Centre •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• 56

II m Im m m

Psychology and education .•............................................... 61

Psychology and health •.......•..•.•......................................... 82

Psychology and environment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101

Models of a bnorma I ity • •. ••. ••• •.• ••••••••••• ••• •.• ••• •.• .•• •. ••• ••• ••• •••• 120

Psychology and organisations •••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••• 140

A Level Exam Centre ...•..•.•....•.•.••.•.........................•.........•.•....•.. 161

Approaches and perspectives in psychology There are five approaches and two perspectives in psychology that you need to know for the Cambridge International Examinations syllabus.

Cognitive psychology • Cognitive psychologists are interested in how we

process information.

• They look into how we input information, then how we process that information and finally how we retrieve and/or use that information.

• They believe that the brain works like a computer following the procedure of input-process/storageoutput.

The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: Mann, Vrij & Bull (2002), Loftus & Pickrell (1995), Baron-Cohen et al (2001), Held & Hein (1963).

The main research method used in this approach is laboratory experiments.

Strengths

Many findings are based on research conducted in a laboratory. As variables are controlled it means that findings are more likely to be reliable.

The approach is useful in terms of being able to help Improve everyday life in humans by, for example, improving memory or Improving eyewitness testimony.

Weaknesses

As researchers are Investigating processed information that cannot be seen directly, there is still an elen1ent of guesswork and inference.

Comparing the human Information-processing system to that of a computer is reductionist. It ignores the role of emotional and socia l factors.

Social psychology • Social psychologists are interested in how we

"work" in the social world.

• They look at how individuals interact with each other and how we interact in "groups" .

• They also examine how the role of culture and society affects our behavlou r.

The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: Milgram (1963), Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973), Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969), Tajfel (1970).

The main research methods used in this approach are questionnaires and interviews.

Strengths

The approach tends to look at the individual "as a whole" to try to explain behaviour across situations. Therefore, it ls a more holistic approach than using laboratory experiments.

This approach is useful in terms of being able to help improve everyday life in humans by, for example, reducing prejudice or explaining atrocities.

Weaknesses

A lot of evidence from this approach is from studies that have used questionnaires and Interviews. Therefore, the validity may be reduced as what people say they will do and what they actually do can be different.

It can be very difficult sometimes to distinguish between what is influenced by the individual and what is influenced by the situation people find themselves in.

Developmental psychology • Developmental psychologists are interested in

how we "develop" as a person from birth to death.

• Many developmental psychologists focus on "child development" and what sorts of things affect how a chi ld develops psychologically and socially. They also look at how physical development might affect psychological development.

• There are other psychologists who will examine development over a lifespan. Therefore, they may exan1ine development from adolescence through early adulthood into late adulthood.

The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961), Freud (1909), Langlois et al (1991), Nelson (1980).

The main research methods used in this approach are observations and longitudinal studies.

Strengths

Longitudinal studies are used In this approach and they are an excellent way to assess development over time with participant variables being controlled for.

Also, as we are following the same people over a period of time, we can examine what is down to nature and what is down to nurture in terms of how these influence part.icipants.

Weaknesses

Longitudinal studies can be very time consuming and costly and participants will drop out (participant attrition can be high). As a result, findings may be difficult to generalise to outside of the participants who are left as there may only be a few and they could be unique.

There may be ethical issues with studying children overtime. This is because before they are 16 years old their parents have to give informed consent.

v

• VI

Approaches and perspectives in psychology

Physiological psychology • Physiological psychologists are interested ih how

our biology affects our psychology.

• They look at the role things such as genetics, brain function, hormones and neurotransmitters have on our behaviour.

• Many physiological psychologists believe that our behaviour can be explained via biological mechanisms more so than psychological mechanisms. However, others believe that there may be an interaction between the two.

The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: Schachter & Singer (1962), Dement & Kleitman (1957), Maguire, .. Frackowiak & Frith (1997}, Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence (2007).

The main research method used in this approach is laboratory experiments.

Strengths

The approach is very scientific as it uses methods such as laboratory experiments, blood tests, brain scanning, etc. These are highly controlled methods that can easily be tested for reliability.

As we are dealing with biological mechanisms, it is an excellent way to assess which of our behaviours are due to nature and which are due to nurture.

Weaknesses

The approach can be seen as being reductionist as it ignores the roles of social and emotlonal factors in our development.

As many studies take place under controlled laboratory conditions, many studies lack ecological validity and mundane realism . Therefore, some biological reactions may be triggered because of beJng in a controlled environment.

The psychology of individual differences • This approach looks at how, as individuals, we

differ from one another.

• Instead of looking for explanations that could explain how lots of people may behave, psychologists who research into this area look at what makes the individual unique.

• Rather than looking for general laws, psychologists who research into this area may focus more on what makes the individual different from the others around him or her.

The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are: Rosenhan (1973), Thigpen & Cleckley (1954), Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright (2007), Veale & Riley (2001}.

Strengths

This approach can be useful In explaining differences between individuals in the cause of behaviours. These can be useful during, for example, therapy so the treatment can be tailored to the individual.

This approach is holistic in nature as it takes into account a variety of aspects that can affect the individual.

Weaknesses

Findings from studies may have limited generalisability as they are focusing on the individual rather than a group of people.

This approach can be seen as being reductionist as it ignores the way we do behave in groups .

The behaviourist perspective • Behaviourist psychologists are interested in ways

in which both humans and animals learn .

• They look into general laws that can apply to all species and how the experiences we have mould our behaviour over time.

• There are three main areas within this perspective:

o learning by the consequences of our behaviour (operant conditioning)

o learning through association (classical conditioning)

o learning through observation , imitation and modelling (social learning).

• Strict behaviourism follows the idea that we should "observe the observable" and not examine mental processes as they cannot be directly seen.

There are no named studies for this perspective but Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) can be used as an example of social learning. The main research methods used in this perspective are laboratory experin1ents and observations.

Strengths

The perspective is very objective as it "observes the observable" -this means that data is scientific a.nd quantitative and likely not to be biased.

The approach is useful in terms of being able to help improve everyday life in humans by, for example, reducing phobias or modifying a child's behaviour for the better.

Weaknesses

Parts of thi.s perspective ignore the ro le of social, cognitive and emotional aspects of behaviour. Therefore it can be seen as being reductionist in just focusing on observable aspects.

Some psychologists disagree that there are general laws that govern anin1al and human behaviour - humans are more complex than animals.

The psychodynamic perspective • Psychodynamic psychologists are interested in

how our early lives and our unconscious mind affect our behaviour.

• They look at the role of early childhood development and how traumas that occur at various stages may affect adult personallty.

• They also look at how our unconscious mind (the part of the mind that we are unaware of) affects our everyday behaviour.

There are no named studies for this perspective but Freud and Thigpen and Cleckley (1909) are psychodynamic case studies. The main research methods used in this perspective are case studies and interviews.

Strengths

The approach is useful in terms of being able to help improve everyday life in humans such as helping to understand why we have a mental health disorder and then helping to overcome it.

Evidence comes from case studies that gather rich in-depth information.

Weaknesses

An idea such as the unconscious mind cannot be directly tested and is therefore unscientific . How can you assess something that cannot be directly seen or manipulated?

Many findings from this perspective are based on case studies. These niay be difficult to generalise to a larger group.

Here is a reminder of the five approaches and two perspectives.

1. Cognitive

2. Social

3. Developmental

4 . Physiological

5. Individual differences

6. Behaviourist

7. Psychodynamic

•• Vll

How psychologists research

The main methods of research that psychologists can choose from include:

• experiments (laboratory and field)

• self-reports (questionnaires and interviews)

• case studies

• observations (naturalistic, controlled, participant).

As well as choosing the most appropriate research method, psyct1ologists have to also decide:

• who the participants are (the sample) and how they are going to recruit {the sampling technique)

• if they are using an experiment, which design of study to use (e.g. repeated measures, independent groups or matched pairs)

• what the procedure of the study will be for the participants including what apparatus is needed

• the type of data they want to collect (e.g. quantitative or qualitative).

Research methods Laboratory experiments

• These take place in a situation or environment that is artificial to participants in the study.

• There are two main types of variable that need to be considered when running any experiment:

o The independent variable (IV) is the variable that the psychologist chooses to manipulate or change. This represents the different conditions that are being compared in a11y study.

o The dependent variable (DV) is the variable that the psychologist chooses to measure. It is always hoped that the IV is directly affecting the DV i11 an experiment.

• The psychologist will attempt to control as many other variables as possible to try to ensure that it is the IV directly affecting tl1e DV. There are different types of variable that ca11 also affect the DV and that have to be controlled if possible.

Strengths

Laboratory experiments have high levels of control and so can be replicated to test for reliability.

As laboratory experiments have high levels of control , researchers can be more confident it is the IV directly affecting the DV.

Field experiments

Weaknesses

As laboratory experiments take place in an artificial setting, it is said that they can lack ecological validity.

Many laboratory experiments can make participants take part in tasks that are nothing like real-life ones so they lack mundane realism .

Participants may work out the aim of the study and act according to that rather than how they truly feel. This Is called "demand characteristics".

• These are experiments that take place in the participants' own natural environment rather than in an artificial laboratory.

• The researcher still tries to manipulate or change an IV whi le measuring the DV in an attempt to see how the IV affects the DV.

• There is an attempt to control other variables that could affect the DV.

Strengths Weaknesses

As field experiments take Situational variables can place in a realistic setting, be difficult to control so it is said that they have sometimes it is difficult to ecological validity. know whether it is the IV

As the participants wi ll affecting the DV.

not know they are taking As the participants will not part in a study, there will know they are taking part be little or no evidence of in a study, there are issues demand characteristics. with breaking ethical

guidelines.

Questlonnal res

• When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking participants to answer a series of questions in the written form.

• There are various types of question that a psychologist can use within a questionnairebased study:

o Likert scales: statements that participants read and then state whether they Strongly agree1 Disagree, etc. witl1 the statement.

o Rating scales: questions or statements where the participant gives an answer fn the form of a number.

1.

2

1 How psychologists research

o Open-ended questions: questions that allow participants to develop an answer and write it in their own words. They write sentences to answer the question.

o Closed questions: questions where there are a set amount of answers and participants choose which answer best fits how they want to respond.

Strengths

Participants may be more likely to reveal truthful answers in a questionnaire as it does not involve talking face to face with someone.

A large sample of participants can answer the questionnaire In a short time span which should increase the representativeness and generaJlsability of the findings.

Interviews

Weaknesses

Participants may give socially desirable answers as they want to look good rather than giving truthful answers.

If the questionnaire has a lot of closed questions participants might be forced into choosing an answer that does not reflect their true opinion.

• These are similar to questionnaires but instead of being in the written form they are in the spoken form.

• An interviewer asks a series of questions using the types highlighted above. Interviewers may record the interview so they can go back and transcribe exactly what participants said .

• Structured: this ls when a set order of questions is used. Each participant will be asked them in that order.

• Semi-structured: there are certain questions that must be asked of participants. However, the interviewer can ask them in a different order and/or ask other questions to help clarify a participant's response.

• Unstructured: this is when the interviewer has a theme or topic that needs to be discussed. The interviewer may have an initial question to begin the interview but each subsequent question is based on the response given by the participaht.

Strength Weakness

If the interview has a lot Participants might be of open questions then less likely to give truthful participants wi ll reveal answers (maybe due to more of the reasons why social desirability) as they they behave in such a way are actually face to face or have a certain opinion. with the interviewer and

might not want to be judged.

Case studies

• A case study is not a '' true" research method as it uses other methods to collect the data.

• It examines a single person or a unit of people (e.g. a family) in depth.

• There may be something unusual about the "case ti (e.g. a trauma or a mental health issue).

• The psychologist will use questionnaires, interviews and observations to collect the data.

Strengths

As psychologists using case studies are focusing on one indivldual (or unit of individuals) they can collect rich, In-depth data that has details.

Participants are usually studied as part of their everyday life which means that the whole process tends to have some ecological validity.

Observations

Weaknesses

As psychologists using case studies are focusing on one individual (or unit of individuals), the case may be unique. Th is makes generalisations quite difficult.

As participants are studied in depth, an attachment could form between them and the psychologist wh ich could reduce the objectivity of the study.

• This research method is about watching and observing people or animals and their behaviours.

• Prior to observing, the psychologist must create a behavioural checklist (called an ethogram if observing non-humans).

• This checklist must name each behaviour that the psychologist is expecting see. In addition, a picture of the behaviour happening and a brief description of that behaviour are useful.

• The behavioural checklist or ethogram must be "tested " before the main observation to ensure that all potential behaviours are covered and the observers can use the checklist or ethogram successfully. This is called a pilot observation.

• Naturalistic observations are observations that take place in a person's or animal's own natural environment.

• Controlled observations are observations that take place in a controlled setting such as a laboratory.

• Participant observations are observations whereby psychologists become a part of the group they wish to observe. This can be overt (the group knows who the psychologist is and that they are being o.bserved) or covert (the group does not know that a psychologist is In the group observing them).

Strengths Weaknesses

If the participants are If the participants are unaware that they are aware that they are being being observed then they observed then they may should behave "naturally". not act "naturally" and

As behaviours are instead show socially

"counted" and are hence desirable behaviours.

quantitative, the process .is It may be difficult to replicate objective. the study if it is natutalistic

as many variables cannot be controlled.

Participants and sampling • Participants are the people who choose to take

part in a study.

• The researcher must decide on a target population (TP). This is the group of people that the psychologist wants to take the same from in the hope that the findings can generalise to and be representative of that TP. The main ones are highlighted below:

o Opportunity sampling involves researchers recruit ing participants who happen to be around at the time they need participants.

o Self-selected or volunteer sampling involves the researcher advertising for participants. Therefore, participants choose whether they want to participate.

o Random sampling involves every participant in the TP having an equal chance of being chosen.

o Stratified sampling involves recruiting a sample that is a mini version of the TP. Therefore, researchers recruit participants from each major stratum in their TP (e.g. age groups, gender and ethnicity).

Strengths of representative sampling (random and stratified)

The researcher can generalise to the TP with more confidence. This is because the sample Is more likely to be representative of the TP.

Strengths of nonrepresentative sampling (opportunity and volunteer)

Large numbers of participants can be obtained relatively quickly and easily.

People are more likely to participate if they have already volunteered so the drop-out rate should be lower than with non-volunteers.

Weaknesses of representative sampling (random and stratified)

Obtaining details of the TP to use to draw the sample may be difficult. Researchers cannot guarantee a representative sample (as with random sampllng) - for example all chosen participants could be of one gender.

Weaknesses of no~ representative sampling (opportunity and volunteer)

Researchers are unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to allow for generalisation .

Design of study (experimental or participant design) • This refers to how psychologist s allocate

participants to the varying conditions of their experiment . There are three different designs:

o Independent groups: when a participant only takes part in one leve l of the IV. If the IV is naturally occurring (e.g. gender) then an experimenter must use thls type of design. In a true independent groups design, participants are randomly allocated to one level of t he IV.

Strengths of independent groups

As participants only take part in one condition they are less likely to guess the aim of the study, reducing the potential effects of demand characteristics.

As participants only take part in one condition there are no order effects (see the table below for examples) that can reduce the validity of the findings.

Weaknesses of independent groups

There may be a problem with participant variables affecting the DV rather than the IV.

More participants are required for th is type of design compared to repeated measures.

o Repeated measures : when a participant takes part in all of the levels of the IV. You must use counterbalancing, which is sometimes called an ABBA design. For example, 50 per cent of participants do level A then level 8 of the JV and the other 50 per cent do level B then A.

Strengths of repeated measures

This eliminates any effect of participant variables as all participants take part in al I conditions therefore they are controlled.

Fewer participants are needed for this type of design compared to independent groups.

Weaknesses of repeated measures

As all partici.pants take part in all conditions, there is a chance of demand characteristics affecting the study.

Order effects can affect the findings of the study. Examples of these effects are: practice effect (participants getting better at a task when they complete a similar one for the second time) r fatigue effect {the more tasks participants do the more tired they might become) and boredom effect (repeating slmllar tasks can bore participants).

o Matched pairs: when participants are matched on the variable researchers wish to control for in the study. Once participants are matched, each member of the pair takes part in one level of the IV.

Strength of matched pairs Weaknesses of matched pal rs

Participant variables are controlled for and eliminated as the pairs of participants have been matched on them.

It can be a study In itself to find participants who are matched on all of the variables the psychologist has chosen. This is very time consuming.

There may be one or two participant variables that are ~overlooked'' with the initial matching and these could affect the DV rather than the IV.

3

4

Issues and debates in psychology

The application of psychology to everyday life {its usefulness) • Some people argue that if studies and ideas from

psychology cannot be used in everyday life then it is not useful.

• 011ce a study has been published, then other psychologists may evaluate it in terms of usefulness. This can be positive or negative.

• The extent to which something is useful is debating how the findings can be used (or not used) in everyday life.

Strength of conducting Problems of conducting useful research useful research

The main advanta,ge is Studies might be unethical that it is can be used to Jn order to gain more valid improve human behaviour results . in some way. For example, Studies need to be high If we find a better way to in ecological validity to be treat a mental Illness then of more use to society but it is useful to society as a this can be quite difficult whole. if they are conducted in a

laboratory, for instance.

Ecological validity • This refers to the extent that the setting a

study has been conducted in can be relevant to everyday life.

• Therefore, a study conducted in a laboratory using human participants may be low in ecological validity as it is not a setting that humans are used to.

• Sometimes in a study tl1e task given to participants might also not be something that happens in everyday life - psychologists use the term "mundane realism" to describe tasks involving things that happen in everyday life.

Ethics The British Psychological Society has strict guidelines on wl1at ca11 and cannot be done on l1uman participants in tl1e name of psycl1ological research:

• Informed consent. Tl1Ts is when participants are fully aware of what the study is about and they then give their permission to be used in the study.

• Deception. Psychologists should avoid deceiving participants about aspects of tJ1e study unless this makes the study useless.

• Debriefing. Psychologists must explain the full aim of the study {especially if they had to deceive participants) at the end of the study.

• Right to withdraw. Psychologists should tell participants that they can leave the study at any time and that their data will then not be used in the published study.

• Confidentiality. Psychologists must tell all participants that their responses will not be identifiable as their own.

• Protectio11. Psychologists must ensure that participants leave the study in the same physical and psychological state in which they entered the study.

• Observations. People can only be observed in public places wt1ere any member of the public can see the behaviour.

Ethnocentric bias This is when psychologists view the results, behaviours or responses of a study that used participants not from their own ethnic group through the eyes of their own ethnic experiences. As a result the psychologists may feel that their own ethnic group is superior compared to the one(s) they are studying and therefore misinterpret behaviours and draw the wrong conclusions about the behaviour being studied.

Reliability and validity • Reliability refers to whether researchers can

test something again to see if they gain similar results. A laboratory experiment, with all of its controls, is said to be reliable as it can be replicated quite easy to see if similar results are obtained.

• Validity refers to how accurate the findings are from a study.

Individual versus situational explanations • Individual explanations are to do with accounting

for bel1aviours from factors from within the person (called "dispositional factors") such as personality.

• Situational explanations are to do with accounting for behaviours from factors from tl1e external environment (the situation tl1at people find themselves in).

Strengths of this debate

Findings can be very useful to society as a whole. If we find out which behaviours are down to lndividuals and which are down to the situations we find ourselves in, then we can help explain human behaviour more clearly.

If psychologists find that there is an interaction between both sides of the debate then this is useful too.

Problems of researching this debate

It can be very difficult to separate out what is an individual factor and what is a situation·al factor.

Studies might be unethical in order to gain more valid results.

Studies need to be high in ecological validity to be of more use to this debate but this can be quite difficult if studies are conducted fn a laboratory.

Nature and nurture • Nature refers to behaviours that are thought to

be hard-wired into people pre-birth (innate or genetic) - we are born with certain behaviours and traits.

• Nurture refers to behaviours that are thought to develop through the lifetime of the person.

Strengths of this debate

If we find out which behaviours are down to nature and which are down to nurture, then we can help to explain human behaviour more clearly.

If psychologists find that there is an interaction between both sides of the debate then this is useful.

Problems of researching this debate

It can be very difficult to separate out what is nature and what is nurture.

If behaviour is seen to be purely down to nature {genetics) then this can be very socially sensitive. Certain sections of society could use this to undertake a ueugenic" movement to get rid of people with "inferior genes" . This is clearly unacceptable.

Psychometrics • These are usually paper-and-pen tasks that mean

"measurement of the mind" .

• They are standardised tests that people take such as an intelligence quotient (IQ) test, an aptitude test to gain a job or a test to help with educational needs.

Strengths of psychometrics

As they are standardised on a large sample of people, they can be seen as being more objective and scientific.

Comparisons can be useful as people's resu lts are being compared on the san1e, standardised scale.

As they are standardised, they are reliable measures because we can use them again and again to see if we get similar results.

Problems of using psychometric tests

There may be issues with validity. Is the test ;;ictually measuring the behaviour it is supposed to be measuring?

Some tests might be seen as ethnocentric as they might test very specific cultural knowledge rather than the behaviour they are supposed to be measuring.

Quantitative and qualitative data • Quantitative data is in the numerical form and you

can perform statistical analyses on it.

• Qualitative data takes the form of descriptions via words, sentences and paragraphs.

Strengths of quantitative data

As the data are numerical, this allows easier comparison and statistical analysis to take place.

As the data are numerical, they are objective and scientific - there is only minimal chance of psychologists miscalculating the data.

Strengths of qualitative data

The data collected is in-depth and in the words of the participants so it is rich and in detail and represents what participants believe.

As the data is directly from participants we can understand why they think, feel or act in that way.

Problems with quantitative data

As the data are numerical, they miss out on valuable information. If the answer is simply yes/ no or on a rating scale we do not know why participants chose the answer that they did.

Using these data can be seen as reductionist as psychologists are reducing complex ideas and behaviours down to a number or percentage.

Problems with qualitative data

The interpretation of the data could be subjective as we are dealing with words rather than numbers -psychologists could misinterpret participants' meaning.

There may be researcher bias. Psychologists might only select data that fits into their hypothesis or aim of the study.

Generalisations • This term refers to how tnuch the findings from

a study can be applied to the people who never directly took part in the study.

• This is not always directly linked to sample size (e.g .. a small sample size does not automatically mean we cannot generalise).

• If behaviour is biological in nature (e.g. sleep and daily rhythms) and all humans have the same biological mechanisms then finding something out using less than 10 participants may be generalisable to a lot of other humans.

Snapshot and longitudinal data • Snapshot - this is when data are collected at

one point in time using a group of participants performing a task, being interviewed, etc.

• Longitudinal - this Is when the same set of participants is followed over a longer period of time to examine things such as developmental changes. 5

6

2 Issues and debates in psychology

Strengths of snapshot stud.ies

These studies can be a time-efficient way of collecting a lot of data.

These can be really useful for conducting "pilot research" and exploring an area to see whether a study is feasible.

Strengths of longitudinal studies

These studies allow an analysis of how behaviour develops over time.

Individual differences between peo pie in the study are controlled for as it Is the same people being tracked over a set amount of time.

Problems with snapshot studies

As they do not follow people over a period of time, they are not useful In tracking how behaviour does develop or what the long-term effects of something are.

As they only cover one point in time they only represent those participants showing that behaviour or opinion at that point in tln1e.

Problems with longitudinaJ studies

Not all participants will want to be fol lowed for the length of the study and will drop out (called " participant attrition "}. This can reduce the sample size and then the generalisability of the study.

Psychologists could become attached to the participants in the study which means they could be more subjective in their analyses.

The use of children in psychological research • Children aged under 16 cannot give their own

informed consent to take part in a study.

• Children aged under 16 must get parental permission to pa.rticipate in studies or loco parentis permission (e.g. from someone who looks after them in a nursery).

• Some other issues to consider when working with children Include their language capabilities and whether the study involves children concentrating more than they would usually do.

The use of animals in psychological research There are ethical guidelines and rules for using animals in psychological research. The main ones are as fol lows:

• The law - psychologists must work within the law about protecting animals.

• Number of animals - this should be a kept to the minimum amount to make statistical analysis meaningful.

• Social environment- social species should be kept together and non-social species should be kept apart.

• Caging - housing in cages should not lead to overcrowding and increased stress levels.

Reductionism • This is when a psychologist believes that a complex

behaviour can be explained by reducing it to one single cause or a series of component parts.

Determinism • This is when a psychologist believes that a behavior

may be caused by factors such as our biology, genetics and upbringing. Therefore, any individual has no Free Will and does not choose how to behave; It is already determined by something else.

Cognitive psychology

Core study 3.1 Mann, Vrij & Bull (2002)

Context Early research into the field of lying behaviour had sl1own mixed results in terms of what people actually do wl1en fying. Some people avert their gaze and become fidgety while others become very still and hardly move at all. Very little research had been conducted in f ield settings using people who could and would lie spontaneously if the stakes were high and Mann, Vrij & Bull found the perfect set of participants for this: suspects in police custody.

Aim To investigate the lying behaviours of suspects in police custody - a high-stake situation that is real life so would generate real lying.

Method Design

• Detectives were asked if they could recollect any videotaped interviews where t11e suspect had definitely I ied at least once but also told the truth.

• Once a list l1ad been made of these the case files were requested.

• One of tl1e research team then looked througl1 the case tile to find forensic evidence or independent witness statements that could easily corroborate wit h the lie a11d truth in the interview.

• Overall this became a one-hour video with cl ips from all 16 suspects.

• For a better comparison, the truths had to be comparable in nature to the lies for inclusion.

• A total of 65 clips were used {27 truths and 38 lies).

• Each participant had a minimum of two clips (one truth and one lie) and tl1e maximum was eight clips.

• Eight behaviours were looked for in the clips:

Behaviour Coded by:

Gaze aversion the number of seconds that the participant looked away from the intervjewer

Blinking frequency of eye blinks

Head movement frequency of head nods (LJpward and downward were counted separately); head shakes (side to side) were also counted

Self-manipulations frequency of head scratching, scratching the wrist

Illustrators

Hand/finger movements

Speech disturbances

Pauses

frequency of arm and hand n1ovements (that either modified or complemented what the suspect was talking about)

any movements of the hands or fingers without moving the arms

frequency of saying things like "ah " or "mmm" between words, frequency of word and/or sentence repetition, sentence change, sentences not completed, stutters, etc. - any devlation from the official English language or the use of slang was not counted here

the number of seconds where there was a noticeable pause in the monologue of the suspect, When the suspect stopped speaking for more than 0 .5 seconds when the conversation was free flowing.

• For gaze aversion and pauses wl1en telling the truth , the total length of time recorded for these coded behaviours was divided by the total length of time of the trutl1ful clips for that suspect then multiplied by 60 to give a total length per minute. This was repeated for lying.

• The frequency of blinks, head, arm or hand movements while telling the truth or lying was divided by the total lengt h of time for each truth or lying clip and multiplied by 60 to give a frequency per minute score.

• The total number of speech dist urbances during the truthful and lying lips was divided by the total number of words spoken during the truthful and lying clips then multiplied by 100 to give a "' per 100 words " frequency score.

Participants

• The participants were 16 police suspects {13 males and 3 females).

• Four of these were juveniles (three were aged 13 years and one 15 years).

• Fifteen were Gaucasian and one was Asian.

• The crimes for which the participants were being interviewed about were tt1eft {n = 9)1 arson {n = 2), attempted rape (n = 1) and murder {n = 4 ).

Procedure

• Two observers independently coded the eight behaviours that were under investigation.

7

8

3 Cognitive psychology

• They did not know which clips showed suspects telling the truth and which showed lies. Also, they were not told t he purpose of the study or any hypotheses.

• The first observer coded every single clip.

• The second observer coded a random sample of 36 clips coveri11g all 16 suspects so inter-rater reliability could be measured.

Results Truthful Deceptive

Behaviour M SD M SD

Gaze aversion 27.82 9 .25 27.78 11.76

Bl inks 23.56 10.28 18.50 8.44

Head movements 26.57 12.34 27.53 20.93

Hand/ arm 15.31 14.35 10.80 9.99

movements

Pauses 3.73 5 .14 5.31 4.94

Speech 5.22 3.79 5.34 4.93

disturbances

• Table 3 .1 Scores - truthful and deceptive

These were the significant differences between the truthful clips and lying in terms of behaviour :

• Lying was accompanied by a decrease in blinking (81 per cent of suspects).

• Lying was accompanied by an increase in pauses (81 per cent of suspects).

• There were individual differences as there was not one behaviour that all lia rs showed.

• The only other coded behaviour t hat came close to being significant was hand and arm movements which decreased for 69 per cent of the suspects when they were lying.

• Behaviour such as head movement was evenly split in that 50 per cent moved their head upwards an.d 50 per cent moved it downwards when lying.

Conclusion From this study, the most reliable indicators of lying in a high-stake situat ion are a decrease in blinking and an increase in pauses when talking.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Mann, Vrij & Bull

Strength The suspects did not know that the recordings were to be used for the analysis of lying behaviours. Therefore, they were much more likely to be displaying real behaviours, making the findings of the study more valid.

Strength All of the behaviours were coded quantitatively which made the whole recording process objective and more scientific (see the details above on how the data was converted). Also, the interrater reliabil ity exercise confirmed this as the behaviours had been recorded reliably.

Weakness This study may be difficult to replicate due to the observation techniques used. For example, if the police know that tapes may be used for analysls they may change the way that they interview the suspects which, in turn, could reduce the validity of these findings.

Other points to consider include the following:

• Ethics: no informed consent was taken from the suspects for their footage to be used for analyses in a psychological study.

• Reliability: as the researchers conducted a successful inter-rater reliability task, the behaviours recorded were those shown by the suspects. This can also affect the validity of the study as we can argue that they were also accurately coded.

A. Figure 3.1. Can the police tell when a criminal is lying or te lling the truth?

Core study 3.2 Loftus & Pickrell ( 1995)

Context New information that is processed after an initial memory is formed can become incorporated into the recollection of the original event to form a "new" memory that is not correct. Some psychologists, including Elizabeth Loftus, call these false memories. People do believe they are real though and this can have huge effects on, for example, eyewitness testimony and other evidence used in courts of law. This study tested how easy it is to form false memories in people.

Aim To investigate whether it ls at all possible to get people to form a false memory of an event that never happened to them.

Method Design

• The participants were sent a frve-page booklet along with a letter explaining how to complete the booklet.

• The booklet contained four stories - three that were true about the participant and provided by a relative. The fourth story was a false event about getting lost in a shopping mall.

• Each event was a single paragraph at the top of the page and the rest of the page was blank so participants could write down any details about their memories of that event.

• Interviews with each relative took place in order to obtain the three true events that happened to the participant when he or she was around 5 years old. They could not be traumatic events or family events that would be easy to recall.

• The relative had to provide information about a shopping trip to a mall or department store. Relatives were asked:

o where the family would have shopped when the participant was 5 years old

o which family members used to go on shopping trips

o what type(s) of store(s) might have been appealing to the participant when he or she was a child

o to confirm that the participant had never been lost in a shopping mall or department store when he or she was 5 years old.

• The event involving getting lost always followed the same format for the participants: they were lost for an extended period of time, they cried, they were lost in a shopping mall or department store when they were 5 years old, they were found and helped by an elderly woman and then they were reunited with their family.

Participants

• The study was completed by 24 participants (3 males and 21 females) aged 18-53 years.

• They were recru ited via students of the University of Washington.

• Each student gave details of a pair of individuals (a participant and a relative of that participant).

• The pairs were usually parent and child or sibling pairs.

• The relative of the participant had to be knowledgeable about the participant's childhood ..

Procedure

• Participants were told that they were taking part in a study about childhood memory.

• Initially they were asked to complete the booklet by reading the account from their relative and then writing down all they could remember about that event.

• If they could not remember anything they had to state this.

• Once the booklet was completed, they mailed it back to the researchers.

• Two interviews were then scheduled with partjcipants, the first usually one to two weeks after completing the booklet then another one to two weeks after the first.

• Two interviewers, both female, conducted and recorded each interview.

• The first interview: Participants were reminded of the four events they had written about in the booklet. They were asked to recall as much information about the event as possible.

• They were told that the interviewers were simply interested in how much they could recall about chi ldhood events and how their recollection compared with the rec.ollection of the relative.

• Once participants decided they had remembered as much as possible they had to rate the clarity of that memory on a scale of 1-10, with 1 being not clear and 10 being extremely clear.

• They had to rate on a scale of 1-5 how confident they would be if given more time to think about the event they would remember more details (1 was not confident and 5 was extremeJy confident).

• Once the interview was completed, participants were thanked for their time and effort and asked to think about the events and recall more details at the second Interview.

• The second interview: This was the same as the first Interview but at the end of the interview participants were debriefed.

• This meant telling them that the study had attempted to create a memory for an event that had never actually happened.

• Participants were asked to pick which event they thought was the false one. Then they were given an apology for the deceptive nature of the study.

9

10


Results • Combined, the 24 participants were asked to

remember 72 true events per recall session (booklet, interview 1 and interview 2). They remembered 49 of these (68 per cent).

100

90 Booklet 'O

80 ([) ... ([) £l 70 49/72 49/72 49/ 72 • Interview 1

0 Interview 2 E ([) 60 E Q) ... 50 ([) 'Q.O 40 co -c 30 ([) 0

7/24 6/ 24 6/ 24 ...

20 ([) Q..

10

0 True False

Event type

.& Figure 3.2 True and false events recal led per session

• In addition, participants used more words when recalling the true events compared to the false event (on average). The mean word length for true events was 138.0 while for the false events it was 49.9.

• During the first interview, 17 of the participants maintained that they had no recollection of the false event.

• 75 per cent "resisted " the suggestion of the false event and this continued at second interview.

10 9

8 'Q.O c 7 6.3 6.3 :;:i

~ 6 ~ ·- 5 .... co -(.)

4 c co

3 Q)

~ 2

1

0 True

.& Figure 3.3 Clarity ratings

• Interview 1

0 Interview 2

3 .6 2.8

False

Event type

• In terms of confidence, the mean score for true events was 2. 7 at first interview and then 2.2 at second interview.

• For the false events these scores were 1.8 at first interview then 1.4 at second interview.

• At debrief when participants were asked to choose which event they thought was the false one, 19/ 24 chose the correct event.

Conclusion Some people can be misled into believing a false event did happen to them in their chi ldhood through the suggestion that it was a true event. Therefore, in some people, memories can be altered by suggestion.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Loftus & Pickrell

Strength

Strength

The data such as the confidence ratings, word length of recollections and clarity ratings were numerical and could be analysed by calculating the mean scores for true and false events. This enabled Loftus & Pickrell to draw suitable conclusions based on these objective data.

Loftus & Pickrell could calculate the number of true and false events that people recalled as being " factual " so comparisons could be made - there could be very little misinterpretation as it was based on the participants' initial recall. of the event in the booklet. Comparisons between the true and false events could be compared to give a factual conclusion.

Weakness In th is study, the confidence ratings were numerical. While they appeared low for true and false events at both interviews, we do not know why the participants felt unconfident. The same applies to the clarity ratings.


• Ethics: one issue in this study is deception. Some psychologists could argue that the researchers broke the ethical guideline of deception as the participants were clearly deceived.

• Howeve~, Loftus & Pickrell could argue that the deception was crucial for their study to have any validity.

• Ethics: protection is also an issue. Participants did not leave the study in the same psychological state as when they started it. Remember that some participants did not pick out the false event as being "false'' .

g

.& Figure 3.4 Can we really have false memories implanted, such as a memory of being lost in a shopping mall?

Core study 3.3 Baron.Cohen et al (2001)

Context In 1997 a "Reading the mind in the eyes" test was developed to assess a concept called theory of mind. This test appeared to discriminate between adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) and high functioning autistic (HFA) adults from control adults. The AS and HFA groups scored significantly worse on the test, which asked participants to look at a pair of eyes on a screen and choose which emotion they best showed. However, the research team were not happy with elements of the original version and wanted to "upgrade" their measure to improve it.

Aim 1 . To test a group of adults with AS or HFA on the

revised scale of the eyes test. This was to check whether the same deficits seen in the original study could be replicated.

2. To test a sample of normal adults to see whether there was a negative correlation between the scores on the eyes test and their autism spectrum quotient (AQ).

3 . To test whether females scored better on the eyes test than males.

Method Design

Original problems

Forced choice between two response options meant just a narrow range of 17- 25 correct responses (out of 25) to be statistically above chance. The range of scores for parents of those with AS were lower than normal but again there was a narrow range of scores to detect any rea I differences.

There were basic and complex mental states so some of the pairs of eyes were "too easy" (e.g. happy, sad) and others "too hard" making comparisons difficult.

There were some pairs of eyes that could be "solved" easily because of eye direction (e.g. noticing or ignoring).

New design element (if applicable)

Forced cholce remained but there were four response options. There were 36 pairs of eyes used rather than 25 - this gives a range of 13- 36 correct responses (out of 36) to be statistically above chance. This means individual differences can be examined better in terms of statistics.

Only complex mental states were used.

These were deleted.

There were more female pairs of eyes used in the original test.

The choice of two responses were always "semantic opposites" (e.g. happy/ sad) which made it too easy.

There may have been comprehension problems with the choice of words used as the forced choice responses.

An equal amount of male and female pairs of eyes was used.

"Semantic opposites" were removed and the " foil choices '' (those that were incorrect) were to be more similar to the correct answer.

A glossary of all terms used as the choices on the eyes test was available to all participants at all times.

A Table 3.2 Problems and attempts to solve them

• Initially,. the "correct" word and the "foils" were chosen by the first two authors of this study.

• They were then piloted on eight judges (equal sex).

• For the correct word and its foils to be used in the new eyes test, five out of the eight judges had to agree with the original choice.

• There had to be no more than two judges picking a foil over the correct word.

• At least 50 per cent of this group had to get the correct word and no more than 25 per cent had to seJect a foil for it to be included in the final version of the eyes test.

• From the original 40 pairs of eyes, 36 passed these tests and were used.

Participants

There were four groups of participants:

1. One group consisted of 15 males with either AS or HFA. They were recruited via a UK National Autistic Society magazine or support group. They had all been formally diagnosed.

2. In this group there were 122 normal adults recruited throughout adult community and education classes in Exeter or in a public library in Cambridge. There appeared to be a broad range of people in this group.

3. This group consisted of 103 normal adults (53 male and 50 female) who were all undergraduates at Cambridge University (71 in sciences and 32 in other subjects). They were all assumed to have a high IQ.

4. This group was formed from 14 randomly selected adults who were matched for IQ with group 1.

Procedure

All participants, irrespective of group, completed the revised version of the eyes test. Each participant completed it individually in a quiet roorn. Participants in group 1 were asked to judge the gender of each image. Groups 1, 3 and 4 completed a questionnaire to measure their AQ. All participants were asked to read through a gl·ossary of all words and indicate any they were unsure of - they were also reassured that they could revisit the glossary at any time during the test.

12


A Figure 3.5 Example of male pair of eyes used in the test

Results Group Eyes test means AQ means

(SD) (SD)

AS/ HFA adults 21.9 (6.6) 34.4 (6.0)

General 26.2 (3.6) N/ A population

Students 28.0 (3.5) 18.3 (6.6)

Matched 30.9 (3.0) 18 .. 9 (2 .9)

A Table 3.3 Mean and standard deviation (in parentheses) scores for the new eyes test and AQ by group

• The AS/ HFA group performed significantly worse than the other three groups on the eyes test.

• In general, females scored better on the eyes test than males.

• The AS/ HFA group scored significantly higher on AQ than the other groups.

• The distribution of scores for the eyes test (all groups merged) formed a normal bell curve.

Conclusion The revised version of the eyes test could still discriminate between AS/ HFA adults and controls from different sections of society as it replicated previous findings. The new eyes test appeared to overcome the initial problems of the original version.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Baron..Cohen et al

Strength The revised eyes test was used with all participants - this means that all comparisons between the groups have some validity as we are comparing on the same set scale using the same questions, etc.

Strength The revised eyes test can be used .by other research teams to see if they can replicate findings and test for reliability. Even though it was the older version of the eyes test in the original study, this study did find reliable results in terms of performance of AS/ HFA (low scores in both studies).

Weakness Some psychologists could question whether the revised eyes test is still actually measuring theory of mind traits or just the ability to complete the eyes test.


• The main advantage of this research is that it can be used to improve human behaviour in some way. Psychologists could now create therapies (or training) to help people with AS or HFA improve their social commu.nication and social emotional skills to help them integrate better into society.

• The eyes test does not take into account the "full picture" of understanding emotions - in reality there are cues such as body language and other facial cues that can help people to understand the emotions of others.

Core study 3.4 Held & Hein (1963)

Context One of the debates that psychologists have had for a very long time is the nature-nurture debate. Previous studies had ex.amined the role of exposure to stimuli and movement around stimuli as a way of developing perception. One sense alone is not enough to develop perceptual skills, so in this case visual and kinaesthetic associations might be necessary. What happens when an organism is deprived of these associations was the crux of this study.

Aim To investigate whether kittens have to see and move to be able to develop skills such as depth perception .

Method Design

.& Figure 3.6 The kitten carousel

• The kitten labelled A {Active) was allowed to walk around tl1e carousel to explore.

• Tl1e one labelled P {Passive) was placed in a device where the paws could 11ot touch the ground, preventing the kitten from walking.

• The device that connected the two kittens meant that the P kitten moved in all of the same directions as the A kitten but without engaging in any walking.

• The distance between the kittens was 36 inches.

• The P kitten could move its legs within the device but it was never in co11trol of its own movement s.

The kittens undertook three main tasks after having time in the carousel:

1. Visually guided paw placeme11t. Each kitten was held in the hands of an experimenter. The head and forelegs were free {it was held by the body) . The kitten was slowly 111oved forwards and downward towards the edge of a table (horizontal surface).

2. Avoidance of visual cliff. There are two parts to the apparatus used: t11e "deep side" is a patterned surface about 30 inches below a large plate of glass and the "shallow side'' is where the patterned surface is attached to the underside of the glass. The behaviours of the kittens were noted.

3 . Bl inking to an approaching object. Each kitten was placed in a device similar to that used by the A kitten. There was a large sheet of Plexiglass placed in front of the kitten. An experimenter would move a hand quickly towards the kitten stopping just before the Plexiglass.

• There were other tests performed on the kittens outside of the main three, which were:

o pupillary reflex to light being shone into it

o how the kittens reacted to having their paws placed on the top of a table

o visual pursuit of a moving object.

Participants

There were 10 pairs of kittens used {so a total of 20) and each pair came from a different litter. They were all aged between 8 and 12 weeks.

Procedure

The ten pairs of kittens were split into two groups called X and Y:

• The X group (eight of the pairs) were reared in darkness from birth until the kitten assigned as A was at the minimum size to be used in the kitten carousel (age varied from 8 to 12 weeks). They were then exposed to tl1e apparatus for tl1ree hours per day.

• The Y group (two of the pairs) had three l1ours of exposure to the patterned interior of the carousel from about two weeks old up until they were ten weeks old. After this they began a three l1our per day exposure to the kitten carousel. When not on the apparatus they were kept in "lightless" cages with their 111other and litter mates.

• There were six paw-placement assessments each day after the exposures.

• As soon as one of the pairs of kittens showed the ability to "paw place" both of the pair were tested on the visual cliff (placed in the central part and observed). They were then both retested on the following day. Then the ·P kitten of each pair was placed in a continuously lit room for 48 hours. They were then retested. This applied to X group.

• The Y group did something slightly different. On the iirst day that the A kitten showed pawplaceme11t skills, it was tested on the visual cliff and then retested the day after. However, the P kitten simply kept getting exposed to the carousel for three hours per day untf I it reached 126 hours. Only then was it tested for paw placement a11d on the visual cliff.

13


Results Pair number Age in Ratio of descents

weeks* shallow/ deep

A p

1X 8 12/ 0 6/ 6

2X 8 12/ 0 4/ 8

3X 8 12/ 0 7/ 5

4X 9 12/ 0 6/ 6

5X 10 12/ 0 7/ 5

6X 10 12/ 0 7/ 5

7X 12 12/ 0 5/ 7

BX 12 12/ 0 8/ 4

1Y 10 12/ 0 6/ 6

2Y 10 12/ 0 8/ 4

*At the beginning of exposure in the experimental apparatus

A. Table 3 .4 Results of the visual cliff task

This indicates that the P kittens had not developed depth perception even in the Y group.

• As soon as the A kitten could show paw placement, the paired P kitten's ability was noted. None of them passed this test.

• The A kittens could also pass the remaining tests but the P kittens all failed .

• Following the 48 hours of continually lit living arrangements for the P kittens, when retested on the visual cliff they all went to the shallow side and they could all pass the paw-placement test.

Conclusion To develop "typical" perceptual development, kittens need to be able to move around by themselves with simultaneous visual feedback.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Held & Hein

Strength The amount of t ime the kittens were exposed to the apparatus, the tasks the kittens had to do and the kitten carousel were all solid controls in this study. Therefore, a different s.et of researchers could replicate this study to test for reliability.

Strength With the controls in place, such as the kitten pairings, the conditions in which they were raised and the kitten carousel mechanisms, Held & Hein could conclude with confidence that the use of vision and movement affects the perceptual development of kittens.

Weakness Group X kittens were brought up in darkness and spent time in the kitten carousel, which are not usual environments for kittens. Therefore, it could be said that the study tacked ecological validity.

Weakness The tasks that the kittens had to perform (the visual cliff and the paw placement) are not tasks that kittens in the natural environment would have to perform.

14 Therefore, it could be said that the study lacked mundane realism.

Also, Held & Hein can be assessed on ethical issues:

General evaluation (ethics)

Ethics of using animals in research

Related to Held & Hein

There were only 20 kittens used for the entire study which allows for statistical analyses but also it is a small number of kittens overall.

The kittens were housed in cages but eight pairs were reared in darkness and two in lightless conditions which is not usual. This could have increased the stress levels of the entire litter and mother (not just the kittens used in the study).

The findings did show impaired perceptual development in the P kittens which can be seen as being harmful. Also, being raised in darkness could be seen as not protecting the kittens. The kitten carousel could have been stressf ut for the P kitten as it had no control but also the neckbrace for the A kitten could have been stressful . However, some psychologists could argue that the stress was transient (short-lived) as, for example, P kittens began to overcome their perceptual deficiencies once placed in lit conditions.

Social psychology Core study 4.1

Mllgtam (1963)

Context What if you were ordered to do something that caused harm or distress to another person? This type of obedience, in wl1ich people obey orders to cause l1arm, is called destructive obedience. Social psychologists such as Stanley Milgram have been particularly interested in dest ructive o.bedience.

Early psychological research into the Holocaust focused on the idea that something distinctive about Ger111an culture or personality led to the high levels of conformity and obedience necessary for genocide to take place. This is known as the dispositional hypothesis. While Milgram was interested in this idea, he was also interested in tl1e social processes that take place between individuals a11d within groups. The idea that we can explain events such as the Holocaust by reference to the social processes operating in the situation, rat11er than the characteristics of tl1e individuals involved . is called the situational hypothesis.

Aim To investigate l1ow obedient people would be to orders from a person in authority that would resu lt in pafn and harm to another person. More specifically, the aim was to see how large an electric shock participants would give to a helpless man when ordered to.

Method Participants

• Forty men aged 20-50 were recruited by means of a newspaper advertisement.

• The sample was ttlerefore mostly a volunteer or self-selecting sample.

• They were from a range of backgrounds arid held a range of jobs: 37 .5 per cent were manual labourers, 40 per cent were white-collar workers, and 22.5 per cent were professionals.

• All were from tl1e New Haven, Connecticut, USA.

Procedure

• Participants were recruit ed by means of a newspaper advertisement. They were promised $4.50 for their time.

• Whe11 each participant arrived at Yale Ur1iversity he was int roduced to a man he believed to be another participant . The two men were then briefed on the supposed pu(pose of the experiment, which was described to t hem as to investigate the effect of punishment on learning.

• The other man was working for Milgram. He was a 47-year-old lrish-Ame(ican accountant (a confederate).

• The naive participant and the co11federate were told that one of them would play the role of a teacher a11d the other a learner.

• They drew slips of paper from a hat to al locate the roles, but this was f ixed so tt1at the naive participant was always the teacher and the confederate was always the learner.

• They were then immediately taken t o anotl1er room where the learner was strapped into a chair arid electrodes were attacl1ed to tiim.

• They were shown the electric shock generator. This had a row of switches, each labelled with a voltage, rising in 15·volt intervals from 15V up to 450V.

• Participants were told that the shocks could be extremely painful but not dangerous; they were each given a 45V shock to demonstrate.

• There was a wall between the teacher and learner, so that the teacher could hear but not see the learner.

1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.1 l2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

15 · -- - -------- ~ 75 · -----------· 135 · -- - -------- ·195 ·--- - ----- -- · 255 ·-----------· 315 ·-----·----- · 375 ·-----------· 435 450

VOLTS 30 45 60 VOLTS 90 105 1 20 VOLTS 151 16& l.SO VOCTS 210 225 240 VOLTS 270r 85r oo VOLTS 330 345r 60 VOLTS 390 405r 20 VOLTS VOLTS

SLIGHT. --- ___ - ·MODERATE · --- __ --· STRONG ·------ -- ·si:~~G. ____ --- _ INTENSE · -------·!~~~:., · ---_----~~~~- ___ --- __ j X X X SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK SHOCK SHOC K SHOCK ]

A Figure 4.1 The control panel of the electric shock generator 15

16

4 Social psyct1ology

• The procedure was administered by an experimenter, played by a 31-year-old male blology teacher.

• The participant (in the role of teacher) read out word pairs and to test the confederate (in the role of learner) on his recognition of which words went together.

• Each time the learner made a mistake, the experimenter ordered the teacher to give a shock. The shock got larger by 15V for each mistake.

• If the teacher refused to give a shock, a series of prods were used.

Prod 1 - say "Please continuen or "Please go on".

Prod 2 - say "The experimenter requires you to continue ri •

Prod 3 - say " It is absolutely essential that you continue" .

Prod 4 - "You have no other choice, you must go on".

• Up to 300V the learner did not signal any response to the shocks. However, at 300V and 315V, he pounded on the wall. He was then silent and did not respond to further questions.

• Teachers were considered to have completed the procedure either when they refused to give any more shocks, or when they reached the maximum voltage on the shock machine.

• They were then interviewed. During the interview they were asked to rate on a scale of 0-14 how painful the last few shocks they gave were.

• They were told that the shocks were not real, that the learner was unharmed, and that the real purpose of the study was to investigate obedience.

Results • The average voltage given by participants was

368V; 100 per cent of participants gave 300V or more and 65 per cent gave the full 450V.

• Psychology students had estimated that only 3 per cent of participants would give these shocks.

• Average rating of how painful the shocks were was 13.42 out of a maximum of 14.

• Most participants showed signs of tension during the procedure including groaning, sweating, biting lips and stuttering. Fourteen giggled nervously. One had a seizure and the procedure was stopped.

Conclusion • People are much more obedient to destructive

orders than we might expect, and considerably more than psychology students suggested in their estimates.

• People find the experience of receiving and obeying destructive orders highly stressful. They obey in spite of their emotional responses.

• The situation trlggers a confl ict between two aspects: to obey those in authority, and not to harm people.

• Results supported the situational hypothesis rather than the dispositional hypothesis.

Evaluation Evaluation

Strength

Strength

Weakness

Weakness

Related to Milgram

The drawing of lots, the timing of when the scripted responses were heard and going up in 15V increments were all examples of controls. Therefore, other researchers could replicate this study to test it for reliability. (Ethical guidelines may stop this, but another study by Slater did replicate this one.)

As there were so many controls, such as having a "test" shock, receiving the prods at a certain time (in the same order) and the shock generator being the same for everyone, Milgram could conclude with confidence that lt was the situation that the participants were placed in that caused the obedience levels.

Sitting in a laboratory in front of a shock generator is not an everyday setting that people find themselves in. Therefore, the study lacks ecological validity.

Having to shock somebody who gets a word-pair wrong is not a task that people come across in everyday life. Therefore, the study is low in mundane realism.


• Ethics - three ethical issues are highlighted in this study:

o Deception: teachers thought that they were giving learners real electric shocks. Also, they were told that it was a study about learning and not obedience.

o Debriefing: at the end of the study all was revealed to the participants so they left knowing that they had not harmed learners. Milgram followed them up six months later to check whether they were having any psychological issues.

o Right to withdraw: the prods given by the experimenter did mean it was difficult for teachers to withdraw from the study and some kept being convinced to continue even though they wanted to leave.

• Usefulness: the study did highlight that the situation may make people behave in the way that they do rather than individual (dispositional) factors. This could begin to help explain things such as genocide so we can work on find ing ways to stop them happening.

Core study 4.2 Haney, Banks & Zlmbardo (1973)

Context A lot of people have a stereotypical view of prison life and of prisoners. This may include thinking that "they are always bad people and they never learn from their time in prison". Could it be that prisoners are simply "bad" people and this is what makes prisons "bad"? An alternative view could be that the situation of being in prison turns these prisoners "bad" and it is not because of some characteristic within them. This is all focused around the individual (dispositional) versus situational debate. The US Navy sponsored the running of this study.

Aim To investigate whether the behaviour of non-prisoners in a simulated prison environment is more affected by their disposition (Individual factors) than by the situation they have been placed in.

Method Design

• The prison was constructed within a basement corridor at Stanford University. There were three small cells (6 x 9 feet) made from converted laboratory rooms.

• There was just one entrance door to the whole prison . A cot with a mattress, sheet and pillow was the only furniture in each cell (one per prisoner - three prisoners to a cell).

• There was a solitary confinement facility which was an unlit room measuring only 2 x 2 x 7 feet.

• Several rooms in an adjacent wing of the basement were used as accommodation for participants in the role of guards plus a bedroom each for those in the roles of warden and superintendent. There was also an interview-testing room.

• Another room at the end of the "prison grounds" housed the recording equipment and several observers.

• The design centred on participants in the role of prisoners being in the simulated prison 24 hours per day for the duration of the study.

• They were placed three in a cell.

• The guards worked in three-man shifts that lasted for eight hours per shift.

• During a shift they had to remain in the prison but when it was not their shift they were allowed to go about their usual lives.

• The uniforms: The research team wanted to promote a feeling of anonymity in both groups and the uniform helped to do thts:

o The guards' uniform was a plain khaki shirt and trousers, a whistle, a wooden baton and

reflecting sunglasses (so it was impossible to make known eye contact with a prisoner).

o The prisoners had to wear a loose-fitting muslin smock with their ID number on the front and back, no underclothes, a light chain and lock on one ankle, sandals made of rubber and a cap that was made from a stocking.

o As the smocks were worn with no underpants, it made the prisoners assume more female postures when sitting; this was an attempt to emasculate them.

Participants

• There were 22 participants who took part in the prison simulation stage of the study.

• These were chosen from an initial pool ·of 7 5 people who had answered a newspaper advertisement.

• This had asked for male volunteers to take part in a study about "prison life" . They were told they would get $15 per day if they were chosen for the study.

• Every potential participant completed a very extensive questionnaire about family background, physical and mental health history, prior experiences and attitudes towards psychopathology (including involvement in crime).

• Initially, 24 were selected as they were judged to be the most stable both physically and mentally, most mature and least involved in any anti-social behaviour.

• These were randomly assigned the role of either prison guard or prisoner.

• All of the final 24 were healthy male college students from Stanford. Twenty-three were Caucasian and one was Asian.

• Two of the participants were used as "stand-by" prisoners.

• One of the guards decided not to participate just before the simulation so in total there were 10 prisoners and 11 guards.

• They all signed a contract guaranteeing them a minimally adequate diet, enough clothing, appropriate housing and medical care.

• Those who were prisoners were told to expect little privacy and that they may have some basic rights suspended but no physical abuse would occur.

Procedure

• Guards: Those who had been assigned as guards met one day prior to the induction procedure for prisoners.

• They were introduced to the research team but two were called superintendent (the author of the study) and warden (a research assistant).

• They were told that the team wanted to recreate a prison environment, ethically.

17

18

4 Social psyct1ology

• The guards' main task was to "maintain a reasonable degree of order within the prison necessary ·for its effective functionin.g" (Haney, Banks & Zimbardo, 1973: 7).

• The warden ran through the administrative duties of completing things such as shift logs, reporting any criminal incidents plus the administration of meals to the prisoners.

• They were only given minimal guidelines on how to "act" in order to capture genuine reactions to the simulation.

• Prisoners: The Palo Alto City Police Department helped out with the initial stage.

• Each prisoner was arrested from his home (this was unexpected).

• A real police officer charged prisoners on suspicion of either burglary or armed robbery, told them their legal rights, handcuffed them, searched them and then took them to the police station.

• Once at the station they went through the usual procedure of being fingerprinted and having a file prepared about them before being placed in a detention cell.

• Throughout all of this , the police officers acted as they usually would with a real criminal.

• They did not answer any questions about the study from prisoners.

• Once they had been t ransferred to the simulated . -prison , prisoners were stripped, sprayed with a delousing deodorant spray and made to stand alone (naked).

• They were then given their uniform and had an ID picture taken.

• Finally, they were put into a cell and ordered to remain silent_

• Prison routine: Once all of the prisoners had completed their induction and were in their cells the guards read out the rules of the prison.

• Prisoners were told to memorise the rules.

'

• They were a.lso told that they would be referred to only by the number on their uniform.

• Initially, prisoners were given three basic meals per day.

• They were allowed three supervised toilet visits per day.

• Two hours were given to them every day for privileges, for example reading or writing a letter_

• Work assignments were given to prisoners too so they ·could earn their $15 per day.

• There were two visiting periods per week (scheduled).

• Three times per day prisoners were lined up for a count - this consisted of checking all prisoners were present and that they had learned their ID numbers and the rules of the prison.

Results • Overview: Overall , both sets of participants

became more and more negative about the situation and when they rated their own emotional state.

• Prisoners reported that they wanted to harm others more and more as the simulation progressed.

• Interactions between the two groups tended to be negative and hostile.

• Prisoners became passive very quickly while guards became more and more active. Commands were the most frequent verbal communications from the guards and they were also impersonal (e.g. ID number).

• A total of five prisoners had to be released because of extreme emotional depression which included crying, rage and high anxiety.

• The fifth prisoner had to be released after being treated for a psychosomatic rash that had developed.

• The simulation had to be terminated on day 6 and the remaining prisoners were "delighted by their unexpected good fortunen (Haney, Banks & Zimbardo, 1973: 10).

• The guards, however, felt the complete opposite. They were enjoying the extreme control and power and did not want to give it up so soon.

• All guards came to work on time and on numerous occasions they worked extra hours after their assigned shift had ended.

• Half of the prisoners did endure the situation and not all guards were hostile.

• Some guards stuck within the rules they had created while others went beyond them.

• Reality of the simulation: One example was the private conversations between prisoners. Of these conversations 90 per cent centred on prison life (e.g. food, punishments and harassments).

• Simi larly, when guards took relaxation breaks they spent the majority of their t ime talking about prison life.

• The harassment given to prisoners when they were out of the range of recording equipment was greater than in the "prison yard " which was monitored.

• Guards' aggression continued to increase even when prisoners had stopped resisting the demands placed upon them.

• One guard placed a prisoner in solitary confinement and kept him there overnight (against the rules) as he felt the researchers were being too soft.

• A Catholic priest visited the simulation one day and even then prisoners referred to themselves by number rather than name.

• The prison consultant, priest and public defender all stated that the simulation seemed "real ".

• Pathology of power: Those assigned the role of guard held high social status in the prison, had a group identity of the uniform and had the freedom to control the prisoners.

• The aggression appeared to get stronger when prisoners became a perceived threat (initially).

• Those who were the most hostfle tended to become the leaders of the guards.

• After day 1 guards had changed prisoners' rights into privileges that had to be earned for being obedient.

• The pathological prisoner syndrome: Initially, prisoners could not believe what was happening and how they had lost their privacy.

• This soon passed and their next response was of rebellion.

• This began with direct force which changed to subtle rebellion including setting up a grievance committee.

• It did not take long for any prisoner cohesion to dissolve.

• It would appear that prisoners chose one of two ways to cope with the situation: become sick or become obedient.

• The researchers highlighted three elements that were seen in the prisoners:

1. Loss of personal identity. All personal identity was weakened as they wore the same uniforms, they rarely spoke about life outside of the simulation and they all referred to each other using their ID number and not by name.

2. Arbitrary control. Prisoners found it Increasingly difficult to cope with the increasing ·stronger control by guards, especially via guards' often "mixed message" approach.

3. Dependency and emasculation. Prisoners had to depend on guards for virtually everything fron1 toilet breaks (they were handcuffed and blindfolded), lighting a cigarette and even cleaning their teeth.

Conclusion The situation that people find themselves in has a stronger effect on behaviour than individual (dispositional) factors. When people find themselves in novel situations they adapt to what they think they should do in that situation rather than acting on internal factors.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Haney, Banks & Zimbardo

Strength Although a ll participants knew they were in a simulation, many appeared, rather quickly, to produce "natural " behaviour depending on the role given. Remember that the prison consultant noted how ureal" the situation was and how real the behaviour was of the prisoners and prison guards. Therefore, the study could be argued to have some ecological validity.

Strength The observers could e.asity count the number of times certain behaviours occurred and double-check these with the footage that was being recorded of the prison. This means that the data are objective and can be analysed statistically so there is minlmal chance of misinterpretation.

Weakness Even though the prison consultant said that the situation felt "real ", all of the participants were very aware that they were being observed via cameras and a research team. Some of the participants (maybe those who did not become the typical guard) were acting in a way so as not to be judged by the research team. Therefore, they were not displaying true behaviour.


• Ethics: the protection of participants is a.n issue. Even though the study was stopped early on day 6, that still meant at least five days of prisoners being subjected to harassment, mental a.buse and having to earn basic rights (e.g. food and a bed).

• Individual versus situational explanations: the idea was to see whether "bad" people make prisons "bad" (e.g. it is dispositional). However, this study supports the idea that the situation we find ourselves in can dramatically affect our behaviour as all of the participants had been screened and judged as psychologically stable.

.A Figure 4.2 Do "bad" people make prisons a "bad " place to be or is it the prison itself that turns people 0 bad?"

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4 Social psycl1ology

Core study 4.3 Piliavln, Rodin & Plllavin (1969)

Context This study is concerned with bystander behaviour. Bystanders are people who witness events and have to choose whether to intervene or not. The case of Kitty Genovese shocked the world as people appeared to know she was being attacked but thought other people were going to help her. One reason why groups of people do not help individuals in need is that responsibility is shared equally among the group so that each person has only a sma II portion. This is called diffusion of responsibility.

Aim 1. To study bystander behaviour outside the

laboratory, in a realistic setting where participants would have a clear view of the victim .

2. To see whether helping behaviour was affected by four variables: the victim's responsibility for being in a situation where he or she needed help, the race of the victim , the effect of modelling helping behaviour and the size of the group.

Method Participants

• An estimated total of around 4450 passengers travelled in the trains targeted by the researchers.

• These were all regarded by the researchers as "unsolicited participants" .

• An average of 43 were present in each carriage in which the procedure was conducted and an average of eight were in the immediate or "critical" area.

• The racial mix of passengers was estimated as 45 per cent Black and 55 per cent White.

Design and procedure

• The study was a field experiment carried out on trains on the New York subway.

• The procedure involved a male experimenter faking collapse on a train between stops, in order to see whether he was helped by other passengers.

• One particular stretch of track was targeted where there was a 7.5-minute gap between two stations.

• Experimenters worked in teams of four - two females to record the results, and two males who would play the roles of victim and model helper.

• There were four teams, one containing a Black male. There were two conditions for the victim: drunk and ill. Each male taking the role of victim took part in both drunk and ill conditions.

• The victim would stagger and fall 70 seconds after the train left a station. He then lay still on his back with eyes open, not moving until helped.

• Between six and eight trials were run each day, between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m.

Four IVs were manipulated in the procedure:

1. victim's responsibility: operationalised as carrying a cane (ill - low responsibility) or smelling of alcohol and carrying a bottle wrapped in a paper bag (drunk - high responsibility)

2. victim's race: operationalised as Black or White

3. presence of a model: operationalised as whether a male confederate, either close to or distant from the victim, helped after 70 or 150 seconds.

4. number of bystanders: operationalised as how many people were present in the vicinity.

• Four males, aged 24-29, and identically dressed in casual clothes, took the role of models of helping behaviour. Four model conditions were applied to both apparently drunk and ill victims. The model stood:

o in the critical area and helped after 70 seconds

o in the critical area and helped after 150 seconds

o in the adjacent area and helped after 70 seconds

o in the adjacent area and helped after 150 seconds.

• The DV, helping, was measured in the following ways:

o t ime taken for first passenger to help

o total number of passengers who helped.

• Qualitative data was also gathered in the form of comments from passengers.

Results • Passengers gave spontaneous help to 78 per cent

of victims and in 60 per cent of cases where the victim was helped it was by more than one person.

• Most helpers were male. Table 4.1 shows the main result of helping behaviour by group.

Responses to an ill (cane-carrying) or drunk person

Ill condition Drunk condition

% helped 95 50 spontaneously

% helped in under 83 17

70 seconds

A Table 4.1 Majn result of helping behaviour by group

• Ill versus drunk conditions - in the cane condition, the victim received help 95 per cent of the time without intervention from a model. In the drunk condition, this was reduced to 50 per cent. People took longer to help the drunk victim than the Ill one: over 70 seconds in 83 per cent of the drunk trials, but in only 17 per cent of the cane trials.

• Race of victim - in the cane condition, Black and White victims were equally likely to be helped. However, in the drunk condition , Black victims were less likely to receive help. Also, in the drunk condition, there was a slight samerace eff eot.

• The effect of modelling - the model intervening after 70 seconds was more likely to lead to help from other passengers (in nine cases) than the one intervening after 150 seconds (three cases).

• Number of bystanders - there was no evidence for diffusion of responsibility. There was a mild effect in the opposite direction - when more passengers were present, victims were slightly more likely to receive help.

• Other observations - in a significant minority of trials (21of103), some passengers moved away from the critical area. More comments were made in drunk trials, and more when no passenger spontaneousl.y helped.

Conclusion • An ill person is more likely to receive help than a

drunk person.

• Men are more likely to help another man than women are.

• People are slightly more likely to help someone of their own ethnic group, especially when the person appears drunk.

• There is no strong relationship between size of group and likelihood of helping.

• The longer an incident goes on, the less likely people are to help (even if help is modelled), the more likely people are to leave the area, and the more likely they are to discuss the incident.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin

Strength The setting was a subway train which is not artificial (it is a real situation that many people find themselves in daily). Even the ·event is something that could easily happen so the study does have ecological validity.

Strength As the setting was natural and no one was aware that the whole situation was staged, there was very little chance that anyone would have shown behaviour to fit the aim of the study. The behaviour shown by the participants was natural and therefore valid.

Weakness The positioning of people in the carriages could not be control led for (this is just one example). Therefore, they may not have noticed the incident or ignored it (e.g. as they were reading) so it may not have been the type of victlm affecting helping levels.

Weakness Participants in the train did not know it was a study so were deceived and obviously informed consent could not be taken from them prior to the victim's collapse. This goes against ethical g·uidellnes (although formal guidelines were not around at the time of the study).


• Usefulness: this study could be used to educate people that when in an emergency, we should help others no matter who they are. The longer it takes to help, the more chances there are that the victin1 may suffer more in the long term (especially if medical attention is needed).

• Generalisation: it would be difficult to generalise past the sample itself as they were all urban dwellers who were (presumably) used to travelling on a subway train. People in urban areas are more used to deindividuating (losing their sense of identity) and feeling "anonymous".

.& Figure 4.3 What makes people help or not help people in need?

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4 Social psycl1ology

Core study 4.4 Tajfel (1970)

Context One idea on how we form prejudices is that we develop an "us and them 11 (called in-group and out-group mentality) and we group people into an in group and an out group. Those in the out group have different "features" from us and we then develop prejudicial thoughts and then may act negatively towards them (discrimination). In addition, if resources are limited and both groups want the same resource, this simply heightens the prejudice and discrimination shown.

Aim To investigate whether in-group favouritism and outgroup discrimination can happen in a group of people who already know each other.

- 19 - 16 - 13 - 10 - 7 - 4 - 1

6 5 4 3 2 1

Method Design (study 1)

• There were two stages to the study.

• First part: The research team simply created 40 clusters of dots that could be projected onto a screen for the participants to see and make a judgment on .

0

• Second part: A booklet of "matrices" was created to allocate points to members of participants' in group or out group in a variety of different ways.

Participants (study 1)

• Participants in this study were 64 boys aged 14-15 years .

• They were all from a comprehensive school in Bristol, UK.

• They were all from the same "house" in the same form at this school.

Procedure (study 1)

• Boys completed the tasks in groups of eight. They entered a lecture room and were told that the study was about visua I judgments. They had to look at 40 clusters of dots and estimate how many were in each cluster.

• In one of the conditions, boys were then told that people do consistently overestimate or underestimate the number of dots in a cluster.

• In another condition, boys were told that some people are consistently more accurate atjudging compared to others.

• All boys were then told that the research team were interested in decision making too. The researchers said as the boys were there, perhaps they would like to take part in this phase too.

• Boys were told that they would be split into group.s based on their performance on the dot cluster visual judgment task.

• Some were in the "overestimators" group and some in the "underestimators" group (in the second condition they were "better" or "worse" accuracy groups).

• In reality, the boys were randomly assigned to a group and it was not based on their visual judgments. This created the in group and the out group.

• The boys were then told that they were to fill in a book of matrices which allowed them to give punishments, and rewards that would be converted into real money at the end of the study.

• They did not know the identity of the boys they were giving rewards and punishments to, just the group they were in.

• They worked in their own cubicles to complete the booklet and they were told that they would never be giving themselves a reward or punishment. An example of a matrix is shown in Table 4.2.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

- 1 - 4 - 7 - 10 - 13 - 16 - 19 .

.A. Table 4.2 Reward and punishment matrix

• There were six matrices used and each appeared three times in the booklet.

1. In-group choices: the top and bottom rows were to be awarded to members of their in group only.

2. Out-group choices: the top and bottom rows were to be awarded to members of the out group only.

3. Intergroup choices: the top row represented the reward given to a fellow in-group member while the bottom row represented the punishment given to an out-group member.

• Once everyone had completed their booklets, all the boys were brought back together and given the monetary value of the rewards that had been allocated to them in the matrices .

Results (study 1) • The result from each matrix choice was scored on

a scale of 1-14.

• A score of 1 represented giving a fellow in-group member the minimum amount of points possible.

• A score of 14 represented giving the maximum amount of points to a fellow in-group member.

• For the intergroup choices matrices, the large majority gave the fellow in-group member more points than the out-group member.

• For the in-group choices and out-group choices matrices, the vast majority gave points that represented fairness across the two members being given points.

Design (study 2)

• There were two stages to the study.

• First part: The research team simply showed participants 12 pieces of art, six reported to be by Paul Klee and the other six by Wassily Kandinsky, and asked which ones they liked. (No painting had a signature on it.)

• Second part: A booklet of matrices was created to allocate points to members of participants' in group or out group in a variety of different ways.


• Participants had the same characteristics as for study 1 but different boys, and only 48 in total, participated.

Procedure (study 2)

• This was the same as for study 1 but the boys were randomly split into a Klee and a Kandinsky group.

• The matrices used were different (four in total) to test the following:

o maximum joint profit - represented the largest amount they could give both people

o maximum in-group profit - represented the largest amount that could be given to a member of the in group

o maximum difference - represented the largest difference that could be given between a member of the in group and that of an out-group member. An example of a matrix is shown in Table 4.3.

23 22 21 20 19 18 17

5 7 9 11 13 15 17

16 15 14 13 12 11

19 21 23 25 27 29

.. Table 4.3 Example of a matrix (maximum difference)

Results (study 2) • The researchers found that uwhen the subjects

had a choice between maximizing the profit for all and maximizing the profit for members of their own group, they acted on behalf of their own group".

• The matrices with maximum difference showed the strongest results in terms of discrimination -boys chose a score that maximised their own in-group member and minimised the out-group member.

Conclusion Even when based on non-existent differences (in this case dot cluster estimation and art preference), people will create in-group favouritism and out-group denigration when resources are limited and sought after by both.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Tajfel

Strength The matrices were quantitative in nature as they were simply a choice of two numbers from a grid - a reward and a punishment. Points awarded to the in group could be easily compared to points given to the out group (as they were pre·set matrices). This required no interpretation.

Strength As the matrices were based on number p.airs, the amount of points awarded to each boy (as part of an in group) could be analysed statistically (by adding up the points or finding the average) so it was easy to conclude that boys were supporting in-group members much more than those in the out group).

Weakness Boys were never asked why they were allocating points in the way they did {for both studies). This is missing out on the reasoning behind their choices - we cannot be certain that they were allocating points based in the idea of in groups and out groups.


• Generalisation: it may be difficult to generalise these findings beyond the sample. The reason for this is that the boys were from the same house in the same form from the same school in Bristol, UK.

• Snapshot study: this was a study at one point in time so we do not know whether the allocation of points was due, for example, to the boys being at that age or due to some other factor. We do not know if the boys continued to favour in groups throughout the rest of their adolescent years.

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24

Developmental psychology Core study 5.1

Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)

Context Learning behaviour by imitating others is called observational learning. Several studies before this one had already demonstrated that children are influenced by witnessing adult behaviour. However, previous studies had tended to show children repeating adult behaviour in the same situation. and in the presence of the adult that modelled the behaviour.

Tl1is study is also concerned with the learning of gender-specific behaviour. Previous stud.ies had shown that children are sensitive to genderspecific behaviours. For example, children see their parents as preferring gender-stereotyped behaviour. Aggression is a good example of a gendered social behaviour, being associated with masculinity.

Aims Overall aim: to investigate observational learning of aggression. Specifically, the study aimed to see whether children would reproduce aggressive behaviour when the model was no longer present, and to look for gender differences in learning of aggression.

Method Participants

• There were 72 participants in total: 36 male and 36 female.

• All were selected from the nursery school of Stanford University.

• Ages ranged from 37 months Uust over 3 years) to 69 months {5 years and 9 montl1s).

• Tt1e mean age was 52 months (4 years and 4 months).

Design

• This was a laboratory experiment, using a matched pairs design.

• The researchers tested the effects of three IVs:

o the behaviour of the model (aggressive or nonaggressive)

o the sex of the model

o the sex of the children.

• There were eight conditions In all. The children in each condition were matched for their aggression levels.

• The matching was achieved by the experimenter and a nursery teacher independently rating 51 of the children on a scale of 0-5.

• Very good agreement between the two raters was achieved (0.89).

• The conditions were as follows:

1. An aggressive model was shown to 12 boys and 12 girls . Six boys and six girls saw aggression modelled by a same-sex model , while the rest saw it modelled by an oppositesex model.

2 . A non-aggressive model was shown to 12 boys and 12 girls. Six boys and six girls sa"v nonaggression modelled by a same-sex model , while the rest saw it modelled by an oppositesex model.

3. A control group of 12 boys and 12 girls did not see a model display any behaviour, aggressive or otl1erwise.

Procedure

The procedure consisted of three stages .

1. Modelling the behaviour. Each child was brought individually into a play room and invited to join in a game.

• This tasted for ten minutes.

• In the first two conditions there was also an additional adult present in the room. In the aggressive condition , this adult demonstrated aggression towards a five-foot tall inflatable bobo doll, kicking and hitting it, including with a hammer.

• Tl1e adult also said aggressive things, such as ''kick him ... pow .. . sock him on the nose" . In the non-aggressive condition, the adult assembled toys and did not interact with the doll.

• In the control condition, there was no additional adult in tt1e roo1TI.

2. Aggression arousal . In order to annoy the children and increase the chances of aggressive behaviour, all the children were t t1en taken to a different play room wit h some very attractive toys.

• After being allowed to play for around two minutes, participants were told they were not allowed to play with tl1ese t oys any more as they were ~he very best" toys and they were going to be reserved for other children.

3. Testing for delayed i1Tiitation. Children were then observed playing for the next 20 minutes.

• Two more observers watched. The room contained a range of toys including a smaller bobo doll. The observers were unaware, while observing, which condition the child was f n.

Participant group Aggressive Aggressive Non-aggressive Non-aggressive No model male model female model male model female model

Male imitative physical aggression 25.4

Female imitative physical aggression 7.2

Male imitative verbal aggression 12.7

Female imitative verbal aggression 2.0

Male non-imitative aggression 36.7

Female non-imitative aggression 8.4

.& Table 5.1 Mean aggression scores recorded by observers

Three types of aggression were recorded by observers:

1. imitative aggression - physical and verbal aggression identical to that modelled in stage 1

2. partially imitative aggression - similar behaviour to that carried out by the model

3. non-irnitative aggression - new aggressive acts not demonstrated by the model.

Results • There were significant differences in levels of

imitative aggression between the group that witnessed aggression and the other two groups.

• There were significant differences in levels of both physical and verbal aggression . To a lesser extent this was also true of partial imitation and nonimitative aggression .

• Significantly more non-aggressive play was recorded in the non-aggressive model condition.

• Table 5.1 shows the different acts of aggressive and non-aggressive behaviours.

The overall results were as follows:

• Chi ldren who had witnessed an aggressive model were significantly more aggressive themselves.

• Overall, there was very little difference between aggression in the control group and that in the non-aggressive modelling condition.

• Boys were significantly more likely to imitate aggressive male models. The difference for girls was much smaller.

• Boys were significantly more physically aggressive than girls. Girls were slightly more verbally aggressive.

Conclusion • Witnessing aggression in a model can be enough

to produce aggression by an observer.

• Children selectively imitate gender-specific behaviour. Boys a.re more likely to imitate physical aggression, while girls are more likely to imitate verbal aggression.

• The boys but not girls were more likely to imitate aggression in a same-sex model; it could be concluded only cautiously that children selectively imitate same-sex models.

12.8 1.5 0.2 2.0

5.5 0.0 2.5 1.2

4.3 0.0 1.1 1.7

13.7 0.0 0.3 0.7

17.2 22.3 26.1 24.6

21.3 1.4 7.2 6.1

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Bandura, Ross & Ross

Strength A number of controls were in place in this study. For example, the time they watched a model for, the layout of the room and which toys were available were the same for all the children. Therefore, other researchers could easily replicate this study to test it for reliability.

Strength As the controls were high for both parts of the study (time watching the model, priming before entering the observation room. etc.), the researchers could be confident that it was the actions of the model that caused the chi ldren to show aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour.

Weakness The set up was artificial because the child (especially the first stage) was in a setting not rea lly familiar to children. As a result the findings could be argued to be low in ecological validity.

Weakness Some of the tasks expected of the child were not usual (e.g. simply to sit and watch an adult play with some toys and not get involved in the play). Therefore, aspects of the study could be low in mundane realism.

Other points to consider inc lude the following:

• Quantitative data: this enabled clear comparisons to happen between all groups to see the effect the model was having on behaviour. However, we do not know why the children were acting in they ways they did as no qualitative data were collected to explore this.

• Ethics: the issue is this study is protection. The children displayed aggressive behaviour and this may have continued after the study had ended. The children did not leave the study in the same physical or psychological state in which they entered.

A Figure 5.1 Children in the study imitating the observed 25 behaviour of adults

26

Core study 5.2 Freud (1909)

Context Sigmund Freud's approach to psychological theory and therapy - called psychoanalysis - forms the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. Freud had a number of important ideas, some more controversial than others. Most controversially of all he proposed that childhood can be seen as a series of psychosexual stages. Each stage is characterised by a fixation on an area of the body and a distinct pattern of relationships to parents.

The third and most crucial Freudian stage of development is the phallic stage which lasts from around 3 to 6 years of age. In the phallic stage, children go through the Oedipus complex. This involves the development of a strong attachment to the opposite-sex parent, and a sense of the samesex parent as a rival for affection.

Aim To give an account of a boy who was suffering from a phobia of horses and a range of other symptoms, and to use this case to illustrate the existence of the Oedipus complex.

Method Design

• The study was a clinical case study. This means that the participant is a patient undergoing therapy.

• Accounts of how often Freud saw the patient (Herbert Graf, known as Little Hans) vary a little, but it was almost certainly not more than twice.

• Little Hans' father conducted regular discussions with his son and passed these on to Freud. who analysed them in line with his theory.

Participant

• The participant was a Jewish boy from Vienna, Austria .

• He was 5 years old at the start of the study, although some events were recorded from a couple of years earlier.

• He was called Little Hans in the study, however his real name, Herbert Graf, was well known .

• Little Hans was suffering from a phobia of horses.

• His father referred the case to Freud and went on to provide much of the case information.

Case history

• From around 3 years of age, Little Hans developed a great interest in his penis.

• It was reported that he played with it regularly.

• Eventually, his mother became so cross that she threatened to cut it off if he didn't stop.

• Hans was very disturbed by this and developed a fear of castration.

• At around the same time, Little Hans saw a horse collapse and die in the street, and he was very upset as a result.

• When Little Hans was 4 years old, he developed a phobia of horses .

• Specifically, he was afraid that a white horse would bite him.

• When reporting this to Freud , Little Hans' father noted that the fear of horses seemed to relate to their large penises.

• At around the same time as the phobia of horses developed, a confl ict developed between Hans and his father.

• Hans had been in the habit for some time of getting into his parents ' bed in the morning and cuddling his mother.

• However, his father began to object to this.

• Little Hans also had a dream about a large giraffe that cried out and a crumpled giraffe.

• Little Hans' phobia worsened to the extent that he would not leave the family house.

• By the age of 5 years, Little Hans' phobia lessened, initially becoming limited to white horses with black nosebands, then disappearing altogether. The end of the phobia was marked by two fantasies:

o Hans fantasised that he had several children. When his father asked who their mother was Little Hans replied "Why Mummy, and you're the Granddaddy" (Freud, 1909: 238).

o The next day, Little Hans fantasised that a plumber had come and removed his bottom and penis, replacing them with new and larger ones.

Results • Horses represented Little Hans' father. White

horses with black nosebands were the most feared because they resembled the moustached father. Horses also made good father symbols because they have large penises.

• The anxiety Little Hans felt was really castration anxiety triggered by his mother's threat to cut off his "widdler" and fear of his father caused by his banishing Little Hans from the parental bed.

• The giraffes in Little Hans' dream represent his parents. The large giraffe that cried out represented Little Hans' father objecting to Hans. The crumpled giraffe represented Little Hans' mother, the crumpling representing her genitals. The large giraffe, with its erect neck, could have been a penis symbol.

• The chi ldren fantasy represents a relatively friendly resolution of the Oedipus complex in which Little Hans replaces his father as his mother's main love object, but the father still has a role as grandfather.

• The plumber fantasy represents identification with the father. By this we mean that Little Hans could see himself growing a large penis like his father's and becoming like him.

Conclusion • Little Hans suffered a phobia of horses because

he was suffering from castration anxiety and going through the Oedipus complex.

• Dreams and fantasies helped express this conflict and eventually he resolved his Oedipus complex by fantasising himself taking on his father's role and placing his father in the role of grandfather.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Freud

Strength The focus of the study was on Little Hans.

Strength

Data were collected though letters from Little Hans' father which were detailed and contained a lot of information from little Hans himself. Therefore, the findings could be valid as they are based on looking at the whole situation in depth.

Little Hans continued to be a little boy throughout the study and lived his life "as normal ". His father would ask him questions about his dreams and feelings and many parents would do that in everyday life so the findings have some ecologlcal validity. (Little Hans was never taken out of his own home to be "studied ".)

Weakness Little Hans may be unique, making generalisations quite difficult. The way that he developed his phobia of horses may be unique to him and ther€fore it may not help to explain horse phobias in other little boys of a similar age.

Weakness There was no close bond between Freud and Little Hans, but the boy's father was a "fan" of Freud's work. This could have made the fattier only report aspects of the case study to Freud that fitted in with Freud's own ideas about child development.


• There may be an alternative explanation: some psychologists argue that Little Hans' phobia was not due to the Oedipus complex. They argue that when young, Little Hans witnessed a horse collapse and die in the street in front of him - he therefore associated the horse with death and this then made him fearful of horses.

• Qualitative data: all of the information from Little Hans' father was qualitative (in the form of letters of correspondence). Therefore, the data is in depth and can be used to explain why Little Hans was suffering from his phobia.

• However, there may have been interpretation bias by Little Hans' father (who wrote the fetters) and Freud (who interpreted the letters) to fit in with Freud's ideas.

.A Figure 5.2 Could little Hans' phobia of horses be explained by Freud?

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28

Core study 5.3 Langlois et al (1991)

Context Is attractiveness individually specific in humans or do we all find the same faces more attractive? When do we begin to show any preference to attractive faces? Studies before this one had shown that young infants appear to be drawn to faces that adults have rated as being attractive over those rated as being not so attractive. This surprised psychologists as they had not expected any form of discrimination based on attractiveness at such a young age.

Aim To investigate whether infant preferences for attractive faces extended beyond those for adult female faces onto other types of faces (e.g. mal.e and female adult White faces, adult Black female faces and other young infants}. The aims for each of the studies appear in its Design section.

Three studies were conducted.


• The first study set out to investigate whether infants show preference to attractive male and female adult faces compared to those labelled unattractive.

• There were 16 slides of women's faces and 16 slides of men's faces used in this study.

• Half of them had been rated attractive and half unattractive.

• The final slides had been selected from a pool of 275 women's and 165 men's faces that had been rated for attractiveness by 40 undergraduate students.

• All of the slides that were rated as being attractive and unattractive were then looked at further.

• The final slides that were chosen had to have facial expressions, hair length and hair colour roughly evenly distributed across the attractive and unattractive groups.

• All the males were clean shaven.

• Any clothing was masked and the person pictured had to be showing a neutral pose.

• Mean ratings for attractiveness (out of 5) were 3.46 (female attractive}, 3.35 (male attractive), 1.44 (female u·nattractive}, 1.40 (male unattractive).


• A total of 110 6-month-old infants were recruited via the Children 's Research Laboratory at the University of Texas.

• A total of 50 of these were eliminated from the final sample for the following reasons: fussing too much (n = 41), computer failure (n = 3), experimenter error (n = 3) mother looked at slides (n = 2) and child was born premature (n = 1 ).

• This left 60 children (35 boys and 25 girls) with an average age of 6 months and 6 days.

• Fifty-three of the children were White, five were Hispanic, one was Black and one was Asian.

• All of them were tested within three weeks of their sixth month birthday.

Procedure (study 1)

• Two faces, one that had been rated attractive and one unattractive, were projected onto a screen next to each other.

• Each child sat on his or her parent's lap around 35cm from the screen.

• The parent wore oc·cluded glasses so he or she could not see the faces. This prevented any of the parent's preferences being seen by the child.

• A light and buzzer sounded to grab the child's attention every time a new pair of faces was presented.

• Once the child had focused on the centre of the screen the pair of faces would appear.

• The trial was labelled "began" when the child first looked at one of the slides. Each trial lasted for ten seconds.

• There were two sets of 16 slides used per child.

• Each set was divided into eight-trial blocks of two slides each. In an attempt to control for "side bias" in the child (e.g. prefers to look to the right naturally), slide pairs were alternated throughout the procedure.

• All slide pairs were both male or both female.

• Slides were presented in one of two ways: alternating (pairs of males then females then males, etc.) or grouped (all male then all female).

• After each and every eight-trial block there was a five- to ten-minute break to stop the child getting tired or bored.

• The order of presentation in which slides appeared was randomised for each child.

• Trial length, slide movement and recording of data were controlled by a computer.

• The experimenter observed the visual fixations of each child in each trial on a video monitor.

• The direction of looks and their duration were recorded .

• Using this televised image of the child, the experimenter did not have to look at the projection screen and therefore did not know which of the two slides the attractive or unattractive face was.

• Reliability was checked via a randomly selected sample of recorct·ings.

• Finally, to examine whether the child's preference might be influenced by the attractiveness of the mother, photographs were taken of each mother's face and they were rated for attractiveness by 72 undergraduates.

Design (study 2)

• The slides were of 16 Black women from a pool of 197 faces rated for attractiveness by 98 White and 41 Black undergraduates.

• Amount of hair and skin colour were evenly distributed across conditions.

• Mean attractiveness ratings for the attractive group were 3.41 (White raters) and 3 .42 (Slack raters) and for the unattractive group they were 1.44 {White raters) and 1 .54 (Black raters).


• A total of 43 infants, who were 6 months old, were recruited via the Children's Research La.boratory at the University of Texas.

• Three of these were eliminated from the final sample for the following reasons: fussing too much {n = 2) and equipment failure (n = 1).


• Thirty six of the children were White, two were Hispanic, and two were Black.

Procedure (study 2)

The procedure was similar to that for study 1 but with the following changes:

• The presentation type was not used (alternating versus grouped) as the children were only looking at Black women 's faces.

• Each t rial block consisted of four (not eight) pairs of slides.

• The mothers' faces were rated for attractiveness by 49 undergraduates.

Design (study 3)

The design was similar to that for study 1 but with the following changes:

• The slides were of 16 boys who were 3 months old, selected from a pool of 60 boys and 62 girls who had been rated for attractiveness by 40 undergraduates.

• Slides showing four males and four females who had been rated attractive were used, as were slides of four males and four females who had been rated as unattractive.

• Clothing was masked and all those pictured had neutral expressions. Amount of hair was equally distributed across the attractiveness conditions.

• Mean attractiveness ratings were 3.02 for the attractive group and 1.69 for the unattractive group.


• A total of 52 infants, who were 6 months old, were recruited via the Children's Research Laboratory at the University of Texas.

• A total of 11 of these were eliminated from the final sample for fussing too much (n = 11). Two more were excluded as they were not tested within three weeks of their sixth birthday.


• Thirty seven of the children were White and two were Hispanic.

Procedure (study 3)

This was the same as for study 2 except no attractiveness ratings of mothers were taken.

Results (combined) High Low attractiveness attractiveness

Type of face M SD M

Study 1: Male and 7.82 1 .35 7.57

female faces

Study 2: Black 7.05 1.83 6.52

female faces

Study 3: Children's 7 .16 1.97 6.62

faces

A Table 5.2 Mean fixation times for high- and lowattractiveness slides

SD

1.27

1.92

1.83

• Study 1: Children looked significantly longer at attractive faces than unattractive ones.

• Sex of face had no effect - children looked longer at any attractive face.

• Children tended to look at same-sex faces for longer (only significant for males).

Male face Female face

Sex of inf ant M SD M

Male 7.95 1 .45 7.36

Female 7.69 1.35 7.81

A Table 5.3 Mean fixation times for sex of ch ild participant x sex of face interaction

SD

1.31

1 .33

• Study 2: Children looked longer at the attractive Black woman's faces than the unattra.ctlve ones.

• Children looked for longer at any face on their first two trials compared to all of the other trials.

• Study 3: Children looked longer at t he attractive baby faces than the unattractive ones.

• As with study 2, children looked for longer at any face on their first two trials compared to all of the other trials.

Conclusion • All three studies show that children do prefer

attractive faces compared to unattractive faces irrespective of gender, colour of skin and age.

• It would appear that children can discriminate from an early age between attractive and unattract ive faces.

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• As the children had not been exposed to much media depicting what is attractive, it could be argued that these preferences are inbuilt into humans.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Langlois et al

Strength There were many controls in this study (e.g. the standardised procedure followed in all three studies, the time the sl ides were projected for and the masking of other cues in the slides). Another research team could easily replicate this study to test for reliab ility using a different sample.

Strength As there were controls (e.g. the time the slides were projected for and how the slides were chosen), Langlois et al could be confident it was attractiveness of the face that was causing the child to look at a st ide for longer.

Weakness Looking at a projector and having computer equipment and video monitoring nearby Is not a usual setting for young children so it is difficult to know if they would prefer attractive faces in a more natural setting. Therefore. the study has low levels of ecological validity.

Weakness In this study the child sat on the parent's lap, the parent wore occluded glasses and then pairs of faces were shown to the child who was monitored on what he or she was looking at. These things do not happen to young children in everyday life so the study lacks mundane realism.


• Quantitative data: mean fixation times were taken (and assessed via reliability tests) so the findings are objective. However, we do not know the reasons why this happened as the data were quantitative and the young children could not tell us anyway.

• Ethics: there are issues with the use of children in research. Even though the parents gave permission for their children to be used in the study we do not know how distressed, etc. it made the children when they had to look at lots of pictures.

Core study 5.4 Nelson (1980)

Context Many psychologists have been interested in the development of moral behaviour and reasoning. According to Piaget, after tl1e age of 10 years, children seemi11gly develop a ski ll in morally judging behaviour based on its motive. However, research after Piaget had developed these initial ideas had shown that children as young as 6 years old would often look at the motive behind a bel1aviour before 111orally judging it. Previous studies had not allowed children to show whether tl1ey understood the motive behind behaviour before judging. Children this young migl1t believe that motives are important but fail to interpret them correctly or remember them when questioned -tl1ey may misinterpret the intentions of the motive as set out by a11 adult.

Aim To investigate whether children as young as 3 years old use motives and outcomes when morally judging behaviours when they are explicit and made relevant to tl1em (and are available when judging).


• Four versions of a story were used.

• E.ach story was about a boy throwing a ball (chosen as pilot research had seen this as a 11eutral act).

• The motive and outcome differed per story:

Story Content

Good motive The boy was playing with a ball and his friend did not have anything to play with. He wanted to throw the ball to his friend so they could play.

Bad motive The boy was playing 11Jith a ball but he was angry with his friend that day. He wanted to throw the ball at his friend to hit him on purpose.

Good outcome The boy threw the ball , his friend caught it and they played happily.

Bad outcome The boy threw the ball but his friend did not catch it. Instead the ball hit his friend on the head and made him cry.

• In addition to each story, there were two sets of black and white drawings to accompany it.

• The drawings were 25cm by 23cm illustrating the motive, behaviour and outcome. An example is shown in Figure 5.3.

• Figure 5.3 Drawings to accon1pany the story

• Orie set of drawings conveyed emotion via facial expressions only (implicit motive) while the other set conveyed it explicitly by connecting cartoonlike representations of the goal to t l1e head of the boy throwing the ball {explicit motive) .

• Children who judged the boy throwing the ball as being "good" had to point at one of three smiling faces {5. 5cm to 7 .5cm in size) which represented "a little bit good" to "very good" .

• This technique was also used if a child judged the boy throwi11g the ball as being "badn but using frowning faces. A seventh face, 4.5cm in size, represented "just okay" (a term used as many children in a pilot used it to convey a neutral judgment).

• All of these were combined to create a numerical score per judgment from 1 {very bad) through to 7 {very good).


• There were 60 pre-school chi ldren used for study 1.

• They were all aged between 3 and 4 years {average 3.4 years).

• In addition , 30 "second grade" children were used aged between 6 and 8 years (average 7.4 years).

• There was a roughly even split between males and females. The children were mostly white ~ middle-class and living in urban areas.

• Parents gave consent for their children to take part in the study.

Procedure (study 1.)

• Cl1ildren of each age group were randomly assigned to one of the three presentations {verbal, motive implicit and motive explicit).

• There were 20 children per group in the young group and 10 per group in the older group.

• Each child heard all four stories and these were randomised per child.

• Each child was tested individually by the interviewer.

• Before tl1e actual stories were told, chi ldren familiarised themselves with the 7-point faces scale via two stories {one about being very good and one about being very bad).

• Children in the picture groups were also familiarised with how the pictures worked.

• In the actual study, children were told to listen very carefully to each story as they would be expected to tell the story again later.

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32

• After each story had been told, children were asked whether the little boy had been a good boy, a bad boy or just okay.

• They were asked to i11dicate via the faces how good or bad the little boy had been. If the child was in one of the picture conditions, the pictures were introduced at the appropriate time in the story.

• The pictures remained in front of children until after they made their judgments.

• After they had made their judgments, the pictures were removed (in the picture condition groups) and the child was asked to re-tell the story aloud to the interviewer.

• If the motive or outcome was missing from their recollection, specific questions were asked, such as "Why did the boy throw his bal l?".

Results {study 1) 3-year~lds 7-year~lds

(n = 60) (n = 30)

Good Bad Good Bad motive motive motive motive

Good outcome 6.55 2.27 6.20 3.46

Bad outcome 4.17 1.60 4 .47 1 .56

A Table 5.4 Mean ratings per combination by age

• The main character in the good motive conditions combined had an average score of 5.35 whereas for the main character in the bad motive conditions it was 2.27.

• There was a similar pattern for outcomes, with good outcomes scoring 4.70 on average and bad outcomes only 2.92.

• It was also seen that when the motive or outcome was bad (especially so for the motive) it had a larger effect on judgments than if anything was seen as being good.

• When the motive information was explicit (good or bad) it had a greater effect on judgments than when it was implicit or verbal only.

• Children appeared to use the outcome information in the good motive stories under all three conditions, but for the bad motive stories this was only for those who saw pictures.

• The younger group made more errors in recall for motives and outcomes compared to the older group.

• There was no effect of presentation (verbal or picture) on outcome recall errors. However, for motive recall errors, there were fewer errors when pictures were presented.

• There were significantly more errors of recall in the younger group when the motive and the outcome were incongruent {e.g. good motive but bad outcome).

• In the younger group, 40 per cent of children rated the character negatively whenever there was just one negative cue, irrespective of its source (motive or outcome).

• A further 28.33 per cent of the younger group ignored the outcome information and made their judgments according to the valence of the motive only.

Design {study 2)

• This study was based on the idea that in study 1 the younger group in the verbal-only story condition were basing their entire judgment on the motive but not the outcome. This may have been because the motive was always presented before the outcome.

• If younger children are more interested in valence (e.g. good, bad, positive , negative) rather than its source (motive or outcome) then when the order is reversed (so outcome comes before motive), younger children should disregard the motive whenever there is a bad outcome.

• The design was exactly the same as study 1 but the outcome came before the motive in the stories.


• Participants in study 2 were 27 pre-school children. Their mean age was 3.8 years.

• Each child was randomly assigned to one of the three presentation types (verbal-only, motiveimplicit picture and motive-explicit picture).

• Everything was identical to study 1 but the description of the outcome came before that of the motive.

Results {study 2) Good outcome Bad outcome

Good Bad Good motive motive motive

Verbal only 6.11 3.56 2.67

Picture - motive 7.00 2.11 2.33

impl icit

Picture - motive 7.00 3.56 4.22

explicit

A Table 5.5 Mean ratings per combination of presentation, outcome and time

Bad motive

1.78

1 .1.1

1.11

• The main finding of this study was that the children in the verbal-only condition were less influenced by motive that those in both picture conditions (as can be seen by the scores in Table 5.5).

• Even with the outcome preceding the motive, the effect of motive on judgments was not less than that of outcon1e - remember in study 1 the motive came first and children could just have been basingjudgments on the first thing that they heard.

• Children also made more errors of recall when the motive and outc,ome were incongruent (e.g. bad motive, good outcome).

Conclusion • Motive is a powerful tool used by younger children

to make a moral judgment.

• Mode of presentation affects the judgments of younger children with verbal-only presentation of material; as soon as a child hears something "bad" any further information has limited itnpact on judgments.

• If the presentation involves pictures then judgments are based on a combination of both outcome (good and bad) and motive (good and bad).

• Younger children are more likely to recal l information on moral judgments more accurately if congruence is experienced (e.g. good motive and good outcome) rather than when incongruence is experienced.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Nelson

Strength Nelson could. analyse, statistically, the different combinatlons of motive and outcome (e.g. good motive but bad outcome) to see which of the stories had the highest and lowest mean scores. Al l four combinations for both age groups could easi ly be compared to see the effects of age, niotlve and outcome on moral judgments.

Strength As children simply pointed at a face and this was converted to a numerical score, there was no subjectivity involved. The measuren1ent was objective for the chi ld {no reasoning was needed) so Nelson could analyse the scores statistically and draw sensible conclusions about the effect of motive and outcome on moral judgments.

Weakness As children simply pointed at a facer Nelson does not know the reasoning behind why each child chose the face. Children were not asked for their reasoning which is important when it comes to moral judgements.

Weakness Children may well have gone along with what they could remember from the two pilot stories rather than what they truly believed as they thought that was the desirable way to answer. This would certainly affect the va lidity of the findings.

There is another point to consider:

• In study 1, the children were told all four stories in the presentation (e.g. all four stories verbally). The children may have been bored, muddled the stories together or become tired, all of which could have affected the moral judgments they made especially for the third or fourth story.

33

34

Physiological psychology

Core study 6.1 Schachter & Singer (1962)

Context Early ideas that looked into emotions focused on purely physiological factors. The assumption was that every emotion has a distinct physiological state. Psychologists began to assess the role of psychologica l factors such as thoughts {cognitions) in emotions and how we experience them. Could it be that some emotions have a similar physiological basis but the way we are thinking at the time {e.g. because of what we are doing) makes us experience tf1em as different emotions? Therefore, are emotions a11 interaction between physiological and psychologica l factors?

Aim To investigate what role cog,nitive factors have in the experience of an emotion (how we label it, etc.) when we are in a state of physiological arousal tl1at has no immediate explanation. Also, the researchers aimed to see whether when we do t1ave an appropriate explanation for feeling a certain emotion we always label it as the most appropriate emotion. In other words, the researchers were testing the two factor theory of emotion.

Method Design

As soon as participants had agreed to an injection of suproxin (the name given to the "drug" used which the participants thought was a vitamin), they were placed into 011e of the four groups:

1. Epinephrine informed (Epi Inf): Participants in this group were injected with epinephrine and were told that so111e people feel side effects of it and that these would last no more tha11 20 minutes. The side effects that they were told about were ha11d shaking, heart poundi11g and feeling warm.

2. Epinephri11e ignorant (Epi lgn): The experirne11ter simply injected participants, said nothing about any side effects and then left tl1e room.

3. Epinephrine misinformed {Epi Mis): Participants were injected with epinephrine and told that some people feel side effects and that these would last no more than 20 minutes . However, they were given incorrect information - they were told that feet feeling numb, becoming itchy and developing a headache were common side effects.

4. Sal ine: Participants were injected witl1 a saline solution {salt) and followed the same procedure as the Epi lgn group.

If participants were in the euphoria group the following occurred:

• As soon as tl1ey had been injected, the experimenter left and then returned with a stooge (a person who poses as a true participant but is a11 actor and is part of the study) .

• Participant a11d stooge were introduced to each other.

• They were both told that they had to wait 20 minutes before beginning the "tests of vision".

• The room they were in was not tidy an,d the experimenter apologised for this.

• The experimenter left, saying that participants could use the paper, rubber bands and pencils that were lying around tl1e room.

• The stooge then completed a set procedure that was designed (it was l1oped) to bring about a feeling of euphoria.

• He or she drew fish on a piece of scrap paper and then complained tt1at tl1e paper was no good so screwed it up and tried to throw it into the bin.

• The stooge would always miss and then try to make it into a basketbal l game and get tl1e true participant involved.

• The stooge would then make things such as paper airplanes, a slingshot from a rubber band to tire paper across the room, and tried to hulahoop (all witl1 items deliberately left in the room for tl1is purpose).

For participants in the anger group, the set-up was as follows:

• Participants met tl1e stooge in the same way as participants in the euphoria group.

• They were told that they needed to use the 20 minutes to complete a questionnaire that was handed to them.

• Just before beginning, the stooge would tell the participant that it was unfair that the researchers had not revealed the injection beforehand and that it is difficult to refuse 011ce you say yes to a study.

• At regular points when the stooge was completing the questionnaire the Individual would raise issues with it.

• The first few questions were standard ones about personal information, what you eat. etc.

• As the questionnaire progressed, the questions became more and more personal and concerning to answer. For example, the questionnaire included statements such as "does not bathe or wash regularly" and participants were asked to name someone from their immediate family to whom the statement was most applicable.

• The stooge angrily crossed out the items. Further questions include frequency of sexual intercourse and at this point the stooge shouted "To hell with it! I don't have to tell them all this! "

• The stooge then sat back on the chair, ripped up the questionnaire and threw it all over the floor, got his or her books and left the room.

All four of the injection conditions experienced the euphoria procedure. Three conditions experienced the anger procedure (not the Epi Mis).

Two measures of emotion were collected :

• Observation - unbeknown to participants they were being watched through a one-way mirror.

• The stooge would engage in 14 standard behaviours during the euphoria condition.

• For each of these standard behaviours, the behaviour of the participant was classified into one or more of four categories: 1. Joins in with the activity; 2. Initiates a new activity that the stooge had not shown; 3. Ignores the stooge; 4. Watches the stooge.

• There was more than one observer to test for reliability (and observers agreed on 88 per cent of the observations).

• For the anger condition , behaviour was coded under six categories: 1. Agrees with the stooge; 2. Disagrees with the stooge; 3. Displays neutral behaviour; 4. Initiates agreement or disagreement (e.g. says "Boy, I hate this kind of thing" but not as a response to the stooge); 5 . Watches the stooge; 6. Ignores the stooge.

• Self-reports - when the session with the stooge had ended , participants were asked to complete a questionnaire asking them about a range of things .

Condition N Pulse

• They rated how angry they felt, how good or happy they felt and they were asked if they had felt any of the side effects that they had been led to believe they might.

Participants

• A total of 184 male students from the University of Minnesota (introductory psychology class) took part in the study.

• Around 90 per cent of students in these classes volunteered to be in a subject pool.

• They received two extra points in their final exam for every hour they took part in an experiment.

• All participants were cleared by the student health service to check that they would not be harmed by the injection.

Procedure

• Participants were told th.at the study was about the effects of a vitamin supplement on vision .

• When they arrived they were taken to a private room and it was explained to them that the drug that would be used was suproxin.

• Participants were tllen asked if they would agree to the injection and just one refused .

• After this, a physician entered the room to give the injection.

• Depending on the condition that participants had been placed in, the procedure followed the Design section above (e.g. if in the Epi lgn/ euphoria group they followed what is reported in the relevant "Design" section).

• After participants had completed the questionnaires, the researchers stated that the experiment had now been completed.

• They explained the deception element of the study and how it was necessary and then asked if participants had been suspicious of the stooge.

Results • In all of the epinephrine conditions, pulse rate

increased as expected.

Self-rating of "side effects"

Pre Post Palpitation Tremor Numbness Itching Headache

Euphoria

Epi Inf 27 85.7 88.6 1 .20 1 .43 0 0 .16 0.32

Epi lgn 26 84.6 85.6 1 .83 1.76 0 .15 0 0 .55

Epl Mis 26 82.9 86.0 1 .27 2.00 0 .06 0 .08 0 .23

Placebo 26 80.4 77.1 0 .29 0.24 0 .09 0 0 .27

Anger

Epi Inf 23 85.9 92.4 1 .26 1.41 0 .17 0 0 .11

Epi lgn 23 85.0 96.8 1 .44 1.78 0 0 .06 0 .21

Placebo 23 84.5 79.6 0 .59 0.24 0 .14 0 .06 0 .06

A. Table 6.1 The effe.cts of the Injections on bodily state

35

36

• Those in the epinephrine groups experienced more palpitations and tremors.

• There were five participants where it was clear that the epinephrine was having no effect whatsoever.

• Participants in the Epl Inf group were significantly less euphoric than those in the Epi Mis group.

• Participants in the Epi Inf group were significantly less euphoric than those in the Epi lgn group.

• There was no difference between the placebo and participants in the Epi Mis group on levels of euphoria.

Condition N Self-report scales

Epi Inf 25 0.98

Epi lgn 25 1.78

Epl Mis 28 1.98

Placebo 26 1.61

.& Table 6.2 Self-report of emotional state in the euphoria condition

• The Epi Mis group engaged in the most activities and initiated more behaviours.

• The only significant difference was between the Epi Mis and Epi Inf groups.

Condition N Self-report scales

Epi Inf 22 1.91

Epl lgn 23 1.39

Placebo 23 1.63

.& Table 6.3 Self-report of emotional state in the anger condition

• None of the groups differed significantly from each other on these scores but participa·nts in the Epi Inf group showed the highest levels of self-reported anger.

• Behaviourally (through the observation), the Epi lgn group showed the most overt anger of any group (on average).

Conclusion There are two factors involved in our experiences of emotions: our physiological arousal or state and the information or cognitions that help us to understand the behaviour we feel. These interact and make us feel different emotions.

Evaluation Evaluation ReJated to Schachter & Singer

Strength Schachter & Singer had many controls, such as the set order of the stooge's activities, what the person injecting said and did, plus what was injected and how the observations were set out and categorised. This means another researcher could easily replicate this study to test for reliability.

Strength As there were many controls, such as the instructions given to the four groups and how the stooge behaved, the researchers could be confident that it was the information provided to participants that directly affected the moods and emotions they reported.

Weakness The task of being injected with an "unknown" drug, sitting with a stooge as you attempt to complete a questionnaire is not a usual task that people conduct in everyday life. Therefore, the study can be said to be low in mundane realism.


• Ethics - two issues are raised by this study:

o Deception: participants thought that they were receiving a vitamin supplement called suproxin (when it was actually ephinephrine). They also thought that the stooge was another real participant who had been injected and was completing the questionnaires .

o Protection: participants were injected, which could have caused physical pain. Also, as they were in situations that could bring about euphoria or anger, they were not leaving the study in the same psycholog~cal state as they entered.

• Use of independent groups: the results may have been affected by participant variables as each participant only took part on one of the conditions. Participants who were "naturally" more euphoric or angry could have been in those particular groups and therefore it was not always the labelling that was affecting behaviour.

• Volunteers: the sample was made up of volunteer students which may not be representative of a wider population when it comes to the effects of cognitive factors on emotional behaviour.

Core study 6.2 Dement & Kleltman (1957)

Context The topics of sleep and dreaming are clearly hard to investigate because the participant is necessarily asleep and so cannot communicate with the researcher. Even when participants are awake, only self-report data can be obtained about dream content, and these alone might not be valid, as they are subjective. The study of sleep and dreaming became more scientifically rigorous with the invention of physiological techniques to measure brain activity that indicated dreaming (the electro-encephalograph, or EEG) and allowed the electrical recording of eye movements (the electro-oculogram, or EOG) rather than their direct observation.

To remember the meaning of EEG it can help to break the word down:

• electro (electric)

• en cephalo (in head)

• graph (writing).

The same EEG electrodes and machine can also be used to record eye movements. The output - called an EOG - indicates the presence or absence of eye movements, their size and their direction (horizontal or vertical).

Aim To investigate dreaming in an objective way by looking for relationships between eye movements in sleep and the dreamer's recall. These included whether dream recall differs between rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (nREM sleep), whether there is a positive correlation between subjective estimates of drea m duration and the length of the REM period and whether eyemovement patterns are related to dream content.

Method • To test whether dream recall differs between REM

and nREM sleep: participants were woken either in REM or nREM, but were not told which stage of sleep they had been in prior to waking. They confirmed whether they had been having a dream and, if so, described the content into a voice recorder.

• To test whether subjective estimates of dream duration are related to the length of the REM period: participants were woken following either 5 or 15 minutes in REM sleep. They were asked to choose whether they thought they had been dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes.

• To test whether eye-movement patterns represent the visual experience of the dream content or whether they are simply random movements arising from the activation of the central nervous system during dream sleep: the direction of

eye movements was detected using electrodes around the eyes (EOG). Participants were woken after exhibiting a single eye-movement pattern for longer than one minute. Again, they were asked to report their dream.

Design

• The levels of the IV were REM sleep or nREM steep and the DVs were whether a dream was reported and, if so, the detail.

• The data were used in both experimental and correlational designs.

• Experimental analysis: the levels of the IV were waking after 5 or 15 minutes, and the DV was the participant's choice of 5 or 15 minutes.

• Correlational analysis: the two variables were the participant's time estimate and the number of words in the dream narrative.

• The IV of eye-movement pattern cou Id not be manipulated by the experimenters, so this was a natural experiment (conducted in a laboratory). The DV was the report of dream content.

Participants

• Nine adult participants were used in this study (seven male and two female).

• Four of these were mainly used to confirm the data from five who were studied in detail .

• Those studied in detail spent between 6 and 17 nights in the laboratory and were tested with 50-77 awakenings; those used to confirm the findings stayed only 1 or 2 nights and were awoken between 4 and 10 times in total.

• E.ach participant was identified by a pair of initials.

Procedure

• During the daytime prior to arrival at the laboratory, each participant ate and drank normally (excluding drinks containing alcohol or caffeine).

• Participants arrived at the laboratory just before their normal bedtime and were fitted with electrical recording apparatus.

• This included electrodes attached near the eyes (to record eye movements) and on the scalp (to record brain waves).

• Once in bed in a quiet, dark room, wires from the electrodes (which fed to the EEG in the experimenter's room) were gathered into a "pony tail " from the participant's head, to allow the person freedom of movement.

• The EEG ran continuously through the night to monitor the participant's sleep stages and to Inform the experimenters when the participant should be woken up.

• Participants were woken by a doorbell that was loud enough to rouse them from any sleep stage.

• The doorbell was rung at various times during the night and participants indicated whether they had been dreaming prior to being woken and, if so, described their dream into a voice recorder. 37

38

• They then returned to sleep (typically within 5 minutes).

• When the narrative was analysed, it was considered to be a dream only if it was a coherent, fairly deta iled description of the content (i.e. vague, fragmentary impressions were not scored as dreams).

Results • Participants described dreams often when woken

in REM but rarely from nREM sleep (although there were some individual differences).

• When awakened from nREM sleep, participants tended to describe feelings (e.g. pleasantness, anxiety, detachment) but this did not relate to specific dream content.

Sleep stage REM-sleep nREM·sleep (level of IV) awakenings awakenings

Dream No Dream No recall recall recall recall

Number of times 152 39 11 149 participants reported the presence or absence of a dream (DV)

.&. Table 6.4 Instances of dream recall following waking from REM and nREM sleep

• Waking pattern did not affect recall.

• Specifically, participant WO was no less accurate despite being misled, and participant ON was no more accurate even though he might have guessed the pattern of wakings.

• Recall of dreams during nREM sleep was much more likely when the participant was woken soon after the end of an REM stage.

• When asked instead whether they had been in REM sleep for 5 or 15 minutes, participants responded more accurately. They were 88 per cent and 78 per cent accurate respectively for 5- or 15-minute REM durations.

-fil 40 +---' -.r:. :::::J .... c:

~E 30+-~ Cl) -

"i"' (/) E c (0 .2 20-~ co o E ~ 10+--

0 4-----'

Right D Wrong I

after 5 minutes after 15 minutes

Total (for 5 participants)

.&. Figure 6.1 Accuracy of dream-length estimations after 5 or 15 minutes of REM sleep

• Although most of the participants were highly accurate (with only 0-3 incorrect responses), one

was not. Participant ON frequently found he could recall only the end of his dream, so it seemed shorter than it actually was.

• There was a significant positive correlation between REM duration and number of words in the narrative. The r values varied between 0.4 and 0. 71 for different participants.

• Dream narratives for very long durations (e.g. 30 or 50 minutes) were not much longer than those for 15 minutes. Participants did report, however, that they felt as though they had been dreaming for a long time, suggesting that they could not recall the early part of the dream.

• Three of the nine participants showed periods of predominantly vertical eye movements, and each was allied to a narrative about vertical movement.

• In one, the participant dreamed about standing at the foot of a tall cliff, using a hoist (a kind of winch or pulley).

• They reported looking up at climbers at various levels on the cliff, and down at the hoist machinery.

• A single dream followed predominantly horizontal movements. The participant reported dreaming about two people throwing tomatoes at each other.

• On ten occasions, participants were woken after little or no eye movement. Here, they reported either watching something in the distance, or staring with their eyes fixed on a single object.

• There were 21 wakings following mixed eye movements. In these instances, the participants reported looking at people or objects nearby (rather than far away) - e.g. fighting or talking to a group of people.

Time of waking after REM stage

Within 8 minutes After 8 minutes

Number of wakings 17 132 conducted

Number of dreams 5 6 recalled

Percentage of 29 5 occasions on which dreams recalled

.&. Table 6.5 Number of dreams recalled following wakings from nREM sleep after an REM stage

• When woken from nREM sleep, participants returned to nREM and the next REM stage was not delayed. When woken from REM sleep, participants generally did not dream again until the next REM phase.

Conclusion • Dreams probably (although not certainly) occur

only during REM sleep, which occurs regularly throughout each night's sleep. Dreams reported when woken from nREM sleep are ones from previous REM episodes.

• The finding that the length of an REM period and its estimation by the participant are very similar shows that dreams are not instantaneous events but rath.er they are experienced in "real time" .

• Eye movements during REM sleep correspond to where, and at what, the dreamer is looking in the dream. This suggests that eye movements are not simply random events caused by the activation of the central nervous system during dream sleep, but are directly related to dream imagery.


Strength

Strength

Weakness

Weakness

Related to Dement & Kleitman

Dement & Kleltman controlled many variables, such as pre-study levels of caffeine and alcohol, the doorbell sound, the EEG monitoring, etc. This means that another researcher could easily repl icate this study to test it for reliability.

The high levels of control so that participants all experienced the same conditions, such as the EEG monitoring and how data were recorded, mean that for each part of the experiment the researchers could confidently conclude cause and effect (e.g. that dream recall is affected by stage of sleep).

Participants had to sleep In an unusual environment (a laboratory) with electrodes attached to their head (EEG monitor) which is. of course, an artificial setting for them. Therefore, the study has low ecological validity.

The task of being woken up and then asking to recall dream content or estimate dream length is not a normal activity for people to engage in. Therefore, the study lacks mundane realism.


• Generalisation: only five people were studied "in detail" and four more were used to confirm these findings. This could make it difficult to generalise beyond the sample of people because of the sample size.

• Reductionism: the findings are all based around biological mechanisms affecting our dreaming state. Some psychologists may see this as being reductionist as there are psychological mechanisms that could be affecting dream content.

.A Figure 6 .2 Participants slept in a sleep laboratory attached to an EEG monitor

39

40

Core study 6.3 Ma~ulre, Frackowlak & Frith (1997)

Context One memory system has only recently begun to be studied - the system involving topographical memories. These are memories that allow us to navigate and find our way around familiar environments. Think of a route that you take quite often with a ll of the landmarks that you pass. By doing this you are activating topographical memories. If the route has some meaning to you then it fs called a topographical semantic memory. As you are visualising your route, you are using what psychologists call a cognitive map. This is a "mental map" that helps you visualise your route before you embark on your journey. A cog11itive 111ap also allows you to recollect your route after your journey is complete and you may add to this map if a new landmark becomes part of the route.

Aim The study set out to investigate whether there are specific brain regions that are responsible for semantic topographical memory (in this study, routes that had been or could be used by taxi drivers in London). The research team also wa11ted to investigate if there were brain functioning differences between tasks that involved topographical or nontopographical memories. They also wanted to see if these two types of memories were affected by whether the memory was a sequence of logical events or not.

Method Design

• Participants had to complete six tasks.

• Each task was performed twice.

• Five of these were releva11t to the current study. It was a repeated measures design with all participants completing all tasks (counterbalanced too).

• The whole design was a 2 x 2 design with t opographical/non-topographical being factor 1 and sequencing/non-sequencing being factor 2.

T+ T-

s+

routes film plots

S-

famous landmarks film frames

£ Table 6.6 T + means It ls testing topographical ; S- means it is testing non-sequencing

These were the five tasks:

1. Describe the sl1ortest route between a starting point and a destination in the City of London. (Topographical and sequencing.)

2 . Describe a landmark known to the taxi drivers (al l world-famous ones) in terms of features, appearance etc. (Topographical an.d nonsequencing.)

3 . Describe the plot of films (familiar to the participant) between two given points in the film. (Non-topographical and sequencing.)

4. Describe individual frames of some famous films that were fam iliar t o the participants (not the plot but the imagery, characters, etc. ). {Non-topographical and non-sequencing.)

5. Repeat two sets of four-digit numbers {this was a baseli11e task so this simple level of activity could be compared to that seen in tt1e other four tasks).

• All of the tasks were completed verbally, with the participant blindfolded.

• Each task occurred whfle the participant was undergoing a posit ron emission tomography (PET) brain scan .

• These types of scan allow psycl1ologists to see in real time i,vhich section{s) of the brain are active during specific tasks.

• Each participant, through a forearm cannula, received a H;5o intravenous bolus over a 20-second -period followed by a 20-second saline flush.

• This happened 12 times per participa11t.

Prior to the experimental tasks, participants had to complete a questio11naire that asked about:

1. the areas of London that they were familiar with

2. fill11s that they thought they were "very familiar with" from a list of 150 films from 1939 to the present day

3. wl1ich of 20 world-famous landmarks they could visualise in their mind's eye and had visited.

Participants

• A total of 11 right-ha11ded , qualified and licensed, male taxi drivers took part in the study.

• Their average age was 45 years and none had any l1istory of neurological illness.

• The .average time they 11ad spent being a London taxi driver was 14.3 years{+/- 12 years). The shortest time any participant had been a taxi driver was three years. All participants gave informed consent prior to taking part. All volunteered to take part.

Procedure

• After the questionnaires had been completed about familiar routes, landmarks and films, each participant u11derwent a PET sca11.

• Each participant performed the tasks in a drfferent order. Participa11ts completed a total of 12 tasks each.

• Every task lasted 90 seconds and there was an 8-mi11ute gap between each task.

• Once al.I tasks were completed, each participant was debriefed.

Results • There was no difference in the amount of speech

recorded for the four main tasks so no one task demanded more of the participants than the other tasks.

• When recalling the taxi route across London, there were very little differences in routes chosen by the 11 participants .

Task Region of brain activated

Route in Extrastriate regions, medial parietal lobe, London posterior cingulate cortex, parahippocamal

gyrus and right hippocampus

Landmarks Posterior cingulated cortex~ medial parietal lobe, occlpito-temporal region and parahippocampal gyrus

Rim tasks Left frontal regions, middle ten1poral gyrus, combined left angular gyrus

• The cerebellum was activated in all tasks compared to baseline.

• The major differenc.e between t he topographical tasks was that the right hippocampus clearly played a role in the sequencing aspect of topographical memories as this was only ever activated during the route in London task.

Conclusion The research team could conclude that the regions of the brain used in semantic topographical memories are similar to those seen in previous studies, especially the strong role of the right hippocampus in sequential route planning. This seems to be the region that stores inforn1ation about routes in a sequence, especially those that have developed over a longer period of time.

Ev·aluation Evaluation Related to Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith

Strength There were many controls (e.g. the pilot questionnaire, the routes chosen to describe, the landmarks, the specific time a description was required while being scanned) so the study could easily be replicated to test for reliability.

Strength As there were many controls, such as the tasks given to participants, the researchers can be more confident that it is the type of task that is directly affecting the brain function of the taxi drivers.

Weakness The setting of undergoing a PET scan in an artificial environment is not ecologically valid - it is not something taxi drivers usually do. Therefore the study lacks ecological validity.

Weakness Being blindfolded while describing a route verbally during a PET scan is not a task that taxi drivers usually perform - therefore the study lacks mundane realisrn .


• A strength could be that as the study was testing physiological mechanisms, the results could be generalisable to a wider population as we all have the same brain regions explored in this study (e.g. right hippocampus).

• The sample was quite restrictive in terms of demographics (using only London taxi drivers). Jt could be argued that the findings about the right hippocampus being crucial in sequential topographical memories might only be so marked in taxi drivers.

-• Figure 6.3 What areas of the brain do taxi drivers use

to take you to your destination?

41

42

Core study 6.4 ' ..

Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence (2007)

Context Psychologists have been studying attraction for years with a main focus on facial attractiveness and social reasons as to why people become attracted to each other. When looking at courtship in other species. olfactory cues (smells) have been shown to be very important in "attraction " . So, is it the same in humans? Compared to many other species, our ability to detect smells is quite limited (the Jacobson's Organ helps detect smells and we have a small Jacobson's Organ in relation to our body size).

Aim To investigate whether the perceived attractiveness of faces is affected by olfactory cues. The researchers wanted to see if a pleasant or an unpleasant smell would affect judgments of facial attractiveness.

Method Design

• Pictures of 40 male faces were chosen from an established database. All the pictures were 13cm wide and 17cm high.

• All the faces had been assessed already for attractiveness many times and were labelled high, medium or low attractiveness as a result.

• The research team chose a total of 20 faces that were rated high attractiveness and 20 that were rated low attractiveness.

• Four odours were chosen for the study: synthetic body odour, a male fragrance called Gravity, geranium and rubber.

• A pilot study confirmed that the Gravity and geranium smells were "pleasant'1 and the body odour and rubber were "unpleasant".

• A computer-controlled olfactometer was used to deliver the odours during the study.

• The odours were diluted in the following ways to ensure that none had a more intense smell than the others: body odour 0 .33 per cent, geranium 1.0 per cent, Gravity 0.5 per cent and rubber 1.2 per cent.

• The design was a repeated measures experiment (within participants).

• Each session consisted of 3 blocks of 40 randomised trials (so each participant had to complete 120 trials in total).

• Every face was presented three times, once with a pleasant odour, once with an unpleasant odour and once with clean air.

• The research team counterbalanced the combinations of face and odour by creating

four subgroups of ten faces (five attractive and five less attractive) matched for mean attractiveness. The faces were presented, randomly, as follows:

1. ten with clear air, geranium and body odour

2. ten with clean air, Gravity and rubber

3. ten with clear air, geranium and rubber

4. ten with clean air, Gravity and body odour.

• The same odour was never presented in consecutive trials.

• The whole experiment lasted for 50 minutes per participant.

Participants

• Sixteen female participants from the University of Oxford took part in the study.

• They had a mean age of 26 years (ranging from 20 to 34).

• None of them knew the purpose of the study.

• All were asked to complete a confidential questionnaire to ensure that they had a normal sense of smell, had no history of any olfactory disorders and had normal vision or corrected-tonormal vision (e.g. wore glasses).

Procedure

• Each participant sat on a chair that was 70cm from a computer screen.

• Participants sat with their chin on a chin rest to keep their head stable. Figure 6.4 shows the order of events for one trial.

1. Participants were told to look at a cross on the screen.

2. They were instructed to exhale as soon as they heard a quiet tone.

3. They were instructed to inhale through their nostrils as soon a.s they heard a loud tone.

4. One of the four odours (or clean air) was delivered via the olfactometer 500ms after they had performed step 3.

5. The participants then had to decide whether an odour had been presented or not.

6. A fixation cross that was on the monitor disappeared 1 OOOms after the odour had been delivered and a face appeared for 500ms. When the face disappeared so did any odour that was being delivered and clean air was delivered.

7. The screen then turned black for 2000ms then each participant was presented with a 9-point rating scale. They had to rate the face for attractiveness with 1 being least attractive and 9 being most attractive.

8. As soon as the response had been logged, the fixation cross reappeared 10 OOOms before the next trial began.

9. There was a rest period of 5 minutes after each block of 40 trials.

100ms

Quiet tone 200ms

1500ms

Loud tone 200ms

Key

• : Clean air

Odour presentation

Loudspeaker 5 OOOms

Time

.A Figure 6 .4 Order of events

• At the end of each session, participants had to rate each odour on three dimensions (intensity, pleasantness and familiarity).

• This was completed on a labelled magnitude scale (LMS) - a line with 0 on one end and 100 on the other for them to mark with a pen where their response lay.

Results • Faces were rated less attractive when an

unpleasant odour was presented compared to a pleasant odour.

• There was no significant difference in attractiveness ratings for pleasant odours compared to clean air.

• When the scores for both pleasant odours and both unpleasant odours were merged, the average ratings for attractiveness were as follows: clean air (4.90), pleasant odours (4.85) and unpleasant odours (4.42).

• The LMS data showed that the pleasant and unpleasant odours were more intense than clean air (as expected).

• The unpleasant odours were indeed rated as less pleasant compared to the pleasant odours.

Facial attractiveness Odour

Clean air Geranium

High 5.70 (0.21) 5.40 (0.23)

Low 4.10 (0.16) 4.06 (0.20)

.A Table 6. 7 Mean attractiveness ratings

1 OOOms

Face presentation 500ms

a 2 OOOms

until response

10 OOOms

Conclusion It would appear that olfactory cues can regulate our perception of facial attractiveness. The participants in this study consistently rated faces as being less attractive when presented with an unpleasant odour.


.. Related to Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence

Strength Controls in this study include the pre-rating of faces for attractiveness, the odour concentrations and the standardised presentation of each trial. Therefore, the study cou ld be replicated with a different sample to test for reliability.

Strength The standardised procedure, including the delivery of the different smel ls for the same face, means the researchers can be confident it was the odour being presented that affected the ratings of attractiveness.

Weakness The setting was artificial as participants sat on a chair with their chin on a chin rest (and this is not a settingthey would often experience in the real world).

Weakness Having an odour released near your face and then having to rate a picture on attractiveness ls not something that would happen in everyday life. Therefore, the study lacks mundane realism.

Mean (SD)

Gravity Body odour Rubber

5. 73 (0.24) 5.39 (0.21) 4.96 (0.25)

4 .15 (0.20) 3.64 (0.21) 3.72 (0.23)

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6 Pt1ysiological psychology

Quantitative data only was collected for this study. This method can be evaluated as follows:

Evaluation Related to Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence

Strength The ratings given by the participants were numerical (on a scale of 1-9) so averages could be calculated to show the difference between the attractiveness ratings per odour presented .

Strength The ratings were given by participants and analysed for a mean score per presented odour. There was no room for misinterpretation of results or drawing the wrong conclusion. This made comparisons easy.

Weakness The researchers did not discover why participants rated each face the way they did (i.e. the researchers did not know the reasoning behind the attractiveness ratings of the faces). Therefore, the data lack some of the richness of detail that could have been collected via qualitative data.

Weakness Some participants may have worked out the aim of the study and recorded ratings that fitted in with the study aims (demand characteristics), e.g. they may have rated faces more attractive when pleasant odours were presented as they felt that was expected. This could also be the case as they rated all faces under pleasant and unpleasant odour conditions.


• Use of repeated measures means that any participant variables have been controlled for. This is because all participants rated all pictures under unpleasant odour, pleasant odour and clean air conditions.

• As they rated all pictures under unpleasant odour, pleasant odour and clean air conditions, participants may have been able to work out the aim of the study and give ratings based on that rather than their own personal judgments (demand characteristics).

A. Figure 6.5 Can smells affect how attractive we find someone?

The psychology of individual differences

Core study 7.1 Rosenhan (1973)

Context Abnormal psychology is an area of huge interest for many students approaching the subject for the first time. Jt is one of the most controversial areas that we will learn about, mainly because of the implications of diagnosing individuals as "abnormal" or "mentally ill" on their subsequent treatment.

Attempts to classify abnormality formally have been made by psycl1iatrists - doctors with medical training who consider mental illness as equivalent to otl1er forms of illness. Psychiatrists use tl1e Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders {DSM) to classify abnormal behaviour and d iagnose patients .

Rosenhan and others have criticised the medical model of mental illness as part of wl1at is known as the "anti-psychiatry movement". One of the most serious criticisms levelled at psychiatry is that it actually increases the suffering of those who receive a mental health diagnosis. This is because it removes control from the patient, who can then be manipulated for political and social purposes. A second major issue that concerned Rosenhan was the reliability and validity of diagnosis: to what extent can tl1e sane be consistently and accurately distinguished from the insane?

Aim To investigate whether the sane can be reliably and accurately distinguisl1ed from the insane.

• Study 1 investigated whether normal, sane individuals would be admitted t o psychiatric hospitals, to see if and how they would be discovered.

• Study 2 examined whether genuine patier1ts would be misidentified as "sane" by various hospital staff.

Method (study 1) Participants

• Eight pseudopatients were adu lts over the age of 20 and included Rosenhan, a psychology graduate student in his twenties, psychologists, a pediatrician, a psychiatrist, a painter and a l1ousewife.

• Three pseudopatients were female, five were male.

• All used false names, and those with careers in mental health claimed to have an alternative occupation to avoid attracting any special attention from staff.

• Rosenhan was the first pseudopatient and his involvement was known only to the hospital administrator and chief psychologist.

• The settings were also varied. To make the fi11dings generalisable, pseudopatients sought admission to a variety of hospitals.

• Twelve hospitals were chosen, across five states in the United States.

• They ranged from old and shabby to modern and new, and included public, private and universityfunded hospitals.

• Staff-to-patient ratios also varied greatly.

• The ''real" participants were the doctors and nurses in each hospital.


• After calling the hospital for an appointment, the pseudopatient arrived at the admissions office of the hospital and asserted that he or she had been heari11g voices, which were unclear but were saying "empty" , "hol low" and "thud ".

• Pseudopatients all reported that the voices were unfamiliar and were of the same sex.

• All other detalls of pseudopatients' lives, relationships and experiences were given truthfully to the medical staff, with the exception of their 11ame, participation in the current study a11d, in some cases, occupation.

• Pseudopatients entered the study understanding that they l1ad to be released from the institution by their own means, by convincing staff they were sane.

• On the ward, pseudopatients behaved "normally" and attempted to engage others in co11versation .

• They indicated to staff that they were no lo11ger experiencing any symptoms, obeyed the rules and routines of the ward and pretended to take prescribed medication without fuss.

• The study was a participant observation: researchers acted as genuine patients while keeping a written record of their personal experience in each institution.

• In four hospitals, pseudopatients also observed staff responses t o a specific request. They approached a member of staff and asked: "When am I likely to be discharged?"

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7 The psychology of individual differences

Results {study 1) • Despite showing no symptoms of insanity once

admitted, pseudopatients were not detected by staff in the hospitals.

• Failure to recognise sanity therefore was not related to the quality of the hospital.

• All except one received diagnoses of schizophrenia, and were discharged with a diagnosis of "schizophrenia in remission".

• The length of stay in hospital ranged from 7 to 52 days, the average stay lasting 19 days.

• During the first three trials, 35 out of a total of 118 genuine patients voiced suspicions about the sanity of the pseudopatients.

• They made accusations such as "You're not crazy ... you're checking up on the hospital" , while none of the hospital staff raised such concerns.

• There was a strong tendency towards a type 2 error in diagno·sis, which is when a healthy person is diagnosed as ill.

• Once admitted with a diagnosis of mental illness, subsequent .behaviour by pseudopatients was interpreted in light of their diagnosis. Rosenhan calls this the "stickiness of psychodiagnostic labels". These are exam pl es of "pathologica I behaviour" from the observers' experiences:

o When pacing in the hospital corridors from boredom, pseudopatients were asked by a nurse if they were nervous.

o When recording behaviour in notes on the ward, pseudopatients were described by the nurse as "engaging in writing behaviour".

o Waiting outside the cafeteria before lunch, pseudopatients were said to demonstrate the ''oral-acquisitive" nature of their conditions.

• Experience of hospitalisation was overwhelmingly negative and unpleasant.

• Hospital staff avoided interaction with patients.

• On average, attendants spent only 11.3 per cent of their time mixing with patients in the dayroom.

• The doctors emerged even less often; on average, they left the separate staff areas only 6. 7 times a day.

• The results of the separate observation conducted in four of the hospitals directly measuring staff interaction with patients found that avoidance of a patient's questions was high.

• Powerlessness was evident in each institution.

• There was a lack of confidentiality; patients' case notes were read openly by casual members of staff who had no therapeutic input.

• Patients' personal hygiene and waste evacuation were monitored, and toilet cubicles had no doors. Even the initial physical examinations were conducted in a semi-public room.

• The depersonalisation of patients was also a key finding. There were instances where ward staff attendants physically abused patients in the presence of other patients.

• A total of 2 100 pills were administered to pseudopatients (although they were not swallowed).

• Many other patients also disposed of their medication, unchallenged by staff as long as patients remained cooperative.

Method {study 2) Participants

• Participants were psychiatric staff at one research and teaching hospital who had been briefed on the findings of the main study.

• Judgments were made on 193 patients who were admitted for psychiatric treatment.


• The staff were informed that at some point during a three-month period, one or more pseudopatients would attempt to gain admission to the hosprtat.

• Each staff member was asked to rate each patient - either at admission or on the ward -according to the likelihood that the patient was an imposter.

• A 10-point scale was used, with 1 reflecting the strongest belief that the patient was a pseudopatient, and 10 the strongest belief that that patient was genuine.

Results {study 2) • Of the patients admitted during the three-month

period, 41 were rated with high confidence to be pseudopatients by at least one member of staff.

• Of these patients, 23 were suspected by at least one psychiatrist, and 19 were suspected by a psychiatrist and at least one other staff member.

• No pseudopatients actually presented themselves to the hospital for admission during the period of this study.

• Psychiatric staff committed a type 1 error by identifying mentally ill patients as healthy.

Conclusion This study challenges the idea that psychiatric professionals can effectively distinguish between individuals who are sane and those who are insane:

• In study 1, Rosenhan concludes that psychiatrists are unable to reliably identify sane pseudopatients (type 2 error: false positive) .

• In study 2, he claims to demonstrate that psychiatrists fail to reliably detect insanity (type 1 error: false negative).

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Rosenhan

Strength Staff were unaware that they were being observed and so were most of the patients (some did have an idea the pseudopatient was not a real patient). Therefore, what was being seen was the usual behaviour of participants in their everyday surroundings, so this aspect of the study has ecological validity.

Weakness Different hospitals may be run in different ways (e.g. have different admissions procedures or daily routines) which makes replication of this study in another hospital difficult.


• Usefulness: the findings from this study can be used to improve human behaviour in general, especially linked to mental illness and how it is treated. The findings were used to improve psychiatric care and the diagnosis process as this study highlighted the problems of the systems at that t ime.

• Ethics: there were elements of deception and issues with the right for the pseudopatients to withdraw voluntarily and be protected from physical and psychological harm. However, all of these were necessary for the study to achieve valid results.

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Core study 7.2 Thigpen & Cleckley (1954)

Context Multiple personality disorder (MPD) is a rare psychological condition. So little is known about the disorder that some professionals doubt its existence at all. Nowadays, MPD is known as dissociative identity disorder {DlD) in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (DSM).

DID is defined by DSM-IV as the presence of two or more distinct identities, or distinct identities that each have their own way of perceiving and thinking about the environment and self. According to the diagnostic criteria, at least two of these personality states recurrently take control of the individual 's behaviour. Although plural identities are present, it is important to remember that they all exist as manifestations of one person.

Two or more personalities coexist, but only one is " in control " of the person at a given time. The different personalities might not be aware of one another's existence and experience. This means those with the disorder might experience dissociative fugues, and be unable to recall important personal information.

MPD is an example of a neurotic disorder. It is not a form of schizophrenia, although many people confuse the two conditions.

Aim To give an account of the psychotherapeutic experience of an individual who was considered to have multiple personalities.

Method Participant

• The participant was a 25-year-old married mother with a 4-year-old daughter; her real name was changed in Thigpen & Cleckley's report to "Eve White" to preserve her anonymity.

• She was the oldest of three siblings and was employed as a telephone operator.

• This young woman was initially referred to Thigpen for therapy after complaining of severe and blinding heada.ches. At her first interview she also mentioned experiencing blackouts following such headaches.


• This research is considered a classic case study.

• The case of Eve was explored primarily through psychotherapeutic interviews. Some of the interviews conducted with Eve were done under, or following, hypnosis, in order to draw out different personalities.

• The study took place over a period of 14 months, and material was gathered from approximately 100 hours of interviews.

• In addition, background information was obtained through interviews with family members, including Eve's husband.

• These were carried out in order to back up Eve's account of events from her childhood to adulthood. Quantitative measures were taken of Eve White (EW) and Eve Black (EB).

• These included psychometric measure.s of memory and IQ.

• She also underwent two projection tests that were subjected to analysis by the researchers. These included an exercise drawing human figures, and interpreting Rorschach ink blots.

• Later in the case study, when the third personality "Jane'' appeared, all three were subject to an electro-encephalogram (EEG).

Results Eve White ( EW)

• Initially, the therapists report some slight progress in treating EW's symptoms following discussion of some of her emotional problems.

• EW was thought to be suffering from personal frustrations and difficulties with her husband (from whom she was currently separated).

• During the course of a session EW was unable to recall details of a recent trip she had made.

• Hypnosis was induced and her memory was restored. Several days later, a letter from EW was received about this therapy session written for the most part in her own handwriting, with the exception of the final paragraph, which was written in a childish scrawl.

• The letter was the first indication that anything was unusual about EW's case, as she had presented herself as a self-controlled and truthful person.

• At the next session, EW denied sending the letter, but was distressed and agitated and finally asked whether hearing an imaginary voice would indicate she was "insane" .

• Later in this interview EW's entire manner and voice changed and she introduced herself as "Eve Black".

• Her IQ was 110.

Eve Black (EB)

• EB appeared mischievous, light-hearted and playful as she was interviewed.

• She seemed to have existed independently from EW since childhood. She was found to have separate thoughts and feelings from EW, but also had awareness and access to EW's life while she herself was absent.

• Despite this access to EW's thoughts, EB had little sympathy for her. While EW loved and missed her daughter (from whom she was also separated), EB was unconcerned and glib about the suffering of EW.

• Initially, persuading EB to "come out" required hypnosis, but over time this was no longer necessary.

• However, EB was never hypnotisable, and attempts to "call outn both personalities simultaneously were unsuccessful and distressing to EW.

• EW was forbidden from playing in the woods as a child; one day EB took over and broke her parent's strict rule. Upon her return, EW was whipped for her disobedience, much to her con·fusion and dismay. Her parents corroborated this story and also expressed their puzzlement at such out-0fcharacter behaviour in their normally obedient and honest daughter.

• Similar instances occurred in Eve's adulthood. Her husband recalled an incident where he discovered she had spent an enormous sum of money on clothes; he had abused her for being so careless and indulgent. As it was EB who had indulged in the expensive shopping trip, EW was deeply bewildered and apologetic for such an irresponsible lapse in her behaviour.

• EB's other distinctive behaviours included drinking to excess, hooking up with strange men and, allegedly, even committing to a prior secret marriage.

• Her IQ was 104.

Jane

• In a session after the headaches had restarted, EW was discussing a painful childhood memory when suddenly her head dropped back and her eyes closed.

• Two minutes later she looked around the room confusedly and asked where she was.

• Another transformation had taken place, with mannerisms and characteristics highly distinct from either EW or EB. Jane - as she called herself - was more confident, interesting and assertive than timid EW, but without the personality faults of EB.

• She was aware of the behaviour of the other two personalities, but could not access their memories prior to her emergence.

• The EEG conducted several weeks later on all three personalities traced 33 minutes of recording, including intervals of at least 5 minutes of each personality, and some transitions between individuals.

• Tenseness was most pronounced in EB, next in EW, and least of all Jane. Muscle tension was greatest in EB, and the test indicated it was easiest to transpose from EB to EW. EB's results were only borderline normal, with some records showing an association with psycho.pathic personality. Both EW and Jane's records were normal.

Conclusion • Despite the debate over the existence of MPD,

the researchers concluded that they were not tricked by a skilful actress but had observed the existence of three distinct personalities within one individual.

Evaluation Evaluation Related to Thigpen & CleckJey

Strength The researchers focused on just the one person (Eve} and ran many psychological and physical tests on her to assess the three "d[stinct" personalities. A lot of data were collected to help differentiate between the three, making the findings more valid.

Strength It could be argued that the study has some ecological validity as Eve was in therapy and the assessment followed what could happen in a therapeutic setting.

Weakness The researchers only studied one person and she may be a unique case. This would make generalising difficult as she may not represent any other person who claims to have more than one personal ity.

Weakness Some psychologi.sts could argue that Thigpen & Cleckley got attached to Eve as a patient and lost objectivity because they wanted to find differences between the three personalities. This could obviously reduce the validity of the findings as the researchers may have only reported data that confirmed their Ideas.

Thigpen & Cleckley also collected some qualitative data. These can be evaluated as follows:

Evaluation Related to Thigpen & Cleckley

Strength The interviews and psychometric testing were in depth so a lot of detail was recorded. All of it represents what was actually happening to Eve in her three personality states so the researchers were looking at as much data as possible. Therefore, It is not reductionist.

Weakness The researchers may have only reported data that confirmed what they believed as some of the data collected were subjectively analysed (the interview transcripts and what Eve was feeling). They may have also misinterpreted some of what Eve was trying to get across in her interviews.

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Core study 7.3 Billington, Baron-.Cohen & Wheelwright (2007)

Context Psychologists have long been interested in why there are gender differences in the numbers of people studying certain subjects at school, college and university. In subjects such as mathematics and sciences, there has always .been a marked difference in the number of males and females choosing to study them. This research team were interested in "cognitive style" and whether they could explain gender differences (rather than finding males are better than females in these subjects). Two examples of cognitive style are empathisers (people who have the ability to identify another person's mental state and respond using a range of correct emotions) and systemisers (people who have the ability to analyse the rules underlying a system in order to predict a behaviour - systems include machines, weather systems, mathematics, maps, etc.).

Aim To investigate four issues:

1. To see whether there is still a sex difference in the number of people studying the physical sciences and humanities.

2. To see whether males are more likely to be systemisers and females more likely to be empathisers.

3. To see whether physical science students are more likely to be systemisers and humanities students more likely to be empathisers.

4. To see whether cognitive style is a better predictor than sex in explaining enrolment onto physical science courses compared to humanities courses.

Method Design

There were two questionnaires and two performance tasks. All of these were accessible and completed via a secure university website.

• Questionnaire 1: Systemizing quotient-revised scale (SQ-R). It consists of 75 ite·ms. The score range on the questionnaire is 0-150.

• Questionnaire 2: Empathy quotient (EQ). It consists of 40 items. The score range is 0-80.

• From these two questionnaires, participants could be classified as one of five brain types:

o type S (systemiser)

o type E (empathiser)

o type B (balanced)

o extreme type S

o extreme type E.

• The extreme groups were those in the top 2.5 per cent when the difference was calculated between the s .Q-R and EQ scores for each participant.

• Task 1: Embedded figures task (FC-EFT). This task involves seeing a series of 12 pairs of diagrams (see Figure 7 .1 for an example).

A. Figure 7 .1. Embedded figures task (FC-ECT) example diagram

Source: Based on Bill ington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2007

• Participants' task was to choose which of the two more complex diagrams contained the smaller shape within it.

• It was a forced-choice task. so participants had to choose just one of the more complex shapes.

• If participants failed to respond in 50 seconds then the task automatically moved on to the next pair of shapes.

• Every time participants got the answer correct they were awarded 1 point.

• There was an additional bonus point added to participa nts' scores every time they were in the fastest 25 per cent for that pair of shapes.

• Therefore, the range of scores was 0 to 24.

• Task 2: The eyes test. The participant was given four choices of emotions and asked to choose the one that is the closest to the emotion that the eyes are conveying.

apologetic fnendly

uneasy dispirited

A Figure 7 .2 Eyes test

• If the participant failed to respond in 20 seconds then the task automatically moved on to the next pair of eyes.

• There were 36 pairs of eyes to rate and a point was awarded for each correct choice -the same bonus point system was used here as i·n the FC-EFT task.

• Therefore, the range of scores is 0-72.

Participants

• For this study 415 participants were recruited.

• They were either studying for a physical science degree or a humanities degree.

• Physical science subjects included mathematics, phys.ics, engineering and astronomy.

• Humanities subjects included classics, law, theology and history.

• The average age of the participants was 21 years (standard deviation of 2.51 years).

• Of the participants, 87. 7 per cent were righthanded, 10.6 per cent were left-handed and 1. 7 per cent were ambidextrous.

• They were recruited through e-ma ii and advertisements across the university offering the incentive of a prize draw.

Sex Degree N % of tota.1 N

Female Physical 108 26 Humanities 104 25.1 Total 212 51.1

Male Physical 160 38.6 Humanities 43 10.4 Total 203 48.9

Total Physical 268 64.6 Humanitjes 147 35.4 Total 415 100

.A Table 7.1 Percentage of participants studying each degree category. by sex

Procedure

• Those who volunteered to take part in the study could visit the secure university website and complete the questionnaires and tasks in any order.

• They did not have to complete both questionnaires and tasks in the same sitting but they could only attempt each task and complete each questionnaire once.

Results Overall, there was a significant sex difference in degree choice with 59.1 per cent of physical science students being male and 70.1 per cent of humanities students being female.

Female Female Male Male physical humanities physical humanities

• science • science

SQ~R 61.23 51.54 65.46 58.65 (20.60) (19.18) (18.17) (21.17)

EQ 43.48 46.82 35.59 40.56 (12.56) (12.07) (10.39) (10.33)

.A. Table 7.2 The two questionnaires - mean and standard deviation scores for each gender split by degree choice. Standard deviations are in parentheses

Female Female Male Male physical humanities physical humanities

• sc1ence • sc.1ence

FC- 15.05 14.07 15.03 14.14 EFT (3.05) (2.40) (3.14) (2.63)

Eyes 32.86 46.82 31.83 33.79 test (6.65) (12.07) (7.23) {8.00)

.A. Table 7 .3 The two tasks - mean and standard deviation scores for each sex split by degree choice. Standard deviations are in parentheses

• There was a significant relationship between sex and cognitive style: 66 per cent of males were categorised as type S or extreme type S (only 28.8 per cent of females); 36.8 per cent of females were categorised as type E or extreme type E (only 10.3 per cent of males).

• Females performed significantly better than males on the eyes test.

• There was no significant sex difference in the FC-EFT.

• Of the physical science students, 56.3 per cent of them had a type S or extreme type S profile (only 29.4 per cent of humanities students). Of the humanities students, 41.5 per cent had type E or extreme type E profiles (only 14.2 per cent of physical science students)

• Physical science students performed significantly better on the FC-EFT compared to humanities students.

• Overall , males tended to be classified as systemisers whereas females tended to be classified as empathisers.

• Overal l, physical science students tended to be classified as systemisers whereas females tended to be classified as empathisers.

• All of the main predictors could predict degree choice but there was a rank order:

1 . Brain type was the strongest predictor (type E, type S, etc.}

2. Performance on the FC-EFT task was the second predictor.

3. Performance on the eyes test was the next predictor.

4. Sex was the weakest predictor (but it still was significant).

Conclusion • It would appear that the "sex difference" in

degree choice between physical sciences and humanities is less of an actual sex difference but more of a cognitive style difference .

• Students with certain brain types (systemisers and empathisers) tend to pick thejr degrees differently - systemisers pick physical science subjects in the main while empathisers pick humanities subjects in the main .

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7 Tl1e psychology of individual differences


Strength

Strength

Weakness

Weakness

Related to BiJlington, Barol'H:ohen & Wheelwright

Participants completed the questionnaires by themselves {they did not have to answer questions in front of anyone) so they were more likely to give truthful answers.

A total of 415 partic ipants took part in the study over a short period of time giving a wide spread of results that could be applied to students of physical science and humanities subjects.

As they completed the questionnaires by themselves, some partic ipants may have chosen answers that made them "look good'" rather than how they truly process information (e.g. as a systemiser).

There may have been some questions that participants had to choose an ans...ver for that was not how they truly process information but was the closest ans...ver to how they do it - therefore, it may not be a completely true representation of their cognitive style.

Volunteer or self-selecting sampling can be evaluated as follows:

Evaluation

Strength

Strength

Weakness

Related to Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright

A total of 415 participants came forward to participate (a researcher simply advertised) and they could complete the study when it was convenient for them (so they were more likely to complete it).

No drop-out rate figures were given so we can assume that most participants completed all four tasks.

Only motivated students of physical science and humanities subjects would have come forward to participate, so it might be difficult to generalise to those who are less motivated to take part in a study but are completing similar degree programmes. We cannot be certain that those who chose not to participate followed the same general patterns for systemisers and empathisers.


• Usefulness: the researchers used psychometric tasks in the study which meant comparisons can be useful as people's results are being compared on the same, standardised scale.

• Reliability: the study can be easily replicated using the same standardised psychometric tests (FC-EFT and the eyes test) to test for reliability with a different sample.

£ Figure 7 .3 What makes students choose the subjects they do for their university degrees?

Core study 7 .4 Riley conducted this study as only theoretical ideas had been debated (e.g. the cognitive behavioural model suggests that niirror gazing in BOD helps to increase self-consciousness and selective attention hence maintaining the BOD condition in patients -they can constantly see what they do not like).

Veale & Riley (2001)

Context This study was conducted as a result of a body dysmorphlc disorder (BOD) patient that one of the authors had come into contact with . The patient had told one of the researchers that he had just spent six hours staring at himself in a series of mirrors.

Aim To investigate the function, frequency and role of mirror gazing in BOD patients .

BOD is an anxiety disorder that is related to body image. BOD patients will experience concern about their appearance that can be quite disruptive to daily routines. There may be excessive use of mirrors or picking at the skin which helps the person deal with the worries about his or her appearance. Statistics suggest that around 80 per cent of BOD patients engage in mirror-gazing behaviours (the remainder are usually the complete opposite - they remove mirrors from the house or avoid them). This is why Veale &

Method Design • A questionnaire was designed to gather

information on the function, frequency and rote of mirror gazing in the lives of BOD patients and non-BOD individuals.

• The questionnaire consisted of the sections given in Table 7 .4.

Section

Length of time mirror gazing

Motivation before look1ng in a mirror

Focus of attention

Distress before and after looking Into the mirror

Behaviour in front of the mirror

Type of I ight preferred

Type of reflective surface

Type of questions

Participants were asked the average duration of " long" sessions in minutes (during the last or previous month). They had to estimate the maximum amount of time on one occasion that they had spent in front of a mirror in hours and minutes. They were asked the average duration of frequency of "short" sessions during the last or previous month in minutes.

This was a 12-item section where participants had to rate how much they agreed with each statement (strongly agree, agree, neither disagree or agree, disagree and strongly disagree). Example statements were: " I have to make myself look my best", " I need to see what I like about myself" and "r have to know what I look like and I can't until I look in the mirror·· . They answered the items for a ulong" session then repeated it for a ''short" session. At the end they could note anything else that motivated them to mirror gaze.

Participants were asked to rate their concentration levels on the mirror during both " long" and "short" sessions. The scale was from + 4 to - 4 with +4 representing "I am entirely focused on an impression or feeling that I get about myself" and - 4 representing "I am entirely focused on my reflection in the mirror".

Participants had to rate the level of distress they felt before and after a "long" and ~short" session. The scale was 1- 10 where 1 represented "not at all distressed" and 10 represented "extre111ely distressed". For both the "long" and ushort" sessions, they had to rate three times:

(a) before looking in the mirror

(b) immediately after looking in the mirror

(c) after resisting the urge to look in a mirror (this was not taken for ''short" sessions in error).

For botl1 " long" and ''short" sessions, .participants had to estimate the percentage of time they engaged in a range of nine behaviours whlle mirror gazing. Participants had to ensure that the total reached 100. The nine behaviours were:

1. Trying to hide my defects or enhance my appearance by the use of make-up

2. Combing or styling my hair

3. Trying to make my skin smooth by picking and squeezing spots

4. Plucking or removing hair or shaving

5. Comparing what I see in the mirror with an image that I have in my mind

6. Trying to see something different in the mirror

7. Feeling the skin with my fingers

8. Practising the best position to pull or show in public

9. Measuring parts of my face.

They could then list other behaviours not listed above.

They were asked whether type of light was important for mirror gazing on a vfsual analogue scale from wnatural daylight" to uartificial light".

They were asked ff they used a series of mirrors or any other reflective surface for gazing (e.g. the backs of CDs).

Mirror avoidance They were asked if they avoided any types of mirror or sttuatf ons involving mirrors .

.A. Table 7.4 Sections on the Veale & Riley questionnaire

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54

7 Tile psycllology of individual differences

• A " long" session was defined as " ... the longest time during the day that the person spends in front of the mirror" (Veale & Riley, 2001: 1383).

Participants

• Participants were 52 patients diagnosed with BOD - they fu lfilled the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for BOD.

• A group of 55 control participants (non-BDD) were recruited from personal contacts of the authors.

• The groups were matched on age and sex.

Procedure

• All participants were asked to complete the selfreport mirror-gazing quest ionnaire.

• They were told that the questions were about behaviours from the last or previous month.

• They were also asked , prior to completion, whether they had engaged in a "long" session in front of the mirror in most days within the last or previous month.

• If they had then they completed the questionnaire based on "longn sessions. After completing the questionnaire they repeated the same process but for "shortn sessions (e.g. quick glances).

Results • 44/52 BOD patients (84.6 per cent) and 16/54

controls (29.6 per cent) re ported having a "long" session in the last or previous month.

• For "short" sessions, 45/52 (86.5 per cent) of BOD patients and 43/ 55 (79.6 per cent) reported having one or more in the last or previous month.

BOD mean Controls mean (SD) (SD)

Age 30.1 (8.6) 33.4 (8.9)

Sex {% male) 40.4% 48%

Mean duration of long 72.5 (94.8) 21.3 {19.6)

session (minutes)

Maximum duration of longest session 173.8 (205.3) 35.5 (29.3) (minutes}

Mean number of short 14.6 (13.6} 3.9 (3.4) • sessions

Mean duration of short 4.8 (5.4) 5.5 (12.8} sessions (minutes)

Type of light preferred (natural daylight or

38.5 (32.4) 41.6 (27.0) artificial} on visual analogue scale

External or internal focus of attention

- 0.49 (2.9) - 2.2 (1.9) (- 4 to + 4) tor long • session

External or internal focus of attention

- 1.12 (2.7) - 1.15 (2.1) (- 4 to + 4 ) for short session

Attention on the whole or specific parts of appearance {0-100 70.5 {24.3) 44.5 (34.02) on visual analogue scale} in long session

Distress before long 6.44 (2.3) 1 .6 {0.83)

session (1- 10}

Distress after long 7.63 (2.2) 2.40 (2.3)

session (1-10)

Distress resisting gaze for long session 6.82 (2.6 ) 2.38 {2 .5) (1- 10)

.& Table 7 .5 Characteristics of BOD patients and non-BOD

patients (the controls)

Section

Length of time mirror gazing

Motivation before looking in a mirror

Focus of attention

Distress before and after looking into the mirror

Behaviour in front of the mirror

Key results

The mean duration t ime for a long session for BOD patients was. 72.5 minutes but only 21.3 for the controls. The duration of a short session was 4.8 minutes for the BOD group and 5.5 for the controls (not a significant difference).

BOD patients were more likely to at least agree with all 12 items. Controls were much more likely to be interested in being presentable. BOD patients were more likely to use the mirror if they felt depressed.

Only for a " long" session did BOD patients, compared to controls, focus on internal impressions and feelings rather than the external reflection they were gazing at. BOD patients were more likely to focus on j ust one part of their face rather than the whole face compared to controls.

For both types of session, BOD patients rated themselves s ignificantly more distressed than controls. For u long" sessions, BOD patients continued to be more distressed compared to controls after mirror gazing. They also reported more distress if they resisted gazing compared to controls.

BOD patients and contro ls estimated the same proportion of time engaging in using make-up, combing/styling hair, picking spots and feeling skin. BOD patients were more likely to compare what they saw with an image in their mind about how they should ideally look and trying to see something different in the mirror. These were for " long" sessions.

For "short" sessions BOD patients were more likely to use the mirror for checking make-up, practising the best position to show in public and comparing what they saw with an image In their mind about how they should ideally look .

BOD patients listed many other behaviours they engaged in (e.g. washing rituals, combing eyebrows and squashing features to see how things would look If they had plastic surgery).

Type of light preferred

Type of reflective surface

Mirror avoidance

There were no significant differences.

For " long" sessions, BOD patients were more likely to use a series of mirrors (52.4% of patients) compared to controls (6.7%). For ushort" sessions, both groups used shop windows to gaze. However, BDD patients reported a wide variety of surfaces they would use including cutlery, vehicles, TV screens, car mirrors and taps.

Two-thirds of BOD patients and 14% of the control group reported avoiding certain mirrors. There were four types of selective avoidance of mirrors noted by BOD patients:

1. To avoid looking at a specific "defect" (e.g. if the nose was seen as a defect they would avoid mirrors where it could be seen, choosing smaller hand-held mirrors to hold above the nose).

2. To avoid mirrors labelled as "bad" or "unsafe" as they had been assoc~ated with a specific bad image.

3. Only using private mirrors; avoiding those in public as they could be too upsetting.

4. A "flip" between avoidance and gazing -patients may gaze and plck skin and keep gazing until the skin heals. Then they would avoid mirrors and not pick skin again until they felt the urge .

..A. Table 7.6 Results per section of the Veale & Riley

questionnaire

Conclusion The researchers concluded: "BOD patients hold a number of problematic beliefs and behaviours in their mirror use compared to controls . Mirror gazing in BOD does not follow a simple model of ... compulsive checking ... (and) is best conceptualised as a series of idiosyncratic and complex safety behaviours, that is designed to prevent a feared outcome .. . (Veale & Riley, 2001: 1389).

Evaluation A wealth of quantitative data were collected which ena.bled the researchers to easily compare scores within and across the two groups.

Evaluation Related to Veale & Riley

Strength BDD patients were probably more likely to admit to aJI of their mirror-gazing activities as they did not have to reveal them to a person face to face. This should increase the validity of the find ings.

Weakness As mirror gazing is core to BDD, some or all of the patients may have given answers that made the psychologists judge them in a "better light". They may not have revealed all of their mirror-gazing behaviours to give the impression that their behaviours were not strange or different.

There is also an ethical issue to consider:

• The guideline concerning protection is relevant to this study. Some psychologists could argue that making BOD patients reflect on what they do, by keeping a tog to use when completing questionnaires, makes their condition worse as they are now answering a lot of questions about it BOD patients might engage in mirror gazing more often as a result of the study. It could be argued that the BOD patients were not truly protected in this study (e.g. writing about the mirror gazing and that they do it because of depression could make the depression worse).

.A Figure 7.4 What role does mirror gazing play in BOD?

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56

Exam centre for AS level The questions, example answers, marks awarded and/or comments that appear in this book were written by the author. Jn examination, the way marks would be awarded to answers like these may be different

This section will cover the different sty/es of questions that are likely to be asked in core studies 1 and 2.

There will be some example answers with marks attached to them alongside author's brief comments.

Core studies 1 Section A

Q: In the Held & Hein study, name two of the tests the kittens had to perform after being in the kitten carousel. (2 marks)

A: The kittens performed more than two tests but two of them were avoiding the visual cliff and eating behaviour.

Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 1 mark for "avoiding the visual cliff". The other behaviour is incorrect. As the question asked the student to "name" that is all you have to do, so "the kittens performed more than two tests but two of them are .. .'' is not necessary. You can simply name two tests. Therefore just stating "avoiding the visual cliff and guided paw placement" would be likely to receive 2 marks.

Q: In the Veale & Riley study, who were the two groups of participants and what were they matched on? (2 marks)

A: There was a group of people diagnosed with body dysmorphic disorder (BOD) and a control group without BOD. They were matched on age and sex.

Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 2 marks as the student has answered both parts of the question correctly.

Q: Outline how Tajfel spltt the boys Into different groups for either of his studies. (2 marks)

A: He split them into an in group and an out group and because all of the boys knew each other this was not easy. They completed books of matrices to see who liked who and whether the boys would discrin1inate against the out group.

Comment: This answer would be likely to receive O marks as it does not answer the question set. The answer needed to cover the boys being rando111ly assigned to either the underestimators or the overestimators groups after they had conducted the dot cluster visual judgment task as an example from study 1.

Q: Outline one result from the Loftus & Pickrell study. (2 marks)

A: The mean clarity rating for false events at the first interview was 2.8/ 10.

Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 1 mark. The student has given the correct mean value but has not compared it to either the mean clarity rating for the true event or the mean clarity rating for false events at second interview. In these types of question make sure you make a comparison to be likely to gain the second mark.

Q: Outline two controls that Langlois et al used in their study. (4 marks)

A: The slides that were used in study 1 were matched between the attractive and unattractive groups in terms of hair colour, hair length and the facial expressions used. Also, all of the slides had been rated for attractiveness beforehand and only the top ones were chosen.

Comment: This 4-mark question is normally marked 2 + 2. The first control is very clear and explains what was controlled across the two conditions so would be likely to receive 2 marks. The second control is not as clear as the student does outline one other control but the outline is brief and we do not know what the control was (e.g. it is not stated that they used roughly the top eight most attractive faces for males and females from the original pool of faces). Therefore. this section would be unlikely to receive more than 1 mark. Overall it is expected that the answer would gain 3 niarks.

Q: Outline two differences between Eve White and Eve Black in the Thigpen & Cleckley study. (4 marks)

A: Both underwent IQ tests and Eve White had a score of 110 while Eve Black had a score of 104. It would appear that Eve Black would drink to excess a lot which is something that was never seen in Eve White.

Comment: This 4-mark question is normally marked 2 + 2. The first comparison, based on IQ, would be likely to score 2 marks as It correctly distinguishes between the two personalities. The second comparison would also be likely to score 2 marks as it directly compar-es the two personalities. If the student had not stated "never seen in Eve White" the answer have been likely to receive 1 mark. Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to receive 4 marks.

Q: Outline the sampling technique used by Milgram in his study and outline one weakness of this technique in relation to his study. (4 marks)

k Volunteer sampling. He placed an advert in a newspaper and people matching the criteria applied to be a participant. The weakness is that it may not be representative of the target population so lacks generalisability.

Comment: This 4·mark question is normally marked 2 + 2. The student would be likely to gain 1 mark for naming volunteer sampling and a second mark for outlining it. The weakness is correct but It can probably only score 1 mark as the student has not directly answered the question which states "in relation to his study''. Therefore, overal l this answer would be expected to receive 3 marks.

Section B

Q: Evaluate one of the studies below in terms of strengths and weaknesses.

Bandura , Ross & Ross

Tajfel

Loftus & Pickrell. (10 marks)

A1: Bandura , Ross & Ross made children watch a model either play with a bobo doll and be aggressive or they watched a model simply playing with other toys. Some of the children saw a sam&sex model while others witnessed an opposite·sex model. After they had watched the model play, they were sent Into another room that had some really nice toys in it. Just as they were about to play with the toys, an experimenter came in and told them that those toys were not for them and stopped them from playing. This was used to make the children feel mild aggression. The chi ldren were then placed in another room where there was a one·way mirror and they did not know that they were being watched. In the room there were a variety of toys including a bobo dol l. The children were watched by more than one observer and it was noted what behaviours, both physical and verbal, they displayed. The observers did not know which condition the child was in. As the children did not know they were being watched, more natural behaviour would be shown. However, making a chi ld aggressive is not ethica l.

Comment: This student has misread the question or has not understood what "evaluate" means. For evaluation we are looking for strengths (what was good about the study) and weaknesses (what things were not so good about the study) in terms of methodology, sampling, ethics, etc. In this answer the procedure of the Bandura, Ross & Ross study is described quite well. The last two sentences begin to hint at some evaluation such as more natural behaviour being shown and that aspects of the study might have been unethical. However, these comments are very brief and this answer therefore probably be placed in the 1- 3 mark band on a mark scheme paced - it would be expected to receive 2 marks.

A2: One strength of the Bandura, Ross & Ross study is that there were many c.ontrols put in place. For example, the order of events when the child was watching the model, how the children were all made mildly aggressive and the amount of time they were observed for in the final room with the bobo doll were the same for all participants. This makes the study replicable so we can test it for reliability using a different sample. Also,

as the children were matched on aggressive levels before the study, it rules out predisposed lev~ls of aggression affecting the children~s

behaviour. Therefore, the researchers could have more confidence with the cause and effect in the study - the behaviour and sex of the model caused the imitated aggression in the children. One weakness is the ecological validity of the study. The chi ldren were in an environment that they were not used to and playing with toys they may never have seen before. The environment of sitting and watching a model in a room and then being placed in a room alone to play is not a setting children are familiar with. We do not know if the children would act the same in a "real-life" environment and be just as aggressive so the study has low levels of ecological validity. Finally, ethics can be criticised here. Participants should leave the study in the same psychological and/ or physical state that they entered. The children clearly showed aggressive behaviour that they had not shown at the beginning of the study so this guideline was broken. Also, the children may have found the whole study psychologically stressful as they were witnessing aggression and ideally this should not happen in a study.

Comment: This student has answered the question directly throughout. Two strengths and two weaknesses have been covered and each point is directly linked to Bandura, Ross & Ross. Therefore, this answer is likely to be placed in the 8- 10 band on a mark scheme. Given the quality of answer it would be expected to receive 10 marks.

Q: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of case studies as a research method using one of the studies listed below:

Freud (Little Hans)

Thigpen & Cleckley. (10 marks)

A; I have chosen Freud for this answer. A weakness of this study is that it was done on just one boy. This makes it difficult to generalise to other people as Little Hans ' experiences may have been unique and he may have been unique meaning other boys may be fearful of horses for different reasons. In fact Freud did ignore that Little Hans had seen a horse die and this could be why he was fearful. Little Hans' parents were big fans of Freud and they were the ones who gave Freud the information so it could have been biased - they may have only reported things Little Hans said that supported what Freud believed in . Also, Freud's interpretation of Little Han's dreams and fears was very subjective as it was only his opinion. It was never checked with anyone else.

Comment: Th is answer covers only weaknesses and all are correct but the question asked for strengths too. As the answer is one-sided it is likely to be placed in the 4-5 band on the mark scheme. Given how many weaknesses have been correctly covered this answer would be expected to receive 5 marks.

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58

The questions, example answers, marks awarded and/ or comments that appear in this book were written by the author. In examination, the way marks would be awarded to answers like these may be different.

Core studies 2 Section A

Q: Describe the case study as a research method. (5 marks)

A: This usually involves one person.I or a family unit. It uses other methods to collect data such as questionnaires and interviews . .I A lot of qualitative data.I can be collected. Little Hans is an example.I of a case study. Case studies are not generalisable as they simply focus on one individual.

Comment: As you can see this answer would normally receive 4 marks. One mark is expected to be awarded per correct aspect of a case study until the maximum is reached. Usually in this style of question. 1 mark should be awarded for an example of a study that has used the method from the 20 you have studied for AS level.

Q: Describe the field experiment as a research method and outline how it was used in the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study. (5 marks)

A: A field experiment takes place in the natural environment of the pa rticipant . .I An IV is manipulated and a DV is measured . .l In the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study the setting was natural to the participants and the DV was the t ime taken for people to help the model. .I

Comment: In these types of question, you can normally achieve a maximum of 3 marks for a general description of a method (in this case a field experiment) and then a maximum of 3 marks for the linking of it to the named study (in this case Piliavin. Rodin & Piliavin). Therefore, this answer woufd have normally received 2 marks for the general description and 1 mark for the specific example linked to Pillavin. Rodin & Piliavin. The "setting was natural to the participants" would not normally have received a mark as the student did not state what the natural setting was. If the natural settlng had been identified then it is likely that 1 mark would have been gained . Overall, this response would be expected to receive 3 marks.

Qa: Design an alternative study to the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavln study using a questionnaire as the research method and describe how it could be conducted . (10 marks)

A: I would advertise for my participants in my college asking for people to take part in a questionnaire study on "accidents and perception". I would want to recruit about 30 people with half males and half females [who]. When they turn up for the study in my classroom [where], the questionnaire will ha,ve the instructions on it to tell them what to do. The questionnaire would have a scenario on it about how a person is walking down the street and falls

over and needs helping (I would have one who is young and drunk and one who is old and frail [how]). One group would have the description based around the participant being alone and the other group would have it describing a crowded place. I would ask them a series of questions, e.g. "How quickly would you help that person? " and "On a scale of 1-5 how likely are you help this person (where 1 is 'Not at all likely' and 5 is 'Extremely likely'}?" [what] and then get them to justify their answers.

Comment: This answer covers the main areas of design: the "who'' (volunteer sampling and number of participants), the "where '' (a classroom), the "how" (a questionnaire with a scenario on it that is described here) and the "what" (the measuring of response time and reasons for helping or not helping. The only omission (and it is minor) is the "when" - e.g. are participants given a t ime limit to answer all questions? Tiierefore, the answer is likely to fall into the 7-8 mark band a.s it describes an alternative study that could be replicated but there is a minor omission. This answer would be expected to receive 8 marks.

Qb: Evaluate this alternative way of studying bystander behaviour in methodological and ethical terms. (10 marks)

A: It will be easy just to photocopy 30 questionnaires compared to setting up an actual scene like in the original Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study. However, people may lie in the questionnaire to make themselves look good - plus what they say in a questionnaire may not be how they would react in an actual situation so it does lack some validity. Also, the questions I have asked could be seen as leading as the questionnaire asks them how quickly they would help rather than initially asking them whether they would help or not - people may be led to answer that they would help when maybe they would not. Ethics are fine as I will debrief them.

Comment: There are quite a few brief practtcal evaluation points here that are all linked to the study designed in Qa . However, there is no debate about ethics so this answer would be unlikely to achieve more than 7 marks according to the mark scheme; it would be likely to fall into the 5-6 mark band as It covers practical issues briefly throughout and does not cover ethics. Overall , this answer would be expected to receive 6 marks.

Q: Outline what is meant by "qualitative data" . (2 marks)

A: Qualitative are data that are not numerical so you cannot calculate things like the mean response. It is t he opposite of quantitative which are numerical data.

Comment: Th is answer shows a common n1istake. The question asks about qualitative data and the student has not explained what it is, only what it is not. Therefore, this answer would be expected to receive 0 marks.

Q: Outline what is meant by "quantitative data". (2 marks)

A: Quantitative data is numerical data that Is collected. You can perform statistics on it like working out the mean. An example of this type of data is the fixation time that the babies looked at faces In the Langlois et al study.

Comment: Three good points that are all creditworthy are made: referring to numerical, statistics then giving an example. This answer is likely to receive 2 marks.

Q: Describe how the Loftus & Pickrell study is an example of the cognitive approach. (3 marks)

A1.: It is cognitive as it looks into memory and forgetting.

Comment: This answer would only be likely to receive 1 mark as memory and forgetting are core areas of the cognitive approach.

A2: It is cognitive as it examines the role of false memories in people's lives. Cognitive psychologists look at how we input information, then how we process it and then finally how we retrieve it. In the Loftus & Pickrell study the researchers looked at how a false memory can be "inputted" into a person via the individual reading the account of a relative. The processing was then the participants processing the information into their memory and believing it could be true. The final part was to see whether the person could retrieve the false memory and believe it had actually happened.

Comment: This is a thorough response that tells the examiner what a cognitive psychologist would be interested in and then links each section to the Loftus & Pickrell study. It would be likely to receive 3 marks.

There are 10-mark questions in this section of core studies 2 and some will resemble the ones already covered for core studies 1 (see page 57 ). There are other types of question that could be asked.

Q: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the physiological approach using Dement and Kleitman as an example. (10 marks)

A: One strength of the approach is that it is very scientific and uses laboratory experiments and methods such as brain scanning that are objective. This was seen in the Dement & Kleitman study as the participants had EEG readings which objectively showed braln activity during the different stages of sleep. However, as many studies are conducted in the laboratory, findings may lack ecological validity as people are in situations that they would not find themselves in on a daily basis and physlological mechanisms may not be the same - e.g. in the Dement & Kleitrnan study as the people were sleeping in a controlled environment with wires attached to them and they may have dreamt differently as a result.

Comment: One very good strength and one very good weakness are covered here. The student has been able to outline a general strength of the physiological approach and then relate it directly to Dement & Kleitman. The student repeats this for the weakness. However, and this happens quite often, the question is asking for strengths and weaknesses so we have to have two of each to get towards the top end of the marking range. This answer is likely to fall into the 5-6 mark band . As it covers "at least one strength and one weakness " and because it ls a very good answer in terms of quality it would be expected to receive 6 n1arks.

Section B

Q: Using the studies listed below, answer the question that follows:

Dematte, dsterbauer & Spence

Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith

Dement & Kleitman.

Describe how data were collected in each of these studies. (9 marks)

A: In the Dement & Kleitman study the participants were attached to an EEG monitor to collect data about their brain waves. They were also woken up at various times during the night and asked about what they were dreaming. This was via a doorbell sound and once the participants had woken up they had to say if they had been dreaming or not and, if so, describe the dream. The EEG continually monitored their brain wave activity throughout the night.

In the Dematte, 6sterbauer & Spence study, the participants had different odours presented to them when a face appeared on a screen and they had to rate them on how attractive they were.

In the Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith study they used a. PET scan to see what was happening to the taxi drivers.

Comment: Each of the three studies are normally marked separately out of 3 marks. For the Dement & Kleitman study, this answer would be likely to receive 3 niarks as It clearly describes well how the data were collected using EEG and then the doorbell-recollection method. For the Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence study, this answer could receive 2 111arks: the student has some idea about how the data were collected using odours and then how participants rated the faces but more detail is needed to gain 3 marks. For the Maguire, Frackowiak & Frith study, this answer is likely to receive 1 mark. The student has mentioned the correct brain scan used (PET) but have not then told us how it was used to collect data. Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to receive 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 marks.

Q: Using the studies listed below, answer the question that follows :

Milgram

Haney, Zimbardo & Banks

Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin.

Describe how the sample was recruited in each of these studies. (9 marks) 59

60

A: Milgram advertised for participants in a local paper asking people to apply to take part in a study on memory. It asked for people from different occupations (factory workers, clerks, etc.) and that they must be aged 20-50 and male. Applicants would earn $4.50 if they were chosen.

In the Haney, Zimbardo & Banks study participants also volunteered to take part in the study after reading an advertisement. All of those who responded to the advertisement were given an extensive questionnaire asking them about family background and mental and physical health. Those who were judged to be the m.ost mentally stable of all applicants were then invited to take part.

In the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study, the participants were recruited via opportunity sampling. Anyone who happened to be in the carriage at the time that the researchers ran a trial were effectively participants in the study.

Comment: Each of the three studies is norn1ally marked separately out of 3 marks. For the Milgram study, this answer is likely to receive 3 marks as a clear outline of how the participants were recruited is given. The answer Is also likely to receive 3 marks for the Haney, Zimbardo & Banks section as it too clearly outlines how the participants were recruited. The Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin response lacks some detail about the location so it is likely only to gain 2 marks. Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to receive 3 + 3 + 2 = 8 marks.

Q: What problems may psychologists face when conducting research using a field experiment? (9 marks)

A: One problem is ethics. It may be difficult to gain informed consent if the participants do not know they are taking part in a study. For example, in the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study the participants did not realise they were in a study so no informed consent could be taken. Another problem is in debriefing. Again, if the participants do not realise that they have been in a study or leave the location of the study before it ends, they can never be debriefed - in the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study, a participant may have left the carriage very quickly at the next stop so could not be debriefed. Another problem is causing psychological stress. If the participants do not know they are in a study then they could be put under unnecessary psychological stress. For example, in the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study the people may have been stressed at watching someone collapse near to them. One final problem is that is can be difficult to control situational variables.

Comment: Every different problem is normally marked separately out of 3 marks. The first problem noted here is ethics. The student gains credit for outlining what a problem could be and then linking it to a named study, in this case Piliavin, Rodin & Pi liavin. However, ethics as a problem can only be credited once so even though the student has written about consent, debriefing and stress, all of them come under the problem of "ethics" . Therefore, this section is like ly to receive 3 marks. The answer mentions one more relevant problem in lack of controls which is not explained or backed up with an example from a study, so this is likely to re'Ceive 1 mark. Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to receive 3 + 1 + 0 = 4 marks.

Q: What are the advantages of using longitudinal studies in psychological research? (9 marks)

A: Longitudinal studies allow a researcher to analyse how behaviour develops over time, for example throughout childhood and into adolescence. Therefore researchers are more likely to make valid conclusions as they have tracked: the same people over that time and analysed any c.hanges that have happened. Another advantage is that, as you are tracking the same people, individual differences are controlled for and this makes findings more valid as it rules out certain participant variables affecting any dependent variable or outcome. Also, many longitudinal studies collect qualitative data so it means that there is indepth data to help draw more valid conclusions. For example, in the Little Hans study Freud collected a lot of data from Little Hans' parents which covered aspects such as his behaviours, dreams and fears that could allow Freud to analyse Little Hans in depth and understand why he feared horses.

Comment: Every different advantage is normally marked separately out of 3 marks. The first advantage is about being able to track development over time. This is quite well expressed but no study is used to back it up so it is likely to gain 2 marks. The same Mrule" applies to the advantage of controlling certain participant variables -the advantage is described well but no study is referred to, so this section is likely to receive 2 marks. The advantage of collecting qualitative data is also outlined well but this time the answer does refer to a study effectively so this section is likely to receive 3 marks. Therefore, overall this answer would be expected to receive 2 + 2 + 3 = 7 marks.

Psychology and education 8.1 Perspectives on

learning Behaviourist applications to learning The behaviourist perspective was covered i11 AS level (see also page vi). Remember that it is about observing the observable and how we learn things through our environment and the organisms within it.

Classical conditioning

• This follows the idea of lear11ing through association.

• Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell without any food being present.

• He l1ad conditioned that behaviour into the dogs.

• Pre-conditioning requires associations to already be "in place" that can then be used to help to condition the organism.

• A pre-programrTied biological relationship has to already be in existence. For example, food naturally produces the response of produci11g saliva in many animals.

• The food is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation is called the unconditioned response (UCR).

• A neutral stimulus (NS) must be chosen that does not elicit any biological response and this can be used to co11dition a new behaviour in the organism.

• The conditioning process requires the UCS and the NS to be presented at the same time so that the organism can associate the two things.

• The UCR will still happen as the UCS is still present.

• Post--conditioning is when the NS can be presented on its own and it produces a response similar to the UCR.

• The NS has now turned Into a conditioned sti1Tiulus (CS) and the UCR has turned into a conditioned response (CR).

• The organism has now been classically conditioned. The process is show11 in Figure 8.1.1.

Higher-order conditioning

• This is more relevant to the processes of learning in education.

• This is when there is an established CS-CR link but a new NS is presented every time the CS is presented.

Stage 1: Pre-conditioning .-------------------- ,-------------------~ I I I t

: Food : 1 Salivation : '----------'~ I

: (UCS) : I (UCR) : I I I •-------------------- •--------------------

.-- --- -- -- - --- --- -- -- ,- --- -- ·---- - ---- ·- --- -I I I I

: Bell : • : (NS) ..... : -----~ No response :

I I I :

•-------------------- •--------------------

Stage 2: Conditioning :-- -~ - -----~------ --, :---- - ---------- ----. : Food and bell • SaJivat!on : : (UCS + NS) '------....:: (UCR) : :--- - --------~-----~~ t ___________________ J

Stage 3: Post-conditioning .-- ----- ------------- .- ----- -------- ------• I I t

11

Bell 1 Salivation : '---------,~ I

: (CS) : {CR) : I i I I •-------------------· •--------------------.A Figme 8.1.1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov's experiment)

• Again, after several associations, the new NS also becomes a CS (given tl1e code CS2 as it is a new CS - a second one).

• This then produces a CR.

Operant conditioning

• This fol lows the idea of learning through consequences.

• It is based around the idea of reinforcement and punishment. Table 8 .1 .1 shows the four mechanisms that can be used to l1elp an organism learn a behaviour, using an example linked to education.

Positive Negative

Reinforcement A child shows A child has not been friendly behaviour behaving very -wet I in the classroom In class and keeps so the child is getting detentions. awarded a gold However. the child star and a sweet. begins to behave well The child is more and so the detention ls likely to show removed. The child is that behaviour more likely to behave again well in the future

Punishment A chi ld is not A child is not behaving very behaving very nicely nicely to another to another child. As child. The child is a result. the child's given a detention "golden time" (extra which means he playtime) is removed or she arrives and the child has to home late. The sit in the classroom child is less likely alone. The child is to repeat the less likely to repeat behaviour the behaviour

.& Table 8.1.1 61

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Applications (based on the behaviourist perspective) Programmed learning

• This type of learning is based around reinforcement.

• The whole technique is based around "steps to learning".

• The student is given a questjon and asked to respond. Two things can happen:

o The student is correct. If this is the case then praise, reward or appropriate feedback is given and the student moves on to the next question. The positive reinforcement mot ivates the student to continue to the next question.

o The student is incorrect. If this ls the case the Individual may be given additional information or questions that essentially guide him or her towards the correct answer. This is designed so that the student begins to understand why the response was incorrect.

• Some psychologists (e.g. Lefran9ois) have stated that this type of learning does not apply to modern educational practices but some of the principles such as reinforcement and reward do.

Behaviour modification techniques

• These techniques also follow the idea of operant conditioning.

• They are techniques based around the idea of reinforcement and punishment that shape the student's behaviour in order to improve it.

• By shaping we change the behaviour of a student to be more desirable by only rewarding aspects of behaviour we want repeated and ignoring or punishing those behaviours we do not want to see.

• Specific Ideas include the following:

o Sticker charts can be used. When first starting school, children can be rewarded with a sticker each and every tirne they display good behaviour (e.g. cooperating, being friendly). When children have reached a certain set number of stickers on the chart they are rewarded with something that they like (e.g. more playtime, a sweet).

o The naughty corner or step can be used to try to get rid of undesirable behaviour. For example, if children are disruptJve or aggressive they can be given a set amount of time in an area designated for "naughty children" (in the corner of a room or on a special chair).

o Tokens can be awarded. This follows a similar pattern to the use of sticker charts. Students gain tokens (e.g. a plastic chip) for different desirable behaviours. When they have collected enough they can exchange them

for a privilege (e.g. extra playtime, going to use the library). Each privilege has a different "value " .

Humanistic applications to learning • The basics of humanism centre on the

uniqueness of every individual.

• A core idea of humanism is that there are no general laws that apply to all individuals.

• Overall, we are the product of our own experiences and as these are different for everyone, all of us are different.

Underlying theory (Rogers, 1951)

• The idea of humanism stems from Rogers and his ideas about client-centred therapy.

• The basics include that we are unique individuals who have all had different life pathways and this makes us all different.

• We also have free will over our own behaviour and create our own pathways in life.

• What we perceive as real is unique so no other person can truly understand us as that person has not had the same experiences.

• We all need to self-actualise - this is working towards a goal we have set ourselves that will make us feel "whole".

• We are who we are due to our life experiences.

Applications (based on humanism) Cooperative learning

• All of this is based around the idea of a noncompetitive environment for learning.

• Groups of up to six students are set a task that requires face-to-face interaction.

• Roles are assi·gned and the provision of tasks is divided among the group so everybody is working towards their strength. This is called positive interdependence.

• Group members are expected to share, cooperate and learn throughout the task set.

• The end rewards and the ultimate goal can only be achieved if all group members contribute.

• It develops interpersonal skills such as taking turns, collaboration and positivity.

Learning circles and the open classroom

• An open classroom is a core idea of humanism.

• Open classrooms are about individual growth and goal setting where the most important person is always the student.

• There is no curriculum as such and there can be students of all ages in the same classroom.

• There is a low student-teacher ratio with very little control or element of competition.

• Within ah open classroom, a teacher could set up learning circles in two main ways:

o Learning together: this is similar to cooperative learning in that a group of four to six students work together.

o The material encourages all members of the group to help each other.

o Praise is given for cooperation and for completing the task correctly.

o There is no competition between the groups who are given the same task.

o Student teams achievement division - this ls also based on cooperative learning, but initially the group members have a mixture of ability.

o Any new material that is vital to the task is "taught" to students in a traditional way.

o Al l students are encouraged to help each other.

o Team scores are calculated and the team that has progressed the most since the last task gets the most recognition (so it is not always the best score that wins).

Summerhirl School

Visit http://www.summerhillschool.eo.uk/ and make notes on how the school runs and what a typical day or term is like for a student.

Cognitive applications to learning • This approach was covered at AS level and the

basics can be found on page v.

• This approach to education is based around the way students think and process information in order to learn.

Underlying theory (Piaget)

• A child develops in stages that are linked to the child 's age.

• During. a sensori-motor stage (up to 2 years of age) children have a simple focus on developing their senses and moving around to learn.

• At the pre-operational stage (2-7 years old) children begin to think and reason but find it difficult to see the world from the viewpoint of someone else. They also tend to find logical tasks difficult.

• At the concrete operational stage (7- 11 years old) children begin to develop more adult-like thinking patterns and appreciate logic more. However, sometimes their logic is not based on how an adult would th1nk.

• In the final stage, the formal operational stage (11+ years old), logical and abstract thoughts are developed and children can begin to think for themselves.

• Schemas (or schemata) are also useful. A schema is a "packet of information" about a certain object, idea, experience, etc.

• Child'ren develop schemas over time and they change depending on the experiences a child has.

For example, initially a child will have a mental representation of a "tree" in his or her head. Initially, all "trees are trees". Over time and with education, the child learns there are different types of tree so will develop a schema for an oak, a fir tree and a maple tree.

Applications Discovery learning

• This idea was proposed by Bruner and the idea was that it can help to educate students in the classroom.

• It follows the idea that students are not presented with all of the material "there and then" (which can be called spoon feeding) but they have to organise it themselves with cognitive effort.

• Students must be ready to learn and discover new things by looking for relationships between different bits of information.

• Students need to be in a motrvational state that is optimum (not over- or under·aroused).

• Students require that they are exposed to information from a range of situations - this allows them to look for relationships between them without simply "being told" .

• The correct mode of representation needs to be chosen - th is can be related to both the age of a student and how complex an idea is. Children move from enactive (senses and motor learning) through iconic (concrete facts and ideas) to symbolic (abstract ideas) representation.

• Spiral curriculum refers to a programme of learning that involves returning to core ideas that are looked at in increasing depth each t ime so students gain a more solid understanding of them.

Expository teaching or reception learning

• Ausubel felt that discovery learning can be too time consuming and overall may not be effective in aiding understanding.

• Expository teaching is when students are given all of the information that is necessary on a topic in its final form - they do none of the initial work.

• Reception learning is when students have to learn the expository teaching material.

Ausubel stated that there are two ways that traditional teaching can be improved via expository teaching:

• Derivative subsurnption - when students are made to relate any new information to previously learned material.

• Correlative subsumption - when students have to change what they already know to allow the new information to relate to what they know.

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Overall, other techniques that can be used that involve expository teaching include the following:

• Advance organisers - this involves things such as ideas and concepts that are given to students before any new materia l is learned in a lesson.

• Dlscrfmlnabllity - a teacher should try to use correlative subsumptions more than derivative ones.

• Making it meaningful - there should be sufficient background material already presented and stored so that the student can then be prepared to learn new ideas.

Zone of pro.ximal development ( ZPD)

• Vygotsky coined the term "zone of proximal development (ZPD)" to describe the difference between what learners can achieve by themselves and what learners can achieve with the help of a more experienced person (e.g. a teacher).

• One student might have a large potential for mathematics while another in the same classroom finds mathematics very difficult. The first student

has a large ZPD while the latter has a small ZPD. As a result, a teacher would have to use different techniques to teach the two students.

• One way in which a teacher could help any student is through an idea called scaffolding. This is a process whereby a teacher (someone with the knowledge) attempts to pass this knowledge on to someone with less knowledge (the student).

• Scaffolding is about creating structured materials that allow students to gain in confidence with a particular topic with the relevant help.

• Basic ideas that allow students to gain some knowledge include fill-in-the-gaps exercises or matching terms to definitions by connecting them with a line.

• ''Templates'' can be used that break information down for the student.

• If, for example, you were asked to write an essaystyle answer to a question, a handout giving some guidelines on how to write it could be provided.

8.2 Special educational needs

Definitions, types and assessment of special educational needs (including gifted children) Definitions of special educational needs and giftedness

• The Department for Education in the UK defines special educational needs as follows:

"Children have special educational needs if they have a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for them.

Children have a learning difficulty if they:

(a) have a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of children of the same age; or

(b) have a disability which prevents or hinders them from making use of educational facilities of a kind generally provided for children of the same age in schools within the area of the local education authority

(c) are under compulsory school age and fall within the definition at (a) or (b) above or would so do if special educational provision was not made for them. Children must not be regarded as having a learning difficulty solely because the language or form of language of their home is different from the language in which they will be taught.

Special educational provision means:

for children of two or over, educational provision which is additional to, or otherwise different from, the educational provision rnade generally for children of their age in schools maintained by the LEA, other than special schools, in the area (b) for chi ldren under tw,o, educational provision of any kind ."

See Section 312, Education Act 1996

• In 2008 the Department for Children, Schools and Families in the UK defined giftedness as:

"children and young people with one or more abilities developed to a level significantly ahead of their year group (or with potential to develop those abilities)".

Types of special educational needs Dyslexia

• The British Dyslexia Association's definition is: "Dyslexia is a combination of abilities and difficulties that affect the learning process in one or rnore of reading, spelling and writing. It is a persistent condition.n

Age Symptoms/ indicators

Persistent Children who have dyslexia: (so not linked • have "good '' and "bad" days for no to age of reason child) • confuse directional words such as

~ up " and "down"

• can find sequencing difficult (e.g . putting beads in an order)

• have problems with numbers and adding up "in their head"

• have a short attention span

• have problems organising themselves

Pre-school • have delayed speech development

• jun1ble up phrases (e.g. saying "beddy tear'' instead of "teddy bear")

• have difficulties expressing themselves through speech

• have difficulty with rhyming words and phrases

• have difficulty in remembering labels for objects (e.g. chair, bed)

Early school • have difficulty learning sounds years of letters

• show unpredictable spelling

• have difficulty in copying written words and sentences

• can confuse letters such as "b" and "d"

• haVe poor "word attack skills" - the ability to process and make sense of unfamiliar words by breaking them down

Middle • have a slow reading speed school years • have problems with correct spellings

• have problems recognising and understanding new words.

£ Table 8 .2.1 Characteristics of dyslexia broken down by age

Source: Adapted from NHS and British Dyslexia Association information

Autism spectrum disorders

• Autism spectrum disorders is a term given to a group of ttdisorders" that cover a wide spread of social and intellectual issues.

• These disorders include autism itself and Asperger syndrome.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has diagnostic criteria for autism and Asperger syndrome but the following are the main characteristics of autism:

• Impairment of social interaction: those affected have difficulty with reciprocal social interactions. This may come across as being disinterested. Also, some may like the social contact but fail to reciprocate it.

• Impairment of social communication: a wide range of communication skills may be affected. Many children with autism fail to develop "useful speech" .

• They may find it difficult to use speech to communicate with others. 65

66

• There may be a lack of intonation in the voice and non-verbal communication, such as eye contact and use of gestures, is very limited or non-existent.

• Impairment of social Imagination: they have great difficulty thinking imaginatively.

• Pretend play is either absent or they play the same thing over and over again.

Asperger syndrome is a form of autism:

• It is similar to what Is outlined above but those with Asperger syndrome appear to have fewer speech problems and tend to have above average intelligence.

• They also usually have specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia, dyspraxia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Giftedness

According to the Department for Children, Schools and Families, the general characteristics of gifted and talented learners include the following:

• They are good readers and verbally fluent for their age. They may also verbally respond very quickly.

• They have a wide general knowledge, learn quickly and have interest in topics that older children are studying.

• They communicate well with adults and show "novel " approaches to problem solving. Also, they prefer verbal compared to written activities.

• They have a good memory.

• They are probably musical and/or artistic.

Causes and effects of one specific learning difficulty or disability Dyslexia

• Recent advances in this area have focused on a biological cause for dyslexia.

• If a person has been diagnosed with dyslexia then there is a 40-60 per cent chance that the person's child or children will also develop dyslexia.

• There could be "faults" within the phonological processing centres of the brain in dyslexics. The specific areas could be:

o broca's area, which is involved in the production of speech and writing

o parietotemporal region, which is thought to be involved in analysing a written word or sentence

o occipitotemporal region, which is thought to be involved in looking at words and then identifying what they are.

• The cerebellum could play a role in dyslexia as this area controls elements of language production but also coordination and balance which can also be lacking in people with dyslexia.

• Genetic a11alysis has shown that genetic variants may account for some of the reading difficulties and other factors linked to dyslexia.

• Wilcke et al (2012) reported that a variant of the genetic material labelled FOXP2 may well be able to account for some of the phonologlcal processing difficulties that dyslexics display.

• Elbert et al (2011) reported that a certain region of the KIAA0319 gene could contribute to the reading difficulties displayed by many dyslexics.

• Effects are highlighted on page 65.

• ADHD is covered on page 7 4.

Strategies for educating children with special needs Integration versus separation

• Johnson & Jones (1999) highlighted some pros and cons for integrating students with autistic spectrum disorders into mainstream schools :

o Pros: there were increased chances of social interactions; easier access to resources; specialist teaching methods; broader opportunities for qualifications; opportunity to spread awareness of their need to others; a better understanding of social rules in a realworld everyday context.

o Cons: there were too many people to deal with socially; the curriculum may have been too inflexible; staff were less likely to have been trained on the disorder; there were fewer opportunities to explore the social world. "safely".

• The Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching Dyslexic Pupils (CReSTeD) is a UKbased organisation that lists schools that have specialist provision for children with dyslexia. In 2013 it had 78 schools listed with specialist dyslexia units. Most of these schools will integrate dyslexics into mainstream education but they also have provision for specialist lessons and help where it Is needed for a student.

For gifted students, acceleration or enrichment?

• The Department for Children, Schools and Families recommended a combination of acceleration and enrichment including:

o stretching targets for a gtft:ed child taking into account previous knowledge and skills

o providing learning activities that stretch th.e child through acceleration and enrichment

o making opportunities for independent learning

o enabling learning in settings beyond the classroom

o providing individual support for aspects such as language to stretch and challenge

o ensuring rich provision of educational activities.

• Renzulli (1977) created an enrichment triad model which was used in schools in the United States in the 1970s. The model is shown in Figure 8.2.1.

Type1 General

exploratory activities

Type 3 Individual and small-group

investigation of real problems

.A. Figure 8.2.1 The enrichment triad model

• Type I activities were designed to expose students to a range of hobbies, occupations, places, etc. that are not covered in the curriculum.

• Type ll activities were designed to promote things such as problem-solving skills, "how-ton skills and oral and visual communication skills.

• The type Ill category was designed so that a student can choose an area of interest to pursue with extra curricular t ime.

• Types I and II were available to the top 20 per cent of an ability group with type 111 given to the top 3 per cent of students (or more depending on the model adopted by a specific school}.

Dyslexia

A variety of strategies can be used to help students who have dyslexia:

• The Alpha-to-Omega method for reading, writing and spelling is a scheme based on phonetics. It introduces words, grammar, punctuation, etc. in a series of logical steps to help dyslexic students begin to read words. Then they write them and get the spelling correct. Pictures are used so that students have to match sounds and words to the correct picture.

• Colour can be used to address issues for dyslexics:

o Many dyslexics have been found to find white paper quite "glaring1

' making it difficult to read text.

o Most schools in the UK now have interactive wh'iteboards this can be problematic for dyslexics in the classroom. The use of cream or pastel shades of paper or background to an interactive board can help to reduce the glare and the words appear clearer.

o Some dyslexics prefer a coloured overlay on a piece of paper (a plastic coloured sheet) or they wear tinted reading glasses with their preferred colour as their lenses. The coloured filters are said to help with the visual stress of reading. An Intuitive Colorimeter can be used by an optometrist to find a dyslexic's preferred colour.

o Finally, the choice of colour for the text is crucial - some colour co.mbinations such as red text on white background can make the words "invisible" to some dyslexics.

• Phonics can be used to help dyslexics. There are six stages to this:

1. Phonemic awareness - this helps students to recognise different phonemes and what they sound like.

2. Phonic instruction - this teaches students how to "sound out" a printed word by recognising the different letters in a word.

3. Spelling and writing instruction - this encourages students to combine letters to make words and then say them.

4. Fluency instruction - students practise reading words correctly. They are also encouraged to read faster each time.

5. Vocabulary instruction - this allows students to .begin to recognise the words they have a I ready learned.

6. Comprehension instruction - students are encouraged to ask questions about uncertain words and their meanings and are asked the meanings of previously learned words.

Evaluation extra These methods have application and are useful. Schools can use different methods for d ifferent students to help them with their education. Education can be individually tailored to each student to help the student achieve his or her full potential.

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8 Psychology and education

8.3 Learning and teaching styles

Definitions • Learning styles refer to how a student can take in

information, process it and then use it for some purpose (e.g. taking an exam).

• Teaching styles refer to how a. teacher delivers the material to a class of students to help them understand it.

The onion model (Curry, 1983)

• In the onion model, the outer layer is called instructional preference. This layer:

o represents what a student favours in terms of how he or she likes to be taught

o can be affected by many factors, including the classroom environment, who the teacher is, how the teacher teaches and expectations from self and parents

o is quite "unstable" and can change from day to day depending on which of the above factors is affecting the student.

• The middle layer is called informational processing style. This layer:

o represents how the student processes information

o has a focus on how the student takes in the information, processes it in the bra in and then uses it to perform a certain task

o is more stable as it is "deeper into the onion" so the student's preferred style tends to remain the same in different classes and subjects.

• The Inner core is called cognitive personality style. This layer:

o represents the student's "core" way of thinking - for example, some students prefer to look at a problem from various angles before answering it and will do this no matter what subject they are studying; other students will take a step-by-step approach so they tackle a problem in a logical order before answering.

o is associated with other "core" elements, including personality traits such as being an extravert or introvert.

Instructional preference

_ _ ....., __ Cognit ive

personality style

68 A. Figure 8.3.1 The onion model (Curry, 1983)

Grasha's (1996) six styles of le·arning

• Independent - students learn at their own pace, by themselves on things such as coursework projects.

• Dependent - students look to the teacher and to other students for help and structure. The preference here is to be told what to do.

• Competitive - this style is about being motivated to do better than classmates and seeing academic achievement as being very important.

• Collaborative - this involves working and cooperating with other students and the teacher. The preference is for small-group work and projects.

• Avoidant - this is when students feel unenthusiastic about learning and become uninterested.

• Participant - students are eager to work and get involved in acttvities. The idea behind this is to meet the teacher's expectations.

Formal and informal styles (Bennett, 1976)

• Formal style - this is a teacher-centred approach to deUvery.

• The teacher Is in control of the lesson.

• The tea.cher decides what is being taught, how it will be taught, who sits where and how the classroom is arranged.

• Informal style - this is a student-centred approach to delivery.

• The lesson is a negotiation between the student and the teacher in terms of what is taught, how it is delivered and how the assessments work.

• Bennett noted that when lessons were about academic content then the formal style brought about better results than the informal. This suggests that having structure to lessons, brought ln by the teacher, allows students to understand concepts better and then use them at a later date.

High initiative and low Initiative (Fontana, 1995)

The characteristics of high-initiative teachers are as follows:

• They are aware of the individual needs of each student (e.g. the student's preferred learning style, what special educational needs the student has).

• They are willing to learn from students (e.g. learn more about how the class wants to be taught) .

• They allow all students to make full use of their range of skills and abilities (e.g. use a variety of tasks so everyone can work to a strength).

• They allow students to make informed choices (e .g. for coursework there may be a range of options so students can choose their favourite).

• They encourage development of self-confidence and independence in learnir1g and they give students responsibilities.

Measuring learning and teaching styles Approaches to study inventory (ASI) (Entwistle, 1981)

The questions are all answered on a rating scale and an overall score can be calculated. The four different "learning orientations" are as follows:

• Meaning orientation - this includes taking a deep approach to learning (questioning a lot), using evidence to make a knowledgeable argument, being able to interrelate ideas, engaging in comprehension learning as well as operation learning (using facts and logic) and having intrinsic motivation (students can motivate themselves).

• Reproducing orientation - this includes taking a "surface approach" (students like to memorise), being syllabus-bound (relying on the teacher for learning objectives), improvidence (showing strong attention to detail) and fearing failure.

• Achieving orientation - this includes taking a "strategic approach" (being aware of the academic demands of a subject) and achievement motivation (being quite competitive with confidence).

• Non-academic orientation - this Includes having disorganised study methods, having negative attitudes to studying in general, "globetrotting" Uumping to quick conclusions not based on all the facts available) and extrinsic motivation (wanting to get qualifications).

Teacher-centred and student-centred styles (Kyrlacou & Wiiiiams, 1993)

• Kyriacou & Williams (1993) devised an inventory that could be completed by teachers. An excerpt is shown in Figure 8.3.2.

• It measured the degree in which teachers were student- or teacher-centred in their job.

• Teachers have to complete a series of statements by simply ticking how it best describes how they work.

Statement X x Tend to X

Activities carried out by students are restricted to those set out by the teacher

Students' activities are mainly writing and listening

The teacher's main activity is to lecture and provide information

0

Kolb's (1984) learning styles

Cohcr'ete .

experience Feelfng

E ::)

Accommodating ~ fee l and do r::

Diverging feel and watch

8 Active Processing Continuum Reflective

experimentation~-----+-----,.. observation Doing Watching

c:: Q

Converging Q. think and do ~

cf

Assimilating think and watch

Abstract conceptualisation

Thinking

A Figure 8.3.3 Kalb's learning styles

• Accommodator - students who like to do things and get involved in the experience of learning will be in this category. Accommodators may be risktakers and do things via "trial and error".

• Asslmllator - assimilators tend to be motivated by asking questions such as "Wh-at is there to know?" They are more interested in abstract ideas tha.n concrete ones. They like accurate, structured delivery of information.

• Converger - students in this category like the practical application of any idea and like logical progression of topics.

• Diverger - students In this category like to be imaginative when learning. They like to view ideas from many angles and like material presented in a systematic way.

Evaluation extra • The measures are psychometric. This allows

standardised measures of teaching and learning styles to be taken from many different people so that comparisons can be made between people. As the measures are quantitative they are objective and reliable.

Tend to Y y Statement Y

Activities carried out by students are variable and negotiated with the teacher

Students· actlvities are mainly problem solving and experimental

The teacher's main activity is to facilitate and enable students to learn

4 Figure 8.3.2 Some of the bipolar terms used to measure teacher-centred and student·centred teaching styles

Source: Adapted from Kyriacou & Wilkins, 1993

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• However, the measures do not tell us why the person learns in a particular way. All we know about is the learning preference and not why the learning has happened.

Improving learning effectiveness (study skills) The 4-mat system (McCarthy, 1990)

1 . Motivation - students may be asked to devise a lesson individually about a particular topic. Similarities and differences are noted via a discussion between the students.

2, Concept development - all of the students' lesson plans are discussed so that a lesson can cover what all students like in terms of the way they learn. This means that the teacher can direct the learning to appropriate tasks.

3 . Practice - all students engage in practical activities in the classroom to develop a deeper understanding of the topic areas.

4. Application - students will be given a novel situation or experience and they have to use the knowledge they have already gained from the first three stages and apply it to this new situation.

PQRST method

• This method is about improving the effectiveness of learning through the use of textbooks.

• The idea is to do more than simply "read" the material in a textbook by going through the following stages:

1. Preview - the idea here is to "skim read " a chapter by focusing on words in bold, the headings and subheadings used and reading any introduction or summary or bullet-point sections.

2. Question - students go back and look at any headings or subheadings again. Then they need to turn these headings into questions.

3. Read - students read each section carefully, maybe highlighting points or making notes in the margin. The questions generated in stage 2 should be a focus and students should try to find the answers to them as they read.

4. Self-recitation - students recall the information after each section either out loud or to themselves.

5. Test - when a chapter is completed, students try to recall as much of the chapter as possible using the questions to help them.

Strategies for effective learning and thinking (SPELT) (Mulcahy et al, 1986)

• If we can get students to understand and appreciate how students learn then teachers can improve students' ability to learn.

• This can then turn into students becoming autonomous learners who know exactly the best ways in which they learn.

• The teacher must have a range of techniques that can help any students, such as problem-solving, memory, logical and organisational techniques.

There are three phases:

1. Students are taught about the different techniques (e.g. problem-solving, memory, organisation techniques) by a teacher using a formal style of delivery.

2. Students "'try out'" a number of techniques and then evaluate them in terms of effectiveness for them. The delivery moves towards an informal style of delivery as each student can work individually at his or her own pace.

3 . Students then begin to use the strategies that they evaluated favourably in different situations or classes. They continue to evaluate these strategies' effectiveness and the delivery is now informal.

8.4 Motivation and education perf orinance

Definitions, types and theories of motivation Extrinsic and intrinsic

• Extrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a task or behaviour because it gives positive reinforcement (e.g. a reward) or it avoids some kind of punishment.

• This might mean a student is motivated to get the best grade possible.

• Intrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a task or behaviour because it gives internal pleasure or helps to develop a skill.

• Students will attribute success to their own desires (autonomy) and may be interested in simply mastering a task rather than focusing on a grade.

Behaviourist theory

• This idea follows the ru les of operant conditioning covered on pages 61-62.

• Students are motivated by rewards.

• The more they are rewarded, the more likely they are to repeat behaviour or complete a task.

Humanistic

• Maslow created a hierarchy of needs that starts at basic needs and moves up to higher-level "meta needs" .

• A student must work up the hierarchy of needs (shown in Figure 8.4.1) to achieve selfactualisation - th is is realising and reaching one 's ful I potential.

Self-actualisation

needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

.& Figure 8.4.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Cognitive

• The key to motivation is about how we think and process information.

• The cognitive approach is based around our potential ability to see the future "as we would like it to be" .

• This vision motivates us to work towards relevant goals and ideas as it is what we actually want.

• We analyse the chances of us succeeding or failing (again looking to the future) and use these as motivators.

• We can also use knowledge from the past to see whether it is worth attempting to continue with a task or pursue a new idea.

Improving motivation Behavioural: effective praise (Brophy, 1981)

• It is not just the act of praising that motivates, it is about how it is delivered.

• Brophy had noted that onl,y about 6 per cent of class time is devoted to praise and this is not enough.

• Praise should only be delivered in response to specific behaviours.

• The target behaviours that will be praised need to be defined clearly to all students.

• Praise should appear to be sincere, credible and spontaneous (so teachers do need to think on their feet).

• When praising performance, praise should be given only when a student meets clearly defined standards set out by the teacher.

• Praise should be in.formative: students should know why they have been given it.

• Praise should be individually specific - so it should be given for the recognition of hard work and effort with difficult tasks.

• Praise should attribute success to effort over anything else.

Brophy also noted these examples of ineffective praise:

• Praise ls given randomly.

• Generic, bland , positive comments are given that are not specific to the student nor the task that the praise is based around.

• Rewards given are not related to performance.

• Praise is used when comparing student with student.

• Praise is not linked to effort.

• Praise is given but success is attributed to ability alone or external factors such as luck.

• Praise is used as a symbol of power.

Cognitive: McClelland ( 1958)

• McClelland believed that a need for achievement was just as powerful as a motivator.

• He defined it as " ... a stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence".

• People with a high need for achievement will seek out situations in which they can compete against a "set standard " .

• In education these could be improving their grades or performing better than last time on a task. They may also avoid tasks that appear to be "too easy".

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• They will choose tasks that are seen as a challenge to them.

• People with a low need for achievement tend to be more motivated by a desire to avoid failure.

• They will seek out easy tasks so they can avoid failure.

• They may also seek out very difficult tasks where failure appears the only option as almost everyone will fail these tasks.

• They will avoid tasks that other people may succeed at due to their fear of failure.

Cognitive-behavioural: self-efficacy There are four main components:

• Personal accomplishments - previous success in a particular task increases our self-efficacy.

• If we have succeeded before there is no reason to think that we will not do the same again.

• However, failure will lower self-efficacy.

• If we continue to succeed at tasks and our selfefficacy remains high, then the occasional failure at a task will have little impact on us.

• Vicarious experience - this is based around watching others succeed or fail at a task.

• If we watch other people succeed without any negative consequences that it may well strengthen our own self-efficacy.

• Verbal persuasion - this is based on the idea that verbal praise from someone else about a student's potential ability to succeed can help and can instil confidence into the student.

• It is not as strong as d irect experience but it can help if the student has repeatedly failed at a task previously.

• Emotional arousal - th.e level of anxiety and stress. that a student feels can have an effect on the student's self .. efficacy.

• If students have too much or not enough anxiety or stress they can have low self-efficacy and therefore may easily fail a task.

• A moderate amount of anxiety and stress is optimal for self-efficacy to work well - feeling nervous before an exam might actually help you feel more positive about your potential ability compared to crying and not wanting to enter the exam room.

Motivation issues: attribution theory and learned helplessness Attributing causes to behaviours

Weiner (1984) noted that there are three main factors that can affect motivation based around how we attribute success and failure to a certain task:

• Locus of control -this was developed from an idea by Rotter. An internal locus of control is about us feeling we have control over why we perform well (or not) on a task. An external locus of control is about

us feeling something outside of us, such as luck or fate, makes us perform well or badly on a task.

• Stablllty - this is concerned with how much we perceive an attribution to be affecting us over time. For example, if we attribute a success to luck, this is clearly an unstable forc.e as it is unpredictable. However, if we attribute success or failure to something stable, such as our own ability, this can be consistent over time and it motivates us more.

• Controllability - this is about how much we feel control over any factor that could affect our performance on a task. Elements that are controllable include students carefully planning revision for an exam or choosing to complete a homework task. However, sometimes things are uncontrollable as they are "out of our hands" (e.g. catching a cold from a friend before an exam) and this makes students underperform.

Learned helplessness

• Seligman first developed the idea of learned helplessness with research using dogs.

• He found that when dogs could not escape the negat ive experience of electric shocks no matter where they stood in a cage, they simply gave up trying to escape and lay down.

• When they were then put in a similar situation where they could escape by jumping into part of the cage where they would get no shocks, they did not - they had learned to be helpless.

• If students attribute any failure to their own ability then this can develop into learned helplessness.

• They will perceive any task as being one they will fail at and will simply give up and not perform to the best of their ability or try at all.

• They become passive and helpless in even new situations and challenges as they believe they will ultimately fai l as this is what has happened (or been attributed) previously.

• There may be gender differences here too - girls tend to attribute failure to lack of ability while boys tend to attribute failure to lack of effort.

• If the feedback is constantly negative without any constructive comments, action points or areas to improve on, then students will develop learned helplessness. As a result, they will not make an effort on future tasks as they wfll expect failure based on their previous ability and feedback.

Changing attributions

• Students show more effort when they attribute success to internal and unstable factors that they can control or if there are stable internal factors that were out of their control for that specific task. Some methods of changing attribution are outlined below.

Attribution retraining

• Teachers can discuss the attri.butions of failure with students and explore reasons why students fa iled or underperformed that move away from internal blaming.

• Teachers and students could explore this further with role play.

• Teacher modelling is another technique where teachers give examples of when students wrongly attributed failure.

• Student modelling can involve inviting previous students back to talk about their successes especially those who now feel internally motivated.

• Finally, teachers could get students to analyse success as this may be something students never do.

Attribution change techniques

• Students should be discouraged from believing that all success is down to ability. Saying something like " I succeeded because I am a competent person and worked hard" is a better attribution style .

• Teachers need to help students who attribute failure to ability by talking about the potential that failure was due to lack of effort.

• Teachers can also arrange tasks so that students who work hard can attain and then begin to attribute some success to ability rather than luck.

• Finally, a teacher can give feedback to even good pieces of work with a message that yes, students worked hard, but their best is yet to come so they should continue on this growth pathway.

The Dweck way

• Teachers should simply avoid using personoriented phrases such as "I am proud of you" or "You really are good at this" as these will make students feel all of their ability is down to personal attributes rather than effort.

• Instead, teachers should use process-oriented phrases such as "You really tried hard on that task" or ''Now, that was a good way to do it" as these promote more stable internal effort-based attributions.

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8.5 Disruptive behaviour in school

Types, explanations and effects of disruptive behaviours • These are behaviours that the teacher finds

unacceptable and that can stop the flow of a lesson.

Conduct

• Distracting other students - a student may want to settle down to work but another one is constantly talking next to that student or trying to steal his or her pen, etc.

• Attention-seeking - these behaviours are used to make sure that people know who the student is and the individual strives for attention.

• Calling out - th is involves a student either answering a question without being asked or just generally shouting out words and comments to others when they are t rying to work (or even when the teacher is trying to teach).

• Out-of-seat behaviour - this is when students choose not to sit where they have been asked to. They may walk around the classroom disrupting other students who are trying to work or simply walk out of the classroom.

Immaturity and verbal or physical aggression

• This usually takes the form of bullying.

• Bullying can be verbal (call ing people names), physical (actua lly hitting or kicking someone) and/ or emotional (making someone feel bad for who they .are).

• These behaviours ca n happen face to face, in or outside of a classroom or via "cyber bullying" which is bullying through use of technology.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

• ADHD is characterised by some of the following behaviours: being restless, getting easily distracted, shouting out answers, having difficulty in following instructions, interrupting others and not appearing to listen to others.

• It seems to be found much more often in boys than girls.

• The above behaviours will be very disruptive in the classroom and the effects will be the same as in the "Conduct " section above.

• Students with ADHD might also find it difficult to acquire new skills as they cannot pay attention for long enough to follow the instructions although they want to learn.

Causes of ADHD

• Genetics - there may be a faulty gene that causes ADHD as the prevalence rates in identical twins is high and the condition tends to n run in families" .

• Neurotransmitters - children with ADHD might have a chemical imbalance in the brain. Neurostranmistters {e.g. dopamine and noradrenaline) have been linked to ADHD as these help to regulate behaviours such as impulsivity and lack of attention.

• Physiological arousal - there are two ideas here: the first is that those with ADHD have an overaroused central nervous system that causes them to be "stimulus-hungry" all the time to fulfil this over-arousal and this leads to a range of disruptive behaviours. The second idea is the opposite - it is about the central nervous system being under.aroused and how this leads to students not paying attention or being able to maintain attention as they are not "stimulated enough" .

Poor teaching style

• Some psychologists believe that a poor teaching style can make stud·ents become disruptive.

• Any given class can contain such a wide range of students from different backgrounds and with different abilities that sometimes it can be difficult for the teacher to react correctly to all of the behaviours being shown.

• According to Kounin (1970), there are five characteristics of effective teachers which will decrease the rate of disruptive behaviour:

o They show "withitness": they know what is going on in every part of the classroom and act upon the disruptive verbal and non-verbal behaviours.

o They "overlap" {multi-task) in the classroom.

o Their work has "smoothness and momentum": they stick to objectives and do not let disruptions make them deviate from what they had planned for the lesson.

o They carry out "group-alerting": using random questions so students have to be attentive .. Unpredictabi lity can make students more attentive.

o They provide "stimulating seatwork": a range of activities that make students "stay in their seat" as they are engaged and wanting to learn .

Causes and effects of one disruptive behaviour (bullying) Causes

• Attachment style - Rigby (2013) noted that bullies tended to have been insecurely attached as a child.

• There are two types of insecure attachment that can be seen in children:

o avoidant, where the child appears to be emotionally detached from his or her mother

o resistant or ambivalent. where the child appears to want comfort and to form a bond but then may stubbornly resist when the mother wants to hug the child, etc.

• It would appear that those children who show an avoidant attachment style are more likely to be bullies at school as they have not formed an emotionally stable bond.

• Family functioning - Rigby (2013) noted that the ways families function on an emotional level may be linked to whether a child bullies at school.

• Research had shown that children who reported that they did bully at school tended to report that their family did not appear to sympathise with them when they felt sad or that the fami ly did not work as a "unit" to overcome problems at home.

• Parenting styles - Rigby (2013) noted that an authoritarian style of parenting is strongly linked to bullying behaviour.

• An authoritarian style of parenting sets out strict rules on children being obedient, respecting elders no matter what they say or do, and tolerating questioning.

• If children fai l to do any of these, they may be severely punished. One of the issues here is that the authoritarian parent does not explain the rules - they are rules and that is that.

• Socio-economic status - Jansen et al (2012) reported that children from disadvantaged family backgrounds with a low socioeconomic status were more likely to be bullies.

• Teaching environment - Laeheem (2013) discovered that an authoritarian classroom management style leads to more bullying -the more that children are exposed to inflexible rules and punishment the more likely it is that they will turn to bullying.

Effects

• Ttofi & Farrington (2012). A longitudinal study suggested that around one third of bullies engage in criminal behaviour after leaving school. Also, those who are bullied are twice as likely to become depressed later in life compared to those who have never experienced bullying.

• Sesar et al (2012). In their sample of 249 college students, those who had experienced being bullied had higher levels of anxiety, sleeping problems and depression compared to those who had never been bullied.

Corrective and preventive strategies • Corrective strategies are ones that are used as

the disruptive behaviour is happening or has just happened.

• Preventive strategies are ones that are used to stop the disruptive behaviour from happening in the first place.

Preventive: effective discipline

Cotton (1990) reported seven core ideas:

• Commitment - the entire staff of a school needs to be committed to any policy in the school. This would cover appropriate behaviours in the classroom.

• High behavioural expectations - the policy must have clearly high standards of behaviour that must be adhered to.

• Clear rules - the rules and punishment for disruptive behaviour must be very clear and some schools get their students to help produce these so everyone is involved and knows what is expected of them. Students a re more likely to " stick to" rules if they are involved with the production of them.

• A "warm" climate - staff must take personal interest in students and their achievements, goals, etc. and give students support whenever it is necessary.

• A supportive headteacher - the headteacher needs to be "seen around school", caring for students too and showing some informal behaviour towards them when necessary.

• Delegation of responsibility - the headteacher oversees everything but individual teachers are responsible for each and every class they take in terms of behaviour and sticking to policies.

• Close ties with the local community - having parental involvement in the school with a solid flow of information is important so that everyone knows what is happening in the school.

• Wang, Berry & Swearer (2013) interestingly noted that having the "warm'' and "positive" climate appears crucial in the success of a prevention programme for bullying.

• Cross et al (2011) reported on the Friendly Schools Program, noting that if everyone was committed to it and there was support from the local community (usually through parents) then there was significantly less bullying even 36 months after the programme started (based on data from 29 schools).

Effective classroom management

The features Kounin noted (see page 7 4) cover elements of effective teaching and classroom management. In addition, teachers need to:

• have high expectations for correct behaviour with a warm, friendly approach to all students

• have clearly established rules and expectations that are always followed (including potential punishments)

• make sure that rules are acted upon promptly and fairly if a student breaks one or more of them

• maintain a good pace in lessons so students are always actively engaged in tasks rather than trying to be disruptive.

Corrective: behaviour modification

• Behaviour modification tends to be based around the mechanisms of operant conditioning.

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• Students can learn from the consequences of their behaviours.

• Students have to know what the problem behaviours are (e.g. what disruptive behaviours are too common). They must also be made aware of what behaviours are not happening that should (e.g. those on the list of appropriate behaviours). While it is not necessary, the student could be involved in defining the behaviours.

• Teachers may also keep a "count" of how often the disruptive behaviour is happening to make students fully aware of what they are doing.

• Teachers and students may disclJss what could be causing the disruptive behaviour to see whether they are seeing it from "the same angle". They need to identify potential triggers for the disruptive behaviour and then see if anything is actually reinforcing it (Remember that reinforcing a behaviour is increasing the probability it will happen again.)

• Teachers need to find strategies through selective reinforcement to reinforo.e the appropriate behaviour and punish or ignore the disruptive behaviour. They may choose to use a reward chart for appropriate behaviour.

• Teachers must monitor how effective the programme is an.d change reinforcers if necessary.

Cognitive behaviour modification (self-instructional manual)

• Cognitive behaviour modification is based on the idea that changing someone's thoughts can then change the way the person behaves . In self-instructional training, the following steps are followed:

1. Cognitive modelling - teachers must conduct tasks while '1talking out loud'' - they need to cover what they are doing, why they are doing it, etc.

2. Co-working -target students are asked to repeat the task above and also say out loud what they are doing. The teacher can still guide target students so that they experience success.

3. Imitation - target students then reproduce the task but without any help from the teacher. They still talk out loud about what they are doing.

4. Sub-vocal performance (with lip movement) -target students then repeat the task again while saying the instructions "in their head" but moving their mouth as if they are saying the words (making no sound).

5. Sub-vocal performance (without lip movement) - target students repeat the task as in step 4 but with no lip movement.

8.6 Intelligence

Concept, types and tests of intelligence Concept of lntelllgenc.e and IQ

• Sternberg stated that intelligence is: " ... mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, and selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one's life". (1985: 45).

• IQ stands for intelligence quotient. It is a quantitative measure of a person 's intelligence based on the person's performance on an IQ test which is designed to measure a range of capabilities. The overall score is based on the following equation:

mental age IQ = . x 100

chronological age

Therefore, the average score is 100 no matter what chronological age you are so it is an attempt at finding a standardised measure of intelligence.

Stanford-Binet Test

• Alfred Binet based his test on the idea that intelligence was more to do with mental reasoning and problem solving than motor skills.

• He devised a test and kept refining it before a final version was released in 1911 to help test children.

• Children scored on a scale depending on how well they performed in each section of the test to give them a menta I age.

• Their score could then be compared to their mental age to see who was "slow" .

• Lewis Terman from Stanford University took Binet's ideas and developed them further with a test for US children, hence the Stanford-Binet test.

• In 1916 he released the US version of the test that could be used in schools to assess children.

• This test has been continually rev,ised up until its latest version from 1986.

• All of the test items are devised with the idea that the majority of children, at that age, should be able to answer them.

• The current version of this test has four components: verbal reasoning, abstract or visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning {ability to "handle" numerical data) and short-term memory.

Weschler (WAIS and WISC)

• Weschler developed a new test of intelligence in 1939 as he felt that the Stanford-Binet test relied too much on language ability plus it was only for children.

• The Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and , some 20 years later, the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) were devised to improve on the Stanford-Binet test.

• Both the WAIS and WISC are divided into two parts: a verbal scale and a performance scale. A few example tests from ea.ch scale are shown in Figure 8 .6.1.

• The verbal sca le consists of the following tests:

o General information. This test consists of general knowledge questions about the world.

o Comprehension. This assesses practical information and ability to use past experiences to answer questions.

o Arithmetic reasoning. Verbal problems that are number based are given in this test.

o Similarities. This test asks questions about ways in which two objects or concepts are similar.

o Digit span. A series of numbers are presented verbally and then the person must repeat them forwards and backwards in order.

o Vocabulary. This test has questions about definitions of words, etc.

o Letter number sequencing. Letters and numbers are presented orally in a mixed-up order (e.g. H1F7S9P4) - the person has to recite the numbers in numerical order then the letters in alphabetical order.

• The performance scale consists of the following tests:

o Digit symbol. Points on various shapes are given numbers and then the person is asked to recall what shape (or part of a shape) a certain number is.

o Picture completion. The missing part of a picture must be discovered and named.

o Block design. Designs seen on pictures must then be built with blocks.

o Picture arrangement. A series of comic-strip pictures must be placed in order to tell a story.

o Matrix reasoning. A geometric shape has to be selected from a range of alternatives in terms of similarity.

o Object assembly. Pieces of a puzzle must be assembled into a complete object.

o Symbol search. Paired groups of target symbols are shown to the person. The person is then shown some search groups of symbols and has to say whether any of the target symbols appear in it.

• Therefore. a person's IQ is calculated based on the individual's performances across all of these tests.

• One advantage of the WAIS and WISC is that you have a score for each person on each test -therefore, you can see a person's strengths and weaknesses on certain tasks which can help with support at school, for instance.

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VERBAL

General Information What day of the year Is Independence Day?

Similarities In what way are wool and cotton alike?

Arithmetic reasoning If eggs cost 60 cents a dozen. what does 1 egg cost?

Vocabulary Tell me the meaning of corrupt .

Comprehension Why do people buy fi re Insurance?

Digit span Listen carefully, and when I am through, say the numbers right after me.

7 3 4 1 8 6 Now I am going to say some more nurnbers. but I want you to say them backward.

PERFORMANCE

Picture completion

3 8 4 1 6

I am going to show you a picture with an important part missing. Tell me what is missing.

'85 SUN MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT

1 0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

A Figure 8.6.1 Sample items from the WAIS test Source: Thorndike & Hagen, 1977

The British Ability Scale (BAS) • This is now in its third version and is divided into

early years and school age formats .

• There are three brief assessment scales that are quick measures of number, spelling and reading abilities (see Table 8.6.1).

• The main element of the BAS is its cognitive scales which are divided into two categories:

o The core scales are six cognitive tests that measure verbal ability, non-verbal reasoning ability and spatial ability. There are two for each ability. The test scores are simply added together to generate a general conceptual ability (GCA) score. Therefore, an overall score is generated but there are component scores that can be looked at separately.

o The diagnostic scales can be used to measure specific cognitive abilities such as object recall, recognition of pictures , speed of information processing and number concepts.

Therefore, like the WAIS and WISC, there is the overall score (the GCA) but the advantage is you get component scores and if something else needs assessing then there are the diagnostic scales that can help pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses of a child's abilities.

Picture arrangement The pictures below tell a story. Put them In the right order to te II the story.

Block design Using the four blocks, n1ake one just like this. ~.,,1---.:ii

Object assembly If these pieces are put together correctly, they will make something. Go ahead and put them together as quickly as you can.

Digit~symbol substitution

Code 6 0 D x 8 1 2 3 4 5

Test

6 8 x 0 6 0 8 x 6 8

Reliability, validity and predictive validity

• Reliability refers to the consistency of something -in this case, testing whether we score the same in an intelligence measure over time.

• Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure - in this case, whether the test actually measures intelligence.

• Predictive validity refers to a test's ability to predict a specific behaviour that the test is supposed to be measuring.

• Myers (1998) noted that for the Stanford·Binet test, the WAIS and the WISC, the reliability scores are + 0 .90 - this means that when retested on the same scale, most people score virtually the same (the maximum reliability score .is +1 .00) .

• A way to measure reliabil ity is called a test-retest method.

• For this, a sample of participants is tested on the same measure one or two months apart.

• If there is a strong positive correlation between the results the measure is judged reliable.

Intelligence and educational performance

• In a comprehensive review of the field, Sternberg, Grigorenko & Bundy (1991) reported that there may be some kind of link between IQ and educational performance.

CLUSTERS

Verbal ability Non-verbal Spatial ability SNC reasoning ability

Recognition of 45 45 designs

Word definitions 52

Pattern 45 45 construction

Matrices 34 34

Verbal slmllarities 51

Quantitative 36 36 reasoning

Sum of T-sco res 103 + 70 +90 = 263 160

Verbal ability Non-verbal Spatial abll lty GCA SNC reasoning ability

Standard score 102 74 91 86 79

Confidence 93-111 68- 85 82- 102 80- 93 73-88 interval (95%)

Percentile 55 4 27 18 8

CLUSTER Standard score Description of standard score

Verbal ability 102 Average

Non-verbal reasoning ability

Spatial ability

GCA score

SNC score

A Table 8.6.1 BAS cluster scores

• Studies had shown a correlation of between + 0.40 and + 0.50 betwee·n IQ scores and educational attainment.

• However, Sternberg was quick to point out that there were vast differences in these correlations depending on the sample, the tests used and what was being used to measure educational performance.

• Sternberg, Grigorenko & Bundy reviewed 29 studies and found that between 10 per cent and 22 per cent of variance in specific subject achievement at school can be accounted for by IQ.

• The research team did note that there had not been any research which had assessed the link between IQ and academic performance using a representative national sample (outside of samples used to standardise the test).

• Abu-Hilal & Nasser (2012) noted that there was an indirect link between IQ and mathematics ability for boys and not girls.

• They found that boys with a high IQ exerted more effort when studying mathematics and this led to better results compared to low IQ boys who did not exert much effort.

• For girls, the high and low IQ groups exerted the same amount of effort but the high IQ group performed better at mathematics.

• A longitudinal study by Duckworth, Quinn & Tsukayama (2012) reported that IQ predicted changes in standardised achievement test scores

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Low

Average

Below average

Low

over time more than "self-control" factors (e.g. homework and classroom conduct).

• Emery & Bell (2009) reported that scores on one section of the BioMedical Admissions Test (used by the University of Cambridge) called "Scientific knowledge" correlated strongly with high exam scores once these students had been accepted and were studying at the university.

Theories of intelligence Factor~nalytic approach (Cattell, 1971)

• There are different "-clusters" of intelligent behaViours and skills that can be measured on any test.

• Factor analysis allows a psychologist to interrelate (correlate) aspects of a test to see which iten1s or sub-scales link together strongly.

• Factor analysis is a complex statistic technique that does thatjob - it allows psychologists to see which elements of a test relate strongly to each other and from that each "factor" that is found can be named (e.g. verbal intelligence, problem-solving skills).

• Spearman originally had an idea that there was one factor within intelligence. He called it g for general intelligence.

• He believed this because he found that v irtually all items on an intelligence test correlated with one another strongly, hence there was just one general factor of intelligence.

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• Thurstone did note that the g factor was evident through a range of different tests but that they differed in the amount of g that was being shown via the correlations.

• He stated that there were seven factors including numerical ability, spatial ability and verbal fluency.

• Cattell (1963, 1971) proposed another theory based on factor analysis, which is that there are Just two main forms of intelligence:

o Crystallised intelligence: this is intelligence based on previous knowledge and skills. Therefore, tests that include vocabulary and reading comprehension are testing this type of intelligence.

o Fluid intelligence: this is intel ligence based on novel ways of thinking. For example, tests that ask for the next number in a sequence test this type of intelligence.

• Cattell believes that crystallised intelligence appears to be maintained in a person throughout life whereas fluid intelligence begins to decline at the age of 40.

Multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983)

Gardner stated that there are seven different types of intelligence in a person . They are:

• linguistic - speech production, syntax and semantics

• musical - our ability to create and understand sounds such as pitch, rhythm and timbre

• logical-mathematjcal - the use of logic a.nd mathematics to help solve problems

• spatial - our ability to perceive spatial information and recreate visual images in our "mind's eye", plus our ability to rotate shapes visually

• bodily-kinaesthetic - our ability to use movement and our body to solve problems (use of motor skills)

• intrapersonal - understanding our own feelings and intentions

• interpersonal - understanding and recognising the beliefs, behaviours, feelings and intentions of others.

Trlarchlc theory (Sternberg, 1988)

Sternberg believed that there are only three main areas of "practical" intelligence:

• Academic problem-solving - these are skills that are tested via things such as an IQ test. The questions are well structured and there is always a single correct answer.

• Practical - these are skills that are often needed for everyday tasks. These tasks may not be very well defined and have multiple solutions where a person has to choose which one is best to solve an issue, etc.

• Creative - these are the skills and behaviours that we show when trying to cope and tackle with novel situations (we may, for example, draw on previous knowledge that could be applied to a novel situation).

Alternatives to intelligence Emotional intelligence

Salovey & Mayer (Myers, 1990 ) identified a part of people's social behaviour that they called emotional intelligence:

• Emotionally intelligent people are self-aware. They can manage their emotions well in different circumstances and not be overwhelmed by one single emotion such as depression or anxiety.

• They can easily delay any self-gratification in pursuit of a reward: they do not let impulses overcome them.

• They have strong empathy skills .

• They can handle other people's en1otions easily and skilfully. They can handle conflict well.

• They succeed in aspects of life that require emotional awareness rather than ac·ademic prowess (e.g. marriage and parenting) .

Creativity and unusual uses test

• Creativity involves finding .a solution to a problem that is both unusual and novel.

• It requires an element of "thinking outside of the box" and maybe tackling a problem from a nonlogical or non-traditional way.

• Newell , Shaw & Simon (Matlin, 1963) outlined that one or more of the following criteria have to be met for something to be labelled "creative":

o The answer does have novelty and is useful (either to an individual or society).

o The answer means that we reject ideas that had previously been accepted.

o The answer comes from a period of intense motivation and persistence with the task.

o The answer clarifies a problem that was originally seen as being vague.

• There are many ways of measuring creativity. One is called the Divergent Production Test and some example questions are given below.

Try to answer the following:

1 . Here is a simple familiar form: a circle.

How many pictures of real-life objects can you draw in a one-minute period, using the circle?

2. Many words begin with UL" and end with "N". Write down as many as you can, in a oneminute period. The words can have any number of letters between the "L" at the start and the "N" at the end.

3 . Imagine that normal height for an adult is 1 metre. In a one-minute period, list as many consequences of this as you can.

4. Look at this list of names: BETH HAROLD JOHN LUCY

GAIL SALLY

These names can be classified in many ways. For example, number of syllables cot:Jld be used.: Beth, Gail and John have only one syllable, the other names In the list have two. In a one-minute period, classify the names in as many Wqys as you can.

5. Here are four shapes.

Combine them to make: a face, a lamp, a piece of playground equipment, a tree. You can use each shape once, more than once, or not at all in forming each object and each one can be shrunk or expanded to any size.

Another way of measuring creativity is through the unusual uses test.

• This presents people with various objects (e.g. a brick, a matchbox, a pen) and asks them, in a set period of time, to come up with as many different ways as possible in which the objects can be used.

• Those who think of many ways are said to be creative in the way that they think a.nd reason .

Problem solving: means-end analysis, planning strategies and backwards searching

A lily pad grows so that each day it doubles its size (area). On the 20th day of its life, it completely covers the pond. On wt)at day of its life was the pond half covered?

• Means-end analysis is a problem-solving strategy where the problem solver has to divide the problem into a smaller number of "sub-problems'' in order to reach the goal.

• Each "sutrproblem" should reduce the difference between the starting point and the end point. Therefore, we figure out the "ends" of a problem and then figure out the "means" by which we will do it - hence means- end analysis.

• Some psychologists have tried to use computer simulations to show how a human uses meansend analysis.

• The computer breaks down a problem to a number of smaller problems and solves each one before moving on to the next.

• Therefore, means end analysis is an example of a planning strategy that we can use when problem solving.

• There are other planning strategies that humans may use when attempting to solve problems.

• One is called trial and error in which a person tries lots of different ways to solve a problem, fails and makes errors throughout and then solves the problem this way.

• We may also use an analogy - this is about using the solution to an earlier problem to help us solve a new one.

• Backwards searching is a final technique that we may use to help us to solve a problem. The problem solver starts at the goal state (e.g. what needs to be solved or the end state) and works backwards from this towards the original (or start) state.

Answer to the Illy pad problem

The lily pad covered the pond on the 19th day of its life .

You could have worked it out by noting that the I Hy pad was doubling in size (c;irea) each day, so if it completely covered the pond on the 20th day, it had to have half covered the pond the day before. All it took to cover the pond was one more day.

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Psychology and health

9.1 The patientpractitioner relationship

Practitioner a.nd patient interpersonal skills • Interpersona l skills refer to the social skills

shown bet\veen two {or more) people when they are attempting to communicate effectively.

• Practitioners can use a variety of verbal a.rid nonverbal ski lls to ensure that the patient is listening and can understand the information being conveyed.

Non-verbal communications

• Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal aspects of speech.

• These include elements such as the speed of the speech, the flow of the speech, tl1e volume of the speech, the intonation used, the clarity of the words spoken and fitted pauses (e.g. saying "err" or "urm" ).

• These can be used to help (and can hinder) the passage of information between a practitioner and a patient.

• Research has shown that when a doctor used an angry tone to persuade an alcoholic to have treatment, tl1e patient's willingness decreased markedly (Rosental, 1967).

• If the doctor has a warm and friendly tone then the patient is more likely to listen to and trust the doctor.

• Facial expressions are a very important comr11unication cue.

• Many of the "basic" emotions of a human, irrespective of culture, are conveyed in the same way across the globe.

• The interpretation of these cues appears innate as humans blind from birth will still show tl1ese emotions {Russell , 2005).

• A facial cue can convey meani11g to a patient when talking about a diagnosis, for instance.

• Gestures can be used in conjunction with verbal communications. Hand movements, shrugging of the shoulders and using arms are all examples of gestures.

• A thumbs up might mean "good" in Britain but other cultures might not see it as that.

• Personal space Invasion is another 11on-verbal communication. We cover this in tl1e "Psychology and environment" section on page 112.

• Appearance can be another powerful non-verbal cue as to whether a patient will listen and trust a doctor:

o A doctor who appears to be well dressed and tidy will .be trusted more than one who is casually dressed and a little untidy {Russell , 2005).

o However, vvhen the patient is a child, a doctor who is casually dressed may relax a child more than a very formally dressed doctor.

Verbal communications

• Medical jargon rs one potential hindrance when it comes to verbal commu11ications between doctor and patient.

• McKinlay {1975) was the first to note tl1at medical jargon can affect what the patient understands about the consultation.

• He tested women's knowledge of 13 regularly used "medical terms" and found that almost everyone could not u11derstand words such as protein, umbilicus, purgative and suture.

• Terms such as navel and breech were understood by ma·11y.

• 011ly just over one-third of patients understood each of the 13 words correctly.

• One issue that Russell (2005) noted was that, wl1en a doctor did use jargon, many patients were very reluctant to stop tl1e doctor and ask for clarification as they do not want to be seen as bei11g less intellectual.

Other factors that can affect verbal communications in interactions include the following:

• Volume of informatior1 - Ley (1988) stated that patients tend to remember just over 50 per cent of the information given to them in a consultation .

• Primacy effect - patients te11d to be better at remembering and recalllng information from the beginning of the consultation.

• Knowledge - patients who have some medical knowledge tend to recal l more of the consultation .

• lmporta11ce - patients remember and recal.I only what they feel is important "to them" in the consultation

• Instructions - these are more likely to be forgotten if presented orally (many are printed on drug labels now).

Practitioner diagnosis and style Doctor-centred and patient-centred style

Byrne and Long (1976) analysed about 2 500 recorded medical consultations across many countries and discovered two main "styles":

• The doctor-centred style meant that the doctor asked questions that were closed so that the patient could only answer "Yes " or "No" .

• When the patient attempted to expand on answers or try to give more information, it was mainly ignored.

• It would appear that the doctor wanted to make the symptom-diagnosis link with no extra communication and everything was based on "fact" rather than any discussion.

• The patient-centred style meant that the doctor asked questions that were open so that the patient could explain and expand on answers.

• The doctor using this style would try to limit the use of medical jargon to ensure that the patient understood the diagnosis and potential treatment.

• The doctor would encourage patients to express themselves how they wished and would ask for clarification as and when rt was needed.

Practitioner diagnosis: type I and type II errors

1. Type I error. This is when the doctor diagnoses somebody as healthy when the patient is actually physically or psychologically ill. Many believe this to be the most serious of the two errors as the patient does not get any treatment and the condition continues to get worse.

2. Type II error. This is when the doctor diagnoses somebody as ill when In fact person Is healthy. (See Rosenhan, 1973).

Disclosure of Information

• Sarafino (2006) noted occasions when the patient can hinder the communication. These were when the patient:

o wants to criticise the doctor or becomes angry

o clearly ignores what the doctor is saying

o insists on more tests and medication when the doctor says there is no need

o wants a certificate for an illness that the doctor does not believe the person has

o makes sexual remarks towards the doctor.

• Any of the above can stop a consultation "in its tracks" as the doctor may not know how to handle such a situat ion.

• A patient may show a real concern about a condition that is only minor or show no concern about a condition that is major. The doctor stfll needs to get the correct information from the patient to make a diagnosis.

• Sarafino (2006) noted that patients simply interpret symptoms differently from each other (or they have a different hierarchy of what they feel are the "main symptoms" of an illness).

• Patients may not have the requisite vocabulary to describe accurately the symptoms they are feeling.

Misusing health services Delay in seeking treatment

Safer et al (1979) devised a model after interviewing many patients that tried to explain why patients will delay treatment:

1. Appraisal delay - this refers to the time taken for a person to interpret a physical symptom as a potential indicator of illness. This is affected by immediate sensory information - something bleeding or making a person experience major levels of pain will be interpreted much more quickly as "something wrong" than a small pain, for instance.

2. Illness delay - this refers to the time tak.en between people recognising that they are ill and then actually seeking some form of medical attention. This is affected by familiarity - a new and different symptom wlll create a faster reaction and help seeking behaviour than an old symptom that re-occurs.

3. Utilisation delay - this refers to the time taken between deciding to seek medical attention and actually doing so. This is affected by a number of factors such as cost, how severe the pain is and whether the person feels that going to get help will cure the illness.

Misuse: hypochondriasis

• Sarafino defined hypochondriasis as the "tendency of individuals to worry excessively about their own health, monitor their bodily sensations closely, make frequent unfounded medical complaints, and believe they are ill despite reassurances by physicians that they are not". (2006: 250).

• Fallon (2010) noted three types of hypochondria:

o The obsessive-anxious type are people who worry that they are ill despite reassurances from a doctor that they are not. They believe that the doctor has missed something serious.

o The depressive type either go to the doctor crying that they are about to die and that there is no point testing them, or they refuse to go to the doctor.

o The somatoform type exhibit many of the physical syn1ptoms of an illness and always assume it is a very serious problem. They always think they have the worst illness possible given the symptoms.

• Gropalis et al (2013) noted a cognitive-behavioural element to the condition. Hypochondriacs might have faulty information processing in the brain. Those who have high anxiety when it comes to

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9 Psychology and health

health-related issues always direct their attention towards any source of health threat. They can also easily access memories of illnesses.

• Schwenzer & Mathiak (2012) reported that the cognitive bias described here could be a "general " bias towards "less positive" views. Participants without any knowledge of Chinese language characters had to guess whether, just by looking at them, they portrayed a positive or negative meaning. This was used to see what biases lie in processing information that is clearly not related to illness in any way. Those who had higher hypochondriasis scores on a scale rated the characters as being less positive than those with low hypochondriasis scores.

M isuse: Mi.inchhausen syndrome

• This syndrome was named after a Karl Freidrich Hieronymus Baron von Munchhausen who told wild tales of travels and adventure in the 1700s.

• The condition is a "-factitious disorder" which describes symptoms that are artificially produced by the patient rather than it being a natural illness process.

• Turner & Reid (2002) noted the three main features to be:

o simulated illness (artificial symptoms)

o pathological lying (pseudologia fantastfca)

o wandering from place to place (peregrination).

• It is an extreme form of factitious disorder accounting for about 10 per cent of all factitious disorder case studies.

• A generic but typical case would involve a patient who has travelled to different hospitals under different names turning up and giving a factitious history of his or her condition.

• Patients may simulate symptoms and in some cases eat contaminated food to vomit or produce blood.

• Many illnesses are claimed and the most common are fevers, infections, bleeding and seizures.

• Turner & Reid state that these patients may go through medical procedures that do not show that they have a " real illness" and that many are then "caught out" by inconsistencies in their selfreported medical histories.

• In addition to MQnchhausen syndrome there is Munchhausen syndrome by proxy.

• In these instances the mother or other caregiver of a child deliberately exaggerates and fabricates illness of the child.

• The caregiver may induce physical and psychological problems into the child . It is now referred to as factitious disorder by proxy.

• Criddle (2010) noted three levels of this syndrome:

1. M ild (symptom fabrication). The caregiver may claim the child experiences mild symptoms of a.n Illness (that the child does not have).

2. Moderate (evidence tampering). The caregiver may go as far as manipulating laboratory specimens of the child or falsifying the child's medical records.

3. Severe (symptom induction). The caregiver induces an illness into the child including diarrhoea, seizures and even sepsis. These methods may also include poisoning with things such as insulin and salt, applying faecal matter to open wounds to get them infected and injecting urine into the child .

Case studies • Zibis et al (2010) reported the following case of

Munchhausen syndrome. A 24-year-old woman had been referred to a surgeon as she had extremely painful, stiff and swollen right hand and arm. She reported having had four previous operations on the same region. Four days into her treatment at the hospital she developed a "fever temperature" that would not react well to any drug. However, diagnostic tests could not locate any infection or fever. It was discovered that she was preheating thermometers to take her own temperature and that she was often heard punching the wall at night (presumably with her right hand). She was also seen reading a lot of medical text books about hand diseases a.nd amputations. The medical staff stopped her treatment. Her temperature dropped back to usual levels and, 20 days after taking her cast off, her arm was free of any injury.

• Faida et al (2012) reported on a 40-year-old woman Who had injuries to her right leg. She was complaining of arthritis of the right leg with headaches and ulcers. During her hospitalisation, her conditions got worse and she could no longer walk on her right leg. Tests to examine why this could be the case showed nothing abnormal about the leg. When a standard x-ray was taken of her leg, it was revealed that a sewing needle was embedded in her right calf. When the hospital staff questioned her about this she became very aggressive and denied any knowledge of it. She then attempted to jump out of the hospital window to escape but thankfully was stopped. Many of her symptoms resolved spontaneously after this incident.

9.2 Adherence to medical advice

Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients do not adhere Types and extent of non-adherence

Clarke (2013) noted different types of adherence and if we reverse them we can identify different types of non-adherence, which are:

• not adhering to short-term advice (e.g. to take three pills per day, five hours apart, for one week)

• failing to attend a follow-up interview or a referral appointment

• not wanting to make a lifestyle change (e.g. reducing then quitting smoking or taking more exercise)

• not engaging in preventative measures linked to health (e.g. using contraception).

According to Sarafino (2006), up to 40 per cent of a given population fail to adhere to the medical advice given to them. That is, two in five people do not follow their doctor's advice. In addition, Sarafino found the following:

• When medicine needs to be taken for short-term acute illness, the adherence rate climbs to 67 per cent.

• For longer-term chronic regimes, the figure appears to be around 50 per cent.

• People tend to adhere more just before or just after seeing a doctor.

• For anything that means a change in lifestyle people's adherence appears to be very low.

• Sarafino (2006) was quick to note that these are probably overestimates of non-adherence as the data are only based on people who were willing to take part in a study and then admit to nonadherence.

Rational non-adherence

• Laba, Brien & Jan (2012) wanted to try to understand rational non-adherence using a community sample of patients in Australia. The patients were given a discrete choice online survey that wanted to estimate the importance of eight medication factors on non-adherence. These were :

o immediate medication harm

o immediate medication benefit

o long-term medication harm

o long-term medication benefit

o cost

o regimen

o symptom severity

o alcohol restrictions.

• Six of the factors appeared to affect choice of adherence rationally in the sample (the two that did not were symptom severity and alcohol restrictions).

• Therefore, rational non-adherehce is a complex interaction between the six remaining factors with an overall cost-benefit analysis by individual patients finally predicting whether they will adhere or not. It was noted that when a potential health outcome was framed in terms of ''side effects" the person quite rationally was more likely not to adhere than if a health outcome was framed in terms of "therapeutic benefits '' .

Measuring adherence and non-adherence Subjective: self-reports

• One technique that can be used is for patients to complete self-reports with questions related to how much they are adhering to the treatment.

• Patients can be given booklets to record when they took certain drugs or engaged in certain behaviours that are asked of them as part of their treatment.

• Psychologists are sceptical about the validity and reliability of such measures as patients could easily lie about what they have done in terms of adhering to treatment.

• Kaplan & Simon (1990) noted that if the questions are direct and simple to answer then this technique can be used successfully to measure rates of adherence.

• Patients may give socially desirable answers especially if they have not been adhering to the treatment prescribed to them.

Objective: pill counting, biochemical tests, repeat prescriptions

• One other way of measuring adherence is by simply counting the amount of pills left in a bottle and working out whether the patient has taken the recommended amount over a certain time period.

• This can assess whether the patient has followed the correct procedure and taken the specified amount of tablets.

• However, just because the pills are not in the bottle any more does not mean they have actually been taken.

• A patient may well have thrown the pills away (as in the Rosenhan study) or just placed them in a different container.

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• Another way to measure adherence is to run biochemical tests on the patient.

• These include urine analysis and blood tests to detect levels of the drug that the patient should have consumed.

• Psychologists believe these are the best methods to use after reviewing the field (e.g. Roth, 1987), but the tests are very expensive compared to the other options available.

• While these tests do detect drug levels, they still do not show total adherence to a regime, only that the person has ingested enough of the drug for it to be detectable.

CHALLENGE YOURSELF

A local health charity wants you to help it decide which is the best way to measure

adherence to medical advice. In your report to the charity, you must outline at least three ways and highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each technique.

Improving adherence Improve practitioner style, provide information and behavioural techniques

• Practitioners can ensure that the patient understands the "disease process" and the pros and cons of treatment.

• They can use simplified, non-medical language.

• They can use measura.ble statements for treatment rather than generic advice (e.g. with people who take regula r exercise by swimming, saying that they should swim 20 lengths each time they go for a swim, rather than telling them to take some exercise daily).

• Any key information which is vital to the treatment should be stated more than once.

• Any written instructions should have no ambiguity whatsoever.

• Practitioners can ask the patient to repeat the instructions at least once.

Burke, Dunbar-Jacob & Hill (1997) highlighted four techniques that work:

• Tailor the regimen - ensure that the treatment programme is compatible with the lives of the patients. For example, if exercise is part of the treatment t hen make sure it can fit into their lives if they work full-time.

• Provide prompts and reminders - these serve as cues so the patient is reminded of the treatment (e.g. having the day printed on the drug packaging so patients know whether they have taken the pill on the correct day).

• Use self-monitoring - ask patients to keep a written record of what they do. These act as prompts and the patient is more likely to stick to the treatment if they have to keep a record.

• Use a behaviour contract - a "contract" can be drawn up between doctor and patient to reach certain treatment goals wtth appropriate rewards.

Use of text messaging

• Lewis et al (2013) reported on a scheme that sent tailored text messages to people currently undergoing HIV treatment.

• After being assessed prior to receiving text messages, the patients received reminder texts, answered weekly adherence texts and for those who adhered to treatment they received tailored messages such as "He shootsl He scores! Perfect med adherence. Great job! " (2013: 250).

• For those found to be non-adherent they were sent reminder texts such as "Stop, drop and pop. Take your meds now! " (2013: 250).

• The patients reported being very receptive to the text messaging system and appreciated the messages.

• The adherence to medication (self-reported) improved significantly during the three months when texts were sent (especially among those who had begun the study not adhering to treatment).

• Objective measures of adherence such as viral load confirmed that these patients had been adhering to treatment.

Letters

• Zhang & Fish (2012) examined whether a simple letter through the post may improve adherence to a variety of t reatments in a healthcare setting.

• They also wanted to investigate whether different types of treatment were affected in the same way via a reminder letter.

• Adult patients were followed to check for adherence rates to a variety of health issues such a.s colonoscopies, general x-rays, vaccines and general eye tests for diabetics.

• A first ren1inder letter was sent out one month after the appropriate time frame for treatment for urgent cases and after two months for nonurgent cases.

• If these were not responded to then the second letter was sent out one month after the first. Table 9.2..1 shows the adherence rates for a variety of treatments followed in the study.

Treatment No reminder One letter as reminder Two letters as reminders Non·adherence

Colonoscopy 35

Mammogram 57

Cardiac testing 11

Ultrasound 55

Note: Numbers refer to number of patients

A Table 9.2.1 Adherence rates

Source: Zhang & Fish (2012)

Memory intervention

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16

5

7

lnsel et al have proposed a multifaceted approach to improving adherence through cognitive tasks (note the plural):

• Emphasise routine - have medication in same place and same time each day or each time it has to be taken.

• Develop cues (e.g. have a pill pot on the breakfast table in full view rather than in a box in a drawer).

• Elaborate the action (e.g. get the patient to shake the bottle before taking the pills to make it more memorable so they don't take a repeat dose immediately).

• Do It now. As soon as a cue is present the patient takes the pills there and then - a fivesecond delay can cause forgetting and nonadherence.

• Implementation intentions - make it all specific, so rather than having patients thinking "Around

14 45

5 34

0 4

1 5

breakfast time I will take my pills" get them to think "With my first cup of tea of the day I will take my pills."

• Teach - ask - wait - ask again - wait - ask again. This allows patients to rehearse intentions. Leaving a sufficient gap at the second "wait" (as long as 15 minutes) can help improve memory for intention, according to lnsel et al.

Evaluation extra • These techniques are useful. The different

techniques can be used with different patients to find one that works - this means that adherence "plans" can be individually specific and this should increase the chances of patients "sticking to" their drug regimeh.

• The cognitive approaches are objective. This is a strength as it is seen as being a scientific approach - we are looking at aspects of adherence that can be manipulated and measured. We can establish cause and effect.

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Types and theories of pain Definitions of pain

• According to Sarafino (2006), pain can be a sensory and/ or emotional discomfort which tends to be associated with actual tissue damage or threatened tissue damage including irritation.

Acute and chronic organic pain

• Acute pain refers to times when patients experience temporary pain for about six months or less.

• They experience anxiety while the pain is there but this dissipates quickly once the pain begins to disappear.

• When pain lasts continually for more than a few months, it is referred to as chronic pain.

• People experiencing this will have high levels of anxiety and may well develop a sense of helplessness and depression.

• This is especially true if treatment is not helping. The pain interferes with daily life, thoughts and sleep patterns.

Psychogenic pain

• Not all pain stems from physiological mechanisms.

• Psychogenic pain refers to episodes where there is no organic (physiological) cause of pain but the person is experiencing pain.

• One controversial element of pain perception has been phantom limb pain .

• This is a condition whereby a patient who is an amputee still experiences pain in a limb that Is not longer physically there or in a limb that has no functioning nerves within it.

• The pain is described in the same way as any other ache or pain that people experience daily.

• Pain is often described as shooting or burning or like cramp.

Specificity theory of pain

• It was predicted that we have a sensory system that is dedicated to pain.

• These series of neurons form a pathway to a dedicated pain centre in the brain.

• The more this pathway is used, the more intense the pain is as experienced by the person.

• This theory states that pain is purely physiological and that there are nerve centres in the brain that exclusively process this information.

• Some psychologists have found evidence for certain fibres being exclusive to pain but others state that they cannot find them.

• There are sensory fibres in our s.kin that can detect heat, cold and certain pressures but these can also detect pain so the "exclusivity" argument is now a weak one.

Gate control theory of pain

• Melzack & Wall (1965) proposed the idea of a gate control theory for pain.

• Pain is detected and still picked up by sensory signals but the spinal cord plays a key role in the experience of the actual pain.

• The spinal cord has a mechanism with in it that acts just like a gate: it is either open or closed in the main.

• If it is open the pain is experienced but the spinal cord can modulate the pain level by having the gate slightly rather than fully open.

• There are three main factors in the gate-opening process:

o The amount of activity in pain fibres is a factor. The more ''noxious" the pain stimulus is, the more likely the gate will be opened {e.g. if someone has a severe cut).

o Another factor is the amount of activity in other peripheral fibres. These are called A-beta fibres. They carry information about " low-Jevel pain" (e.g. a scratch or a touch). When there is activity in these fibres the gate tends to close as the pain is low level and not dangerous.

o Messages from the brain play a part. Information such as excitement and anxiety can affect how much the gate is opened or closed.

• Sarafino (2006) noted conditions that can open or close the gate in the spinal cord. The following can open the gate:

o severe injury

o anxiety, worry, depression, etc.

o focusing too much on the pain , plus boredom.

• The following can close the gate:

o medication

o positive emotions (e.g. laughing through happiness)

o rest and relaxation

o distraction from the pain.

Measuring pain Self-report measures

• These are usually questionnaire-based methods that allow the person experiencing the pain to rate how severe the pain is.

• Common examples would be the use of a box scale, a verbal rating scale or a Likert-type scale.

• Patients may also be asked to keep a pain diary so the physician can monitor when the pain is happening and how the patient feels.

Box scale:

No pain ( O ( 1 ] 2 J 3 J 4 I 5 I 6 I 7 I 8 I 9 j 10 I Worst pain possible

Verbal rating scale:

No pain Some pain Considerable pain Worst pain possible

Llkert-type scale:

The example questions below would be answered using the options of:

Strongly agree, Agree, Don't know, Disagree, Strongly disagree.

1. The pain usually gets worse at night.

2. Pain relief helps m.e control my pain .

..._ Figure 9.3.1 Scales for recording pain - box rating, verbal rating and Ukert-type scales

PAIN DIARY FOR:

DATE: Did you change your medication today? If yes, describe:

Pain rating scale:

No pain 0 1 2 3 4 5 Unbearable pain

Time Pain rating and Activity at start What medication did Pain rating after Comments/ other body position of pain you take and how 1or2 hours problems

much?

S.30 p.m. 5/ \ower balK Leaned over and /\spirin (2.) 4 - he\ped a C.ou\d $tand up pain dra99ed dining \itt\e better

c.hair awai from tab\e

ll.OO p.m. ?../ \ower balK Liin9 ftat on balK Ibuprofen (Z.) l - he.\pt-0 Troub\e. getting to du\\ alne in the bed s\eep: got to s\eep at

- - -.i'--..- -• -- ..... ~ - ~

A Figure 9.3.2 Example of a pain diary

Psychometric measures and visual rating scales

• One standardised psychometric measure of pain is the McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ).

1. A diagram of a body is presented to the patient who simply has to mark where the pain is located around the body.

2. There are 20 sub-classes of descriptive words of which the patient has to choose a maximum of one per class. The further down the list in each sub-class the word is, the more points it

.

.......

around z..oo a.m . - - ~ ..... ...... . .....

scores so that an overall pain rating index can be calculated.

3. The patient has to describe the pattern of pain from three sub-classes of words and then produce some qualitative data about what things relieve but also increase the pain.

4. The final part gets the patient to rate the strength of the pain via six questions. The scores for the questions are added up to create a present pain intensity score.

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90


Part l. Where Is Your Pain?

Please mark on the drawing below the areas where you feel pain . Put E if external, or I if internal, near the areas which you mark. Put El if both external and internal.

•

Part 3. How Does Your Pain Change With Time?

1. Which word or words would you use to describe the pattern of your pain?

1 Continuous Steady Constant

2 Rhythmic Periodic Intermittent

2. What kind of things relieve your pain?

3. What kind of things increase your pain?

• Figure 9.3.3 The MPQ

Source: Melzack, 1975

3 Brief Momentary Transient

Part 2. What Does Your Pain Feel Like?

Some of the words below describe your present pain. Circle ONLY those words that best describe it. Leave out any category that is not suitable. Use only a single word in each appropriate category - the one that applies best.

1 2 3 4 Flickering Jumping Pricking Sharp Quivering Flashing Boring Cutting Pulsing Shooting Drilling Lacerating Throbbing Stabbing Beating La nc i nati ng Pounding

5 6 7 8 Pinching Tugging Hot Tingling Pressing Pulling Burning Itchy Gnawing Wrenching Scalding Smarting Cramping Searing Stinging Crushing

9 10 11 12 Dull Tender Tiring Sickening Sore Taut Exhausting Suffocating Htrrting Rasping Aching Splitting Heavy

13 14 15 16 Fearful Punishing Wretched Annoying Frightful Gruelling Blinding Troublesome Terrifying Cruel Miserable

Vicious Intense Ki Iii ng Unbearable

17 18 19 20 Spreading Tight Cool Nagging Radiating Numb Cold Nauseating Penetrating Drawing Freezing Agonizing Piercing Squeezing Dreadful

Tearing Torturing

Part 4. How Stron2 Is Your Pain?

People agree that the following 5 words represent pain of increasing intensity. They are:

1 2 3 4 5 Mild Discomforting Distressing Horrible Excruciating

To answer each question belovv, write the number of the most appropriate word in the space beside the question .

1 . Which word describes your pain right now? 2. Which word describes it at its worst? 3. Which word describes it when it is least? 4 . Which word describes the worst toothache

you ever had? 5. Which word describes the worst headache

you ever had? 6. Which word describes the worst stomach

ache you ever had?

• Visual rating scales can come in the form of visual analogue scales as shown in Figure 9.3.4.

No pain [-------] Worst pain possible

.& Figure 9.3.4 Visual analogue scale for recording pain

• The physician can measure (witl1 a ruler) the distance along the scale to get a numeric measure of how intense the pain is - other questions and bipolar adjectives can be used on these scales too.

Behavioural or observational scale

• The UAB Pain Behavior Scale can be used by nurses to assess the degree of pain a patient is in by observing the person's behaviour.

• The patient will be asked to perform several activities such as walking around, sitting down then standing up and the nurse then rates each of tl1ese to give a total score of how much the pain is affecting the patient's behaviour.

Parameter Points Finding

verba l complaints none 0

occasional 0.5

frequent 1

non-verbal complaints none 0

occasional 0 .5

frequent 1

down tin1e none 0

0 to 60 minutes 0 .5

> 60 minutes 1

facial grimaces none 0

mild and/or Infrequent 0.5

severe and/or frequent 1

standing posture normal 0

mildly impaired 0.5

distorted 1 - . . " • - -

.& Figure 9.3.5 The UAB Pain Behavior Scale

• In addition, structured clinical sessions can be used and these can be tailored to the pain condition a patient has.

• Patients can be asked to perform a series of tasks linked to the pain {e.g. if it is lower back pain one of the tasks may be to tie their shoe laces).

• A trained observerthen watches the recording and scores the patient so an overall pain score can be calculated.

Pain measures In children

• There is 011e question11aire that has been developed that can be used just with children -the Pediatric Pain Questionnaire.

• Cl1ildren have to describe their pain in their own words then choose as many adjectives as they want to, to help describe their pain some more.

-

• There is a visual analogue scale used with faces as the bipolar ends and then, similar to the MPQ, a picture of a person so they can indicate where the pain is.

.& Figure 9 .3.6 The Pediatric Pain Questionnaire

Managing and controlling • pain

Medical technJques

• PerlpheraJly active analgesics - these inhibit the production of certain neurochemicals that are produced as a result, for example, of tissue damage. Common examples of these drugs are aspirin and ibuprofen. Aspirin, for instance, reduces the experience of pain but also reduces inflammation that could be causing the pain.

• Centrally acting analgesics - these are good at reducing acute pain in the short term as they act directly on the central nervous system. Examples of these drugs are codeine and morphine.

• L-0cal anaesthetics - these can be applied locally to the site of pain (or be injected) to give almost immediate relief. They block the nerve cells at the site of damage. An example of this type of drug is

. novoca1ne.

• Indirectly acting drugs - these are drugs that are used for other conditions but can also help in pain management. For example, antidepressants can help reduce psychological aspects of depression but they can also help relieve pain .

Psychological techniques: cognitive strategies

Sarafino (2006) noted a range of otl1er cognitive strategies that can be used with patients. These include:

• Distraction - this technique gets patients to focus on something that is not linked to the pain in any way. This can include looking at a picture, singing a song, playing on a video console or having to focus on someone's voice. Distractors have to be relevant to patients and be engrossing enough for them. Hence, they have to be individually tailored.

91

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• Imagery - this can be called guided imagery and involves patients creating a mental scene "far removed" from the current state of pain. This could be a pleasant place (e.g. a beach) and the therapist has to guide them through the scene to distract them from the pain. The therapist may ask about sights and sounds, for instance. The aim is to create a "place" that cannot be linked to the pain being experienced.

Alter.native techniques

• Hypnosis - patients who are good hypnotic subjects could benefit from using hypnosis as part of their pain management. The hypnotist can use suggestions and imagery to help patients cope with pain. It is common for the suggestion

of analgesia (pain relief) to work on hypnotic patients as a result of their high levels of suggestibility.

• Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimuJation (TENS) machines - these machines have electrodes which are placed either side of the source of pain. The machine then sends a mild electrical current between the electrodes which, in theory, reduces the sensation of pain.

• Acupuncture - this is an ancient Chinese practice of inserting special fine metal needles under the skin of patients. Areas are chosen to insert these needles depending on the sourc·e of the pain. Once inserted, the needles are "twirled" or stimulated electrically.

Causes and sources of stress Physiology of stress and effects on health

• The physiological response to stress is controlled by two bodily systems:

o The autonomic nervous system is composed of two approximately antagonistic sub-systems, the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. This system acts rapidly to stimulate physiological changes such as breathing and heart rate as well as affecting the second element, the endocrine system.

o The endocrine system provides a slower communication route through the body using hormones released in response to signals from nerves or from other glands.

• In an emergency, the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system responds quickly, preparing for "fight or flight".

• The sympathetic nervous system also sends impulses to the endocrine system, which responds by releasing hormones that enhance the preparation for action.

• This mechanism, which links the sympathetic nervous system to the adrenal medulla, is called the sympathetic adrenal medullary system.

• Stress can have a range of effects on health, such as the following:

o Cardiovascular problems can occur. These can include hypertension (high blood pressure) and atherosclerosis (the build up of fat deposits in blood vessels). Both of these increase the risk of having a heart attack.

o Gastrointestinal disorders might be experienced. An increase in stomach acids can lead to ulcers and digestive problems. Also, conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome can also be made worse by stress.

The GAS model

• Selye (194 7) described the body's response to stress and began to explore the links between stress and illness.

• He induced stress in rats using stressors such as heat and fatigue.

• The rats showed the same physiological responses regardless of the nature of the stressor; they had enlarged adrenal glands and they developed stomach ulcers.

• Selye proposed that the body responded to any stressor by getting itself ready for action . Three stages are involved:

1. Alarm reaction: the bodyts mechanisms for dealing with danger are activated. It Is based around the fight or flight mechanism In animals.

Physiological reactions include respiratjon rate increasing, heart rate increasing and blood pressure rising.

2 . Resistance stage: the person struggles to cope with the stress and the body attempts to return to its previous physiological state.

This happens if no more stress is experienced. However, the person is more vulnerable than before so if stress is experienced before returning to the previous state, the person will struggle to cope.

3 . Exhaustion stage: if the stressor persists and the body cannot return to its previous state, phys'ical resources become depleted, eventually leading to collapse.

Ca uses of stress

Lack of control

• Rotter (1966) identified a personality variable he called the locus of control.

• People who attribute control to factors they cannot govern, such as chance or the behaviour of other people, are described as having an external locus of control.

• Those who believe that they are responsible for themselves have an internal locus of control.

• Wallston et al (1978) developed the health locus of control scale. This measure, which looks specifically at an individual's beliefs about the factors that determine the person's health outcomes, assesses three dimensions:

o Internal health locus of control - this is the extent to which the individual feels able to be responsible for his or her own stress levels. For example, a person may believe "My own lifestyle choices are what will affect my stress levelsn.

o Powerful others' control over health - this refers to the individual's belief in the role that other, important, people (such as doctors, family and friends) play in the experience of stress. For example, a person may hold views such as "Whenever I feel stressed, I should consult a trained professional".

o Chance health locus of control - this refers to the role that the individual assigns to pure " luck". An individual may believe: "No matter what I do, if I am going to get stressed, I will get stressed" .

Work

• Johannson et al (1978) aimed to study the physiological and psychological stress responses in the two categories of high-risk and low-risk workers.

• There were two groups: the high-risk group consisted of 14 workers who had a complex job and worked at a set pace governed by the production line; the low-risk group was made up of 10 workers who worked at their own pace as cleaners or maintenance staff. 93

94

9 Psycllology and health

• The research team measured workers' adrenaline (through urine samples) and body temperature on arrival at work,, and at four other times throughout the day, self-rating of mood and alertness, and caffeine and nicotine consumption.

• Baseline measurements were taken at the sa1ne times of the day when the workers were at home.

• It was found that workers in the high-risk group had adrenaline levels twice as high on arrival at work than when they were at home. Their levels continued to rise throughout the day, whereas the low-risk group had adrenaline levels 1 .5 times the amount recorded at home and their levels lowered throughout the day.

Life events

• Holmes & Rahe (1967) constructed a questionnaire called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS). See Figure 9 .4.1 for an excerpt.

• It is used to measure the amount of stress that a person experiences over a certain amount of time (usually one year).

• They initially conducted research into how different life events are perceived in terms of how stressful they are.

• Each of the 43 life events was given a score out of 100 and these scores were called life change units (LCUs).

• People simply had to add up how many LCUs they had scored over one year.

• Holmes & Rahe noted that people who score more than 300 LCUs in a given year are much more likely to become ill due to the amount of stress they experienced.

R.ank Ufe event Mean val.ue

1 Death of spouse 100

2 Divorce 73

3 Marital separation 65 4 Jail term 63

5 Death of close family member 63

6 Personal injury or illness 53 7 Marriage 50

8 Fi red at work 47

9 Marital reconciliation 45

10 Retirement 45

11 Change in health of fami ly 44 member

4 Figure 9.4.1 Excerpt from the SRRS questionnaire

Source: Holmes & Rahe, 1967

Personality

• Friedman & Rosen man (197 4) observed that their coronary patients, tended to sit on the edge of their seat, leaping up frequently to enquire how much longer they would be kept waiting for their appointments.

• The possibility of a connection between the heart conditions and the tense, frenetic behaviour of these individuals led to the proposal of "hurry sickness", later renamed "type A".

• Type A individuals tend to be highly competitive, aggressive, impatient and hostile , with a strong urge for success.

• Their behaviour tends to be goal-directed and performed at speed. In contrast, people with type 8 behaviour are relatively "laid back", lacking the urgency and drive typical of type A individuals.

Daily hassles

• We do not have to experience major life-changing events to experience stress.

• Everyday events can also ,be a legitimate source of stress. Activities such as losing your keys, spilling milk when in a rush or having to give a presentation at school can cause high levels of stress.

• Lazarus (1981) developed a scale called the Hassles Scale that lists over 115 different dai ly events .

• People rate each event on a set scale. The higher the score, the more stress they have experienced and this in turn increases the chance of ill health .

• The research team also created an Uplifts Scale (events that are positive and happy) to see whether these can offset the potential stress caused by daily hassles. Figure 9.4.2 shows an excerpt from the Hassles and Uplifts Scale.

Rank Life event Mean value

23 Son or daughter leaving hon1e 29

24 Trouble with in-laws 29

25 Outstanding personal achievement 28

26 Spouse begins or stops work 26 27 Beginning or ending school 26

28 Change in living conditions 25

29 Revision of personal habits 24

30 Trouble with boss 23

31 Change in work hours or conditions 20

32 Change in residence 20

33 Change in schools 20

Please fill out this questionnaire just before you go to bed.

HA.SS LES UPLIFTS

How much of a hassle was this item for you today? How much of an uplift was this item for you today?

0 = None or not applicable 0 = None or not applicable

1 = Somewhat 1 = Somewhat

2 = Quite a bit .2 = Quite a bit

3 = A great deal 3 = A great deal

Please circle one number on the left-hand side (hassles) and one number on the right-hand side (uplifts)

0123 1. Your child(ren) 0123 0123 2. Your parents or parents-in-law 0123

0123 3. Other relative(s) 0123

0123 4. Your spouse 0123

0123 5. Time spent with family 0123

0123 6. Health or wellbeing of a family member 0123

0123 7. Sex 0123

0123 8. Intimacy 0123

0123 9. Family-related obligations 0123

0123 10. Your friend(s) 0123

0123 11. Fellow workers 0123

0123 12. Clients, customers, patients, etc. 0123

0123 13. Your supervisor or employer 0123

0123 14. The nature of your work 0123

0123 15. Your workload 0123

0123 16. Your job security 0123

0123 17. Meeting deadlines or goals on the job 0123

0123 18. Enough money for necessities (e.g. food, clothing, housing, healthcare, taxes, insurance) 0123

A Flgure 9.4.2 Excerpt from the Hassles and Uplifts Scale questionnaire

Source: Delongis, Folkman & Lazurus (1988)

Measures of stress Physiological measures: recording devices and sample tests

• Blood pressure monitors are used to measure both systolic and diastolic pressure. Each of these is given a number and the result is written, for example, as 115/ 75 (this is an ideal reading). If a person has a reading that is 185/125 then this indicates severe hypertension that is likely to be caused by extreme stress.

• Blood and urine tests can used to measure levels of cortisol in our body. Cortisol is a stress hormone. Higher levels indicate that the body is physiologically stressed.

• Galvanic skin response devices have electrodes that are attached to a person's finger tips. They measure the amount of electrical resistance in the skin. Higher levels of skin response can be an indicator of autonomic nervous system arousal which is linked to stress.

Self-report questionnaires

There are questionnaires that people can complete that give a numerical measure of stress. These have already been covered above, such as the SRRS and the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (Figures 9.4.1 and 9.4.2).

Management of stress Medical techniques

• Benzodlazapines are a group of drugs (including valium) that directly affect stress reactions in the central nervous system.

• Beta-blockers are a group of drugs that reduce the anxiety and blood pressure linked to stress. These act on the peripheral nervous system and block activity from ephinephrine and norepinephrine.

• Drugs should only be used as a short-term, temporary measure for dealing with stress.

Psychological techniques: biofeedback and Imagery

• Biofeedback is a technique that attempts to get people to take control of their own physiological state.

• Usually, people are wired up or connected to devices that measure key physiological processes such as heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension.

• The equipment gives instant and continuous readings of these key physiological measures. The idea is that people take voluntary control of their physiology using the id.ea of rewards.

• If people are attempting to reduce their resting heart rate and they can see that deeper breathing 95

96

9 Psychology and l1ealth

and relaxation is doing this instantly then they are more likely to want to do the same next time.

• Imagery can also be used to reduce stress in people - techniques involve using mental imagery to distract people from thinking about any stressors they have.

• They may be taught relaxation techniques to help with the distraction. These may include visual imagery to take them "away from their stressors" and deep-breathing exercises or even yoga and meditation.

• People using mental imagery will have to imagine a variety of situations that have nothing to do with the stresses they are currently experiencing.

Preventing stress

• One technique to prevent stress that has generated a great deal of research and following by therapists is stress inoculation therapy (Meichenbaum, 1996). There are three stages:

1. Conceptualisation phase - this is when a relationship is built between the trainer and the client. The trainer will educate clients about the nature and impact that stress has on their lives. The trainer may even show how clients may be currently making their stress worse without them even knowing they are doing it. Clients are then encouraged to see perceived stressors as "problems to be solved" rather than as a negative experience. They are introduced to different coping

mechanisms and strategies that they can then go and use. They are also taught to break stressors down into short-term, intermediate and long-term coping goals.

2. Skill acquisition and rehearsal phase - this is when the elements from stage 1 have been taught and clients have to put them into practice. The skills are initially practised with the trainer and in the clinic but then clients are encouraged to try them in the real world. Some of the coping mechanisms could include relaxation training, cognitive restructuring, interpersonal communication skills and using social support to help them in times of need.

3. Application and follow-through phase - this is when there are opportunities for clients to apply all of the coping skills to increasing levels of stressors. Additional techniques, such as using imagery, modelling, role playing and rehearsal, are used in the form of upersonal experitTients" so that clients cah show that they can cope with any level of stressor. These help to consolidate the skills they have already learned. They are also followed up with booster sessions to ensure that the entire process is working.

• The whole technique is flexible and can be a simple 20-minute session for people who are just about to go into surgery to 40 one-hour weekly sessions for people who cannot cope with any level of stress.

9.5 Health proinotion

Methods for promoting health Fear arousal

• The idea behind fear arousal is that If you "scare people enough" then they will change their thoughts and behaviour.

• Roberts & Russell (2002) noted that while feararousing methods may be effective, there are certain factors that can affect whether the person it is aimed at does adhere to the message. These factors are :

o the unpleasantness of the fear-arousing message

o the probability that the event will occur if the person does not follow the message given

o the perceived effectiveness of the recommended action portrayed Jn the message.

• Therefore, idea lly, the message should be relatively unpleasant; people must believe that what it is warning about wUI happen to them and that any "evasive" action will be effective.

• Janis & Feshbach (1953) reported that only minimal fear is effective.

• They showed participants a film about dental hygiene and each group either got a strong fear message, a moderate or a minimal fear message.

• The group who got the minimal fear message showed the highest level of agreement with the advice (36 per cent) compared to the strong fear group (8 per cent).

Yale model of communication

Hovland et al (1953) conducted many studies at Yale University which helped to form this model of persuasive communication:

1 . Attention - the message must grab people 's attention. Sound and visual stimuli are the most effective. Therefore , using television might be better than using leaflets or the radio.

2. Comprehension - for a message to be successful it must be understood by the recipient. Therefore, messages need to be clear, concise and short.

3. Acceptance - finally, the overall message has to be accepted by the recipient for a change in behaviour to occur. The person does not have to believe the message but must accept it and behave according to it for it to be persuasive communication.

There are several factors that can affect any or all of the three stages above.

• The communicator is a factor because a message is more persuasive if the communicator is attractive, is similar to the recipient and rs likeable.

• The content needs to be carefully considered. It is best to cause mild fear and best when the message is presented verbally and visually. A one-sided or two-sided argument needs to be considered too.

• The medium used is another factor to consider. The communicator needs to choose whether a television campaign would work better than a radio or leaflet campaign . If the message is simple and straightforward then conveying it via television is best; if it is complicated then written media is best.

Providing information

• Mass media include television , radio, magazines and newspapers.

• One "popular" approach to providing information is for health services and the government to inform the general population about the negative consequences of certain health-related behaviours (e.g. smoking and drinking alcohol). The following applies to this approach:

o It appears to have limited success as many people misunderstand the messages.

o This is especially true if people are not that motivated to change their behaviour anyway.

o If people are motivated to change behaviour then it can be useful.

• Saratino (2006) gave the example of Cable Quit, a television show that helped people to prepare to quit unhealthy behaviours by giving out information from the first day they decided to quit. Around 17 per cent of people had still quit a year later after watching the programmes.

• The Internet can be used to provide information as there are now thousands of websites that promote healthy behaviour and allow people to track their own progress and meet others online to help motivate them to change.

• Medical settings can be useful - having information displayed in a doctor's surgery or a doctor's office might make people believe the messages more. As the information is given in a professional setting it might receive instant respect.

Health promotion in schools, worksites and communities Schools

• Walter et al (1985) reported on an US study of 22 elementary schools which introduced a curriculum that had a focus on physical fitness and nutrition.

• The schools were randomly assigned either to participate in the programme or act as a control .

• The children who received the curriculum had lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels compared to the control children after one year.

97


• However, many schools cannot afford to introduce such curricula which would include having specialists come in to teach.

Worksltes

• One classic worksite health promotion example is that of the company Johnson & Johnson.

• It began a programme called Live For Life in 1978.

• The programme covered thousands of its employees. It educated people on hea Ith knowledge, how to manage stress, exercising, weight control and smoking cessation.

• Each employee who takes part has an initial health screening that assesses the person's current health status.

• Employees then take part in a lifestyle seminar that promotes healthy living.

• After this, employees take part in action groups that are led by professionals in their fields based on the initial health screening.

• Employees are then monitored for a year to see whether they are following their programme. In addition to this, the workplace itself has exercise areas and nutritional food served in Its cafeterias.

• Studies conducted in the company show that employees who take part in the Live For Live programme increase their physical activity levels, decrease in weight and are more likely to quit smoking compared to employees who do not take part in the programme.

Communities

• One example of a community-based wellness programme was that of a study of three communities in the United States (Pdrquhar et al, 1977).

• The aim was to get communities to change their health-related behaviour in an attempt to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

• Three communities in Northern California were selected for being very similar demographically.

• Two of them shared the same television and radio stations whereas the third did not (and acted as a control comparison).

• The two that shared the same media were subjected to a two-year campaign about cardiovascular disease that included warnings but also information on changing diet, increasing exercise and the disadvantages of smoking.

• In all three communities, a random selection of males and females were chosen to be followed.

• The researchers interviewed them annually and also took measurements such as weight, cholesterol level and blood pressure to be used as a predictor for cardiovascular disease.

• The control comparison community sample saw risk increase over the duration of the study while the two communities following the campaign showed some moderate decreases.

98 • Longer-term follow-ups were conducted and the largest success came from those who were older.

Promoting health of a specific problem Britt, Silver & Rivara (1998) aimed to test the effectiveness of a bicycle helmet safety campaign. It targeted those in low income. It was part of a Head Start Program. There were 18 different schools of 880 children with a control group of 200. The Program comprised of:

• Clasroom activities

• Education of parents

• Home visits

• Fitting of helmets

• A skills and safety event

• Children had to wear a helmet on school grounds.

• Helmet use doubled in the health promotion group (43%to 89%)

• The control group rose to (42% to 60%)

9.6 Health and safety

Definitions, causes and examples Definitions of accidents

One definition of an accident could be a misfortune or a mishap especially if it causes an injury or even death.

Causes: theory A and theory B (Reason, 2000)

• Theory A is when the individual may be to blame. Accidents at work are primarily caused by unsafe behaviour of an individual.

• Theory B is when work systems may be to blame. Accidents at work are primarily caused by unsafe work systems and procedures.

• However, it may be that theory A factors and theory B factors combine to cause accidents rather than one or the other causing them.

Examples of Individual and system errors

Individual errors (theory A)

• The sinking of the Titanic in 1912 could be blamed on the captain of the ship. The argument is that he had an illusion of invulnerability. This term actually refers to something linked to "groupthink" - this is when a mode of thinking becomes so dominant within a group that realistic alternatives (and better alternatives) are overlooked, especially under stressful conditions. Therefore, the members of the group believe that they are immune to accidents.

• The Pacific Western Airline crash (1978) was blamed on human error. The airplane attempted to land early on a runway due to miscommunication between the pilots and the air traffic controllers. It happened in a snow storm. The pilots noticed a snow plough and tried to abort the landing but the plane hit it before they managed this. The estimated time of arrival for the flight was miscommunicated and. several safety procedures were not followed by the pilots .

System errors (theory B)

• Both the Three Mlle Island (1976) and Chernobyl (1986) nuclear plant accidents could. be blamed on the rapid rotation of shifts for the workers in both plants plus some poor designs and layout of safety equipment and procedures which meant that workers found it very difficult to cope with the situation .

• When the Herald of Free Enterprise (1987) ferry sank the accident was blamed on poor systems and safety procedures that were difficult to follow.

Accident proneness and personality It may be that some of the theory A factors that are predicted to cause accidents could be down to certain personality types.

Accident prone personality and personality factors

• Farmer & Chambers stated: "accident proneness is a personal idiosyncrasy of relative permanence predisposing the individual to a higher rate of accidents" (1926: 3).

• Research has failed to uncover an actual "accidentprone personality" but it did unearth other personality traits that could contribute to accidents.

A recent review of the field (Clarke & Robertson, 2006) revealed the following:

• People low In conscientiousness appeared to be involved in more accidents. That is, people who are low in social responsibilities and/ or thoroughness in their jobs tend to have more accidents.

• People low In agreeableness appeared to be involved in more accidents. That is , people who are low in pleasantness, tolerance and helpfulness tend to have more accidents.

• People high in extraverslon may be involved in more accidents. This is slightly different as it appears that people who are outgoing and boisterous do get involved in more traffic accidents but no more occupational accidents than introverts.

Another recent find ing about accidents showed that it may not be personality as such that causes accidents but handedness (Bhusham & Khan, 2006):

• They investigated 80 locomotive drivers and their accident records.

• There appeared to be a higher accident rate among those who were left-handed and left-footed.

• However, it may be that the design of locomotive cabs makes it more difficult for left-handers and left-footers to use them effectively.

Human error and the illusion of invulnerability

• Cognitive overload is when a person cannot cope with the psychological demands of a work situation. This is usually when there are competing tasks that need psychological attention and the person cannot process all of the information simultaneously.

• Shift work patterns (see the "Psychology and organisations" section, page 154) also have an effect. People working on the night shift are more likely to have accidents because between 3 a.m. and 6 a.m. we are in a ''cognitive low" and our reaction times and dexterity are at our lowest performance level.

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Reducing accidents and promoting safety behaviours Reducing accidents at work: token economy

• A token economy is an example of behaviour modification using rewards to increase the likelihood that someone will perform a desired behaviour.

• Token economies can be organised in a variety of ways as long as there ls an incentive to perform well.

• In standard token economies, a token is given for desired behaviour (the token could be a plastic token or points) and these can be exchanged for a reward of some form.

Haynes, Pine & Fitch (1982) reported on one such programme that attempted to reduce the number of accidents experienced by bus drivers.

• There were daily reports posted in the restroom for the drivers giving details of any accidents that had happened.

• Drivers were placed in teams to compete against others to have the best safety record. This was used to promote group safety as well as individual safety.

• The teams scored points for how well they did and the winning team could convert those points into cash or other prizes at the end of the competition period.

• There was a 25 per cent reduction in accidents and the saving made on insurance claims paid for the winning prizes.

Reorganising shift work

The best option here is to move towards a slow rotation of shifts rather than a quick rotation of shifts so that workers ' circadian rhythms have a chance to alter to the new shift pattern. This is covered in the "Psychology and organisations" section on page 155.

Safety promotion • campaigns

See the study by Britt, Silver & Rivara about bicycle helmet safety on page 98.

Psycholo and environment

Definitions and sources Definitions of noise

• A simple definition of noise is an "unwanted sound".

• It could be said that noise is a sound that has a psychological componer1t (whether it is wanted or 11ot) and a physical component (processed via the ear and brain).

• Also, a noise has to be detectable. The point at which it is detected varies between individuals.

• Figure 10.1.1 shows the decibel (dB) levels of various objects and scenarios.

Transportation noise and occupational noise

• Transportation noise refers to unpleasant sounds generated by cars, trains, planes, etc.

Mace, Bell & Loomis (1999) wanted to see if transportation noise from an aircraft would affect how much people e11joyed a natural la11dscape:

• They used a laboratory simulation in which helicopter noise was played at 40dB or 80d8 wl1ile the participants were watching slides of tranquil views of natural landscapes.

dB Example

140 Painfully loud

130 Machine gun fire at close range

120 Maximum vocal effort

110 Music at a concert

100 Chainsaw

90 Lawn mower

80 Underground train

70 Fast traffic

60 Busy office

50 Conversation

40 Residential area at night

30 Clock ticking

20 Leaves rustling

10 Normal breathing

0

... Figure 10.1..1 The decibel scale

• Tl1e participants were asked to record their feelings while watchi11g and listening and they also rated the slides for beauty.

• Tl1e louder the noise the more annoyed the participants became and it also had a negative impact on tranquillity and freedom.

• Even the ratings of the slides for beauty were lowered when the 80dB noise was played. Tl1erefore, it would appear that aircraft noise is a source of annoyance and it reduces the pleasure of viewing natural landscapes.

Occupational noise refers to unpleasant sounds that are generated in the work environment from things such as machinery and even work colleagues. It can be disruptive for two reasons:

• People may be trying to concentrate but the noise demands attention and also increases physiological arousal , making concentration much more d ifficult.

• The noise can be wl1at psychologists call "wideband", i.e. it is coming from a variety of sources and is constant. Roberts & Russell (2002) noted that workers can be exposed to longerterm noises due to machinery, such aircraft mechanics (up to 120d8), coal miners (105d8) and even pig farmers (110dB - especially at feeding time).

Pait1fully loud

Hearing damage after 8 hours

Quiet

Very quiet

Hearing threshold

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10 Psychology and environment

Riggio (2000) noted how occupational noise may have an impact on workers :

• It would appear that noise does not affect performance if it is below 90d8 unless someone is carrying out a complex verbal work task.

• Unpredictable and intermittent noises are much more disruptive than a constant, steady noise.

• High-pitched noises interfere more with performance on a work task than low-pitched noises.

• Noise, in general, appears to affect the level of work errors rather than overall rates of performance.

Factors that make noise annoying

• Volume - higher intensity sounds are more disruptive and. anything over 90d8 can be perceived as disturbing. There is an interaction here between volume and loudness. Volume is the actual physical level of noise as measured in decibels whereas loudness is the subjective experience of the sound. The context of the sound can affect annoyance (sounds appear louder with a quiet background environment), as can habituation (getting used to a repetitive, monotonous sound, e.g. when living near a rail track).

• Predictability - if a noise is predictable and expected then we are less likely to find it annoying compared to a noise that is unpredictable and not expected. It is easier to ignore or get used to something that is predictable.

• Perceived control - if we are able to control a noise then this reduces the amount of annoyance we feel. Any strategy that puts us "in control" lessens the effect of annoyance, so If we can close a window to reduce a noise we find it less annoying. However, if a strategy fails to reduce the annoyance we are likely to be even more annoyed by the noise.

Negative effects on social behaviour in adults and performance in children Anti-social behaviour

• One anti-social behaviour that could be affected by noise is aggression.

• It has been predicted that as noise increases arousal, any behaviour that that requires arousal will become more intense.

Geen & O'Neal (1969) tested this as follows:

• They showed participants either a violent boxing film or a non-violent sports film.

• After watching either film, the participants were given an opportunity to be aggressive towards a confederate "victim" using an electric shock apparatus.

• They were told that the higher numbered buttons gave a larger shock and they were also told that the length of time they held th.e switch down for was the length of time the confederate would be shocked for. In reality, no one was actually shocked.

• During this shock phase the participants were either exposed to whatever noises were naturally in the laboratory or a two-minute blast of 60d8 white noise.

• The partic.ipants who were exposed to the white noise delivered more shocks to the confederate.

• Those who had watched the violent boxing film and were exposed to the white noise gave the highest number of shocks and for the longest duration.

Pro-social behaviour

Mathews & Canon (1975) ran two studies to test whether noise affects pro-social behaviours (behaviours that include things such as helping others):

• In the laboratory study participants were split into three groups. They were exposed to either 48d8 of normal noise or 65d8/ 85d8 of white noise played through a speaker. When participants arrived for the study they were greeted by a confederate who got them to wait in a laboratory for a few minutes. The confederate sat and read a journal in the same room with other papers and materials balanced on his or her lap. When the experimenter came into the room to get the participant, the confederate got up and accidentally dropped the materials right in front of the participant. The frequency of helping behaviour was recorded. A total of 72 per cent of the participants helped when the n.oise was of a normal level whereas only 67 per cent helped when the noise was 65d8 and 37 per cent helped when the noise was 85d8.

• ln the field study a confederate would drop a box of books while getting out of car. In half of the trials he wore a cast on his arm. Noise was also manipulated so that half of the trials were carried out with "normal background levels" which were measured to be 50d8, whereas in the other half a confederate used a lawnmower that generated 87dB of noise. The amount of passers-by that helped was measured in four conditions. The resu Its showed that noise had little impact on passers-by when the person was not wearing a cast - around 15 per cent of people h.elped out. However, noise had an impact on helping behaviour when the person wore a cast. When the noise was at normal background levels, 80 per cent of passers~by helped out. However, when the noise was loud (e.g. from the lawnmower), helping behaviour decreased to 15 per cent. It would appear that loud noises lead people to not pay attention to cues that indicate a person may need help.

Performance in children

• Cohen, Glass & Singer (1973) examined children living in a high-rise apartment block that was directly above a highway. Those on the lower floors were obviously exposed to a higher level of noise. Unsurprisingly, the children on the lower floors had poorer hearing discrimination than the children on the upper floors. This could have had a direct effect on their reading skills as the chi ldren who lived on the lower floors had significantly poorer reading skills for their age.

• Bronzaft & McCarthy (1975) tested the reading ability of two sets of children from the same school. One class was situated near a railroad track while the other class was on the opposite, quieter, side of the school. Around 11 per cent of teaching time was lost due to noise in the railroad class and these children's reading ability was significantly poorer com.pared to that of the children in the class on the quiet side.

Positive uses of sound (music) Consumer behaviour

North, Hargreaves & McKendrick (1999) examined whether in-store music affected wine selections:

• During a two-week period, a display was set up at the end of an aisle in a supermarket that had four French wines and four German wines displayed in it, matched for affordability and sweetness.

• Stereotypical French music (played in an accordion) or German music (featuring brass instruments) was played on alternate days.

• Once customers had placed a bottle of wine from the display in their trolley or basket an experimenter approached them and asked them questions about their purchase.

• A total of 82 shoppers purchased wine from the display and 44 of these completed the questionnaire.

• Table 10.1.1 shows the amount of bottles sold as each type of music played.

Bottles sold French music German music

French wine 40 12

German wine 8 22

.A Table 10.1.1 Wine purchases by type of music played

Yeah & North (2010) examined the role of "musical fit" on the ability of consumers to recall products. By "musical fit~' the researchers meant that the music fits in with the product (as above with the wines):

• A total of 144 students from Malaysia (24 each of Malay, Indian and Chinese) were played either Malay music or Indian music.

• They were then asked to list as many Malay and Indian foods as they could and were given as much time as they needed to do this.

• The mean amount of food items recal led can be seen in the Table 10.1.2.

Ethnicity of Malay Malay Indian Indian participant • music music music • music

and and and and Malay Indian Malay Indian food food food food

Chinese 5.12 3.96 4.67 5.54

Malay 7.87 4.1.2 9.50 4.92

Indian 7.00 7.96 10.29 12.38

.A Table 10.1.2 Type of music played and food items recalled

• Malay students recalled more Malay foods irrespective of the music being played and Indian students recalled more Indian food irrespective of the music being played. This shows that music can affect consumers' ability to recall food items but only if the context is not based on one's own culture.

Stress reduction

• Han et al (2010) reported on the effects that music intervention had on stress responses in patients who were undergoing mechanical ventilation in hospital. A total of 137 patients were randomly assigned to either a musiclistening group, a headphone-wearing group or a control group. Physiological measures of heart rate, respiratory rate , oxygen levels and blood pressure were taken pre- and post-intervention. There was a significant reduction in heart rate and respiratory rate in the music-listening group compared to a significant increase in the control group. There were no significant changes in the headphone-wearing group. This shows that music can be used as a short-term "therapy" for patients undergoing mechanical ventilation .

• Carr et al (2012) examined the role of music therapy for patients who had persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They used a sam·ple of patients with PTSD who had not responded positively to cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT). A total of 17 patients formed the sample. Nine of these received group music therapy and the remaining eight were the control group. All patients had previously not responded to CBT. The group who underwent music therapy had a significant reduction in the severity of their PTSD syn1ptoms ten weeks after starting the therapy.

• Kushnir et al (2012) noted that if women were allowed to choose their favourite music to listen to prior to a caesarean section , their experience was more positive , they perceived fewer threats from the situation and their blood pressure reduced compared to a control group.

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r------------------, r--------------- ----, : Testing attention I I

Analysis of the : Testing attention I I I

: performance in a I ' • difference between : performance in a • : quiet environment •

: voice environment I two conditions (no I

I • Between I : {music with lyrics) • background music I • I I • at all/ background groups I • • • • - analysis of I ' music with lyrics) • • • • ' ' differences in • ·-- --- --- ·-----------·

Group 1 _......__ ______ .....__--' (n = 49)

• attention • • I ·------------------- · scores • • • I : Testing attention • Analysis of the I • (between no I

: performance in a • difference between ' • ' music and I I , • I : voice environment • two conditions (no ' I • background) • . • I : (music without I background music ' • • I I ' • at all/ background ' • ' lyrics) • • • I •

N = 102

Group 2 t---------.--~

(n = 53)

• I • I music without lyrics) I • ' ' I I I ' I I ~-------------------· ·-·----------------· .& Figure 10.1.2 Participants in one of two test conditions: group 1 (music with lyrics), group 2 (music without lyrics)

Source: Based on Shih, Huang & Chiang (2012)

Performance

Shih, Huang & Chiang (2012) examined whether music with or without lyrics affected attention perfor111ance:

• A total of 102 participants from Taipei County University took part in the study.

• They were randomly allocated to one of two conditions, as shown in Figure 10.1.2 .

• All participants had to complete the Chu Attention Test, a psychometric measure of attentional performa nee.

• Th is is a 100-item t est where participants are asked to indicate the number of times an asterisk (*) appears in a series of scrambled codes.

• They were given. 10 minutes to complete as many of the 100 examples as possible.

• Table 10.1.3 shows the results. At baseline the two groups did not differ significantly on their attentional performances.

Group Mean baseline Mean score with score background music

Music with lyrics 105.5 98.4

Music without 109.3 106 .7 lyrics

.A. Table 10.1.3 Mean scores: baseline and with background music

'

10.2 Density and crowding

Definitions, measurements and animal studies Social and spatial density

• Social density refers to when the amount of individuals in a set space is varied. For example, we could study the behaviour of rats by having a 20 square-foot cage for them to live in but one condition has 20 rats in the cage and the second condition has 40. The population changes but the physical space does not.

• Spatial density refers Lo wl1en tl1e amount of space fs varied but not the group size. For example, we could study colonies of 20 rats; one group gets 20 square feet of cage but the second group gets 40 square feet of cage. The physical space changes but not the population size.

Crowding

• A crowd is a gathering of people (usually a large amount) that forms a cohesive group.

• The ter111 "crowding" refers to situations when people come together to form a group - so it is the act of becoming a crowd.

• Cohesive or spectator crowds form when the people have shared interests (e.g. supporting the same team or attending a pop concert) .

• • 4

•

3 •

• Participatory crowds are when al l the crowd is involved in an event (e.g. a charity run).

• Escape or trampling crowds occur when people are attempting to get away from danger (e.g. when there is an emergency evacuation).

• Violent crowds form when one crowd Is attacking a11other group or i11dividuals (e.g. during riots) .

Animal studies

Calhoun {1962) examined the role of crowding and social density on the behaviour of rats . He placed a small number of male and female rates into a "universe" or "rat city" ..

• Calhoun allowed the rats to reproduce at their own rate and soon the rat city became overpopulated.

• Tl1e apparatus ha.d been designed to house 48 rats quite comfortably but the population grew to be much larger than that.

• There were four quadrants or pens to the rat city with ramps between them, except numbers 1 and 4 were not connected (see Figure 10.2.1). These were called "end pens".

• When the population was fewer than 48, males easily established their own harems, mating with them and defending their pen successfully.

• The females tended to their young and built nests for them.

• There was very little aggression within the colony.

• As the social density continued to increase there was a dramatic change in the rats' behaviours.

1

• •

.A Figure 10.2.1 The "rat city'' used to study the effects of high density on rats 105

106


• In pens 1 a11d 4 the rats still attempted to continue their usual social behaviours and were successful to an extent because there was only one entrance to these pens.

• The males who lived in pens 2 and 3 became very aggressive, no harems were successfully defended and males would mate with any female.

• The female rats in pens 2 and 3 became ineffective at nurturing their young by failing to provide suitable nests or move them out of danger.

• The infant mortality rate became as high as 96 per cent in these pens.

• Calhoun called this area a "behavioural sink".

Crowcroft & Rowe (1958) examined the role of social density on reproduction in the wild house-mouse:

• They created seven colonies of one adult male and two adult females.

• Each colony had a pen measuring six square feet.

• When the pens became crowded the mouse population tended to level off as the reproductive capabilities of the females declined rapidly (e.g. due to inactive ovaries). This could not be down to stress as there was no aggression shown in the pens.

• Some of the colonies were then transferred to very large pens (100 square feet) and it did not take long for the reproductive capabilities of the females to return to normal levels and the population increased as a result. It would appear that in this species of mouse a self-regulatory mechanism has evolved for limiting the population when social density gets too high.

Effects on human health, pro-social behaviour and performance Pro-social behaviour

Bickman et al (1973) assessed whether crowding affected pro-social behaviour in students:

• Experimenters dropped envelopes that had an address and a stamp on them In various places in three different dormitories. One was of low density, one of medium density and one of high density.

• The amount of envelopes then placed in a mailbox was measured (see Table 10.2 .1 ).

Low density 3 Medium density High density 3 malled % mailed mailed

88 79 58

.6. Table 10.2.1 Envelopes mailed by students living in different density conditions

Health

• Lundberg (1976) conducted a study with male passengers on a commuter train as the participants. Lundberg wanted to compare them when the train had high density compared to low

density. In the high-density condition (when there were many commuters but interestingly everyone could still find a seat), negative physiological arousal reactions were noted. It was discovered, through urine samples, that the commuters in the high-density trains had elevated levels of epinephrine, an indicator of stress.

• McCain, Cox & Paulus (1976) reported that prisoners who lived in conditions of low spatial density and low social density reported less sickness compared to those in high-density prisons.

• Baum & Koman (1976) noted that there are gender differences in aggression depending on social and spatial densities. Males put into small rooms who expected it to be crowded behaved much more aggressively than females did. However, any increase is social density did not produce an increase in aggression. When participant s expected large numbers of people at a venue they tended to withdraw rather than be aggressive.

Performance

• Paulus et al (1976) examined the performance of participants in solving a maze while the researchers manipulated either spatial density or social density. The number of errors was recorded per participant and the results are shown in Table 10.2.2 .

Spatial density Social density

Low 34.20 32.13

High 37.44 39.50

.6. Table 10.2.2 Performance in solving a maze as affected by spatial and social density

• It would appear that in situations of high social density, performance was at its worst whereas low social density situations brought the lowest amount of errors.

Preventing and coping with the effects of crowding Modifying architecture

• McCarthy & Saegert (1979) suggested that one way in which we can reduce our feelings of being crowded in accommodation is to live in a low-rise rather than a high-rise building. They noted that high-rise buildings are associated with greater fee lings of being crowded, including having less perceived control within the bui lding and feeling less safe.

• Halls of residence (or dormitories) for students can be designed in such a way to prevent feeJings of crowding by their occupants. Baum & Valins (1977) examined how students felt in two different types of architectural layouts as illustrated in Figure 10.2.2.

• - - - ,..._ ... • • I

I Bedrooms Bathroom Bedrooms Lounge

...__.__,j I I I I I l ....._.__, .__ _ _,___.....__. I I J L-L ...._.__, l

I I I I I Bedrooms

Bedrooms

Lounge

.A Figure 10.2.2 Student accommodation in a corridor-style layout and as a small suite

Source: Based on Baum & Valins (1977)

• Those in the smaller suites of between four and six people with a central lounge felt much less crowded than those corridor-style rooms where students felt they were forced into unwanted interactions which increased their sense of being crowded.

Other aspects include the following:

• Positioning furniture around the edge of a room rather than in the centre deceases the sense of crowding (Sinha et al, 1995).

• Having bright colours on the wall or e11hanced lighting can reduce the feeling of being crowded (Nasar & Min, 1984).

Visual escape

• Baum et al (1976) noted that having types of visual escape can reduce the feelings of being crowded. These include having a window in every room so there is an opportunity to look out, pictures that can help people "escape from their room" and mirrors that can help to increase the perceived size of the room.

• Evans & Wener (2007) noted that people use window seats as a visual escape on buses and trains so a better design is to have two seats rather than three seats so everyone has a clear view of a window. If the view is partially blocked then having a series of televisions for people to watch would help as it distracts people from feeling overcrowded.

Coping

Langer & Saegart (1977) investigated how people cope with the effects of crowding as follows:

• Participants were either given information about levels of crowding in a grocery store and how they

would fee l before entering, or they were given no such information.

• Prior to entering they were also given a task of finding their way around the store to locate a number of items.

• In high-density conditions, performance was poor on the task but those who had been given information so they were expecting it to be busy did perform better on the task and reported more positive emotions compared to those who were not given any cognitive control.

Karlin , Rosen & Epstein (1979) examined cognitive reapp ra isa I:

• Participants were people who wanted to reduce their anxiety related to feeling crowded on public transport. They were spilt into four groups:

o Group 1 participants were given muscle relaxation training.

o Group 2 participants were given cognitive reappraisal. This involved them being told they could improve their mood and anxiety levels by focusing on positive aspects of the situation.

o Group 3 participants were given imagery training. This involved them being told to engage in mental imagery using pleasant distracting thoughts.

o Group 4 participants were simply told ''to relax" and were not given any further instructions.

• Participants in group 2 (cognitive reappraisal) reported the most success and positive responses to crowded transportation situations.

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10.3 Natural disaster and technological catastrophe

Definitions, characteristics and examples Natural disaster and technological catastrophe

• Natural disasters are those occasions when nature takes control and causes large amounts of damage or even death .

• Technological catastrophes are incidents that are due to human factors (usually errors or mishaps) although they too may cause large-scale destruction.

• A disaster appears to have two main factors:

o destruction that requires some form of help or aid

o disruption of the usual daily events in people's lives.

Real-fife examples

One example of a natural disaster was the Tsunami in 2004 on Boxing Day (called the Indian Ocean Tsunami). It killed over 230,000 people in 14 countries with waves as high as 100 feet.

Research your own examples of natural disasters and technological catastrophes. Examples could be:

• natural disasters: the eruption of Mount St Helens in 1980; the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake

• technological disasters: the nuclear power plant accident at Chernobyl; the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

Behaviours during events, and methodology Contagion

• Le Bon (1879) suggested that the behaviour of an individual within a crowd is irrational and uncritical; an individual within a crowd loses the measure of the norms that usually govern his or her behaviour and so becomes "primitive" and acts strangely as a result.

• Contagion theory suggests that behaviour spreads like a contagious disease.

• Le Bon proposed four determinants of "contagious" behaviour within a crowd:

o Suggestibility: individuals become more inclined to respond to the ideas of others, especially when proposed in an authoritative manner and in the absence of a clear leader.

o Social contagion: individuals within a crowd arouse and respond to one another thereby amplifying the intensity of their interactions.

o Impersonality: individuals lose their appreciation of themselves and others as people.

o Anonymity: within a crowd each individual loses his or her sense of individuality.

Scripts

A script in this context is when people have a mental representation of what to do in an emergency situation. We have schemata (which are mental representations) that allow us to "cope » with an emergency by following the steps in a logical order to get to safety (Shank & Abelson, 1977).

Laboratory experiments

Early research tended to be conducted in a laboratory. Mathews and Canon (1975) noted that people were less likely to help other people if background noise was above 85dB. It may be that they could not concentrate on immediate cues to give help as the noise was too distracting.

See the information on page 1 about laboratory experiments. Think about how laboratory experiments apply to emergency behaviour research.

Simulations

Simulations are when psychologists use settings that 'mimic' a real life disaster to see how people respond. For example, they may use a fuselage of an airplane to see how a group of passengers try to escape from a disaster.

Psychological intervention before and after events Before: preparedness

Balluz et al (2000) examined the predictors for people's responses to a tornado warning:

• A total of 146 participants were questioned about their actions during the tornado warning.

• A total of 64 participants responded positively to the warning by seeking shelter with 58 of those doing so within five minutes of the siren.

• Balluz et al discovered that four factors were associated with seeking shelter:

o having graduated from high school

o having a basement in one's house

o hearing the siren

o having prepared a plan of response once a siren is heard.

• From this study it is clear that a pre-plan of action is necessary for increased safety in a tornado prone area.

• Also, local public health officials should educate people more about what to do when a siren is heard as only 45 per cent of this sample responded positively to it.

Sattler, Kaiser & Hittner (2000) examined disaster preparedness at the peak of the hurricane season in the United States:

• In one of their studies, they gave questionnaires to 257 participants who were preparing for Hurricane Emily.

• Questions were asked about demographic.s, the extent of property damage from a previous hurricane, the amount of distress felt after a previous hurricane and preparedness for the impending Hurricane Emily.

• The questionnaires were completed one or two days before Hurricane Emily was due to hit Charleston, where the survey was taking place.

• One of the measures taken was that of preparation for the hurricane.

• About half of the participants had petrol for the car (59 per cent), had flashlights (57 per cent), had bottled water (52 per cent), had candles and matches (51 per cent), had batteries (51 per cent) and had canned or dried food (49 per cent).

• The following factors correlated strongly with preparation:

o age: the older the participant, the more prepared the person was

o income: the higher the income, the more prepared the person was

o following the news broadcasts on the television

o knowing the evacuation route

o the distress level from a previous hurricane: the more distress experienced, the more prepared the person was.

Evacuation plans

Loftus (1972) examined a subway system after a fire to assess the evacuation plans that were in place and concluded the following:

• There should be a way of gaining people's attention without causing panic.

• Written messages should be short and to the point so that they are quick to read.

• Any important messages should be repeated.

• The plans must give people trying to escape some confidence.

• If any of the plans are presented orally they must be clear (e.g. the speaker's accent must be considered).

Tamima & Chouinard (2012) reported on "in progress " evacuation plans in Montrea l, Canada, should an earthquake occur. They noted that the following are crucial for success:

• Assess the vulnerability of the built environment to know what could happen to buildings and then plan the evacuation around these potential eventual ities.

• Assess the demographics of the population which would be affected by an earthquake and then plan the evacuation around this information.

• Plan sensible routes out of an affected area to shelters for those worst affected.

• Get the community involved in evacuation planning so the first time they know about the plan is not when the earthquake is happening.

• Have clear maps for evacuation routes that are easy to follow.

After: treating PTSD

Chemtob et at (1997) examined the effectiveness of psychological intervention after Hurricane lniki in Hawaii:

• Two groups of participants (n = 43 overall) who had been exposed to the hurricane were assessed before and after being involved in a "multihour debriefing group" .

• To provide some control for the passage of time, the two groups overlapped their debriefing. The assessment before the debriefing of the second group took place at the same time as the assessment after the debriefing of the first group.

• Irrespective of the group the participants were in, the debriefing reduced psychological distress, supporting the idea that psychological debriefing is useful after disasters.

Carmichael (2000) reported on a novel approach to post-disaster psychological intervention:

• A counsellor used the Wizard of Oz as a focal point for a group of survivors after a tornado in a small US community. During the last hour of a three-hour meeting attended by 30 residents, the counsellor began to use details from the story of the Wizard of Oz as metaphors to help alleviate the stress of the disaster.

• The counsellor used Dorothy's shoes as a metaphor for inner strength, the dog as significant people and the Yellow Brick Road as the trauma recovery process. The common focal point of the story appeared to be effective in aiding the recovery process of the residents .

Flnally, Lesaca (1996) noted a downside to postdisaster counselling for the counsellors themselves:

• He compared 21 counsellors who had provided their services after a major air disaster with counsellors who provided a general counselling service. Measures of PTSD and depression were taken in both groups 41 8 and 12 weeks after the disaster.

• At 4 and 8 weeks, the disaster counsellors reported significantly more PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms compared to the general counsellors .

• However, these differences had disappeared at the 12-week assessment

Herald of Free Enterprise

This disaster occurred when a ferry capsized and sank off Belgium killing 197 people. Survivors were examined for PTSD:

• Joseph et al (1997) discovered that there was a relationship between emotional expression three years after the event and PTSD five years after the event.

• Those who believed, emotionally, that having negative attitudes were a sign of weakness were more likely to show PTSD symptoms.

1.09

110

• Also, Joseph et al (1996} noted that those who scored high on a measure of "have intrusive and avoidant activities" tended to show higher levels of depression and anxiety three years after the sinking.

London Bombing

• This event happened on 7 July 2005.

• Rubin et al (2007) telephoned 1 010 Londoners 11-13 days after the bombings occurred.

• The researchers wanted to assess stress levels, perceived threats and travel intentions.

• Seven months after this, 57 4 respondents were contacted again and asked similar questions.

• Around 11 per cent of people in the sample were still feeling "substantial stress" and over 40 per cent still felt personally threatened by the events.

• Around 20 per cent had reduced travelling around London as a result.

• Answers to questions 11- 13 days after the bombings showed around one-third of the sample at this time point felt substantial stress and intended to travel less as a result of the bombings.

• Only 1 per cent of the sample felt they needed psychological intervention post-bombings.

• Wilson et al (2012) examined the transcripts of 18 people who received cognitive behavioural therapy (CST) after the bombings to help them with PTSD. The clients tended to focus on recollection of direct experiences during the bombings, the horror of it all and reconnecting with the outside world on the day of the event plus feelings of PTSD and depression the day after the bombings.

10.4 Personal space and territory

Definitions, types and measures Defining space and territory

• Bell et al (1996) define personal space and territory as a •· . .. portable, invisible boundary surrounding us, into which others may not trespass. It regulates how closely we interact with others, moves with us, and expands and contracts according to the situation in which we find ourselves'' (1996: 275).

• Hall (1963) distinguished between zones of personal space (called spatial zones by Hall) based around interpersonal relationships we may have (see Table 10.4.1).

Distance Usual activities and relationships

Intimate Contact is intimate (e.g. comforting (0 to 11h feet) another or having sex). Physical

sports such as judo and wrestling allow invasion of the intimate zo.ne.

Personal Friends are allowed to get into this (11h to 4 feet) zone, especially those who are

close to us. Your usual everyday interactions will trespass into this zone too.

Social People we do not really know (4 feet to 12 feet) personally, but whom we meet quite

regularly, are allowed into this zone. Business-like contacts are also allowed here.

Public This zone is for formal contact (more than 12 (e.g. someone giving a public feet away) speech).

A. Table 10.4.1. Spatial zones

Source: Hall (1963)

• Altman (1975) noted that we have three different types of territory (see Table 10.4.2).

Type of Occupation Amount we territory of territory/ "personalise" the

perception of territory ownership

Primary High degree of The territory is territory occupation and personalised in great (e.g. own perception of detail so that the owner home, ownership: we has complete control office believe that we and others recognise space, permanently this almost Immediately bedroom) own the after entering it.

territory and Uninvited intrusion others believe can have serious this too. consequences.

Secondary Medium degree Personalisation occurs territory of occupation to some extent but only (e.g. and perception when the occupancy of classroom) of ownership: the territory is legit imate

we believe that (e.g. within about one we are one of month of a new class, only a limited each person may stick number of with the same seat for users of the the rest of the year. That territory. person legitimately owns

that seat every lesson).

Public Low degree of Personalisation tends to territory occupation and be temporary as we may (e.g. area perception of not revisit the territory on a beach, ownership: we for some t ime. We seat on a believe we are tend not to defend this bus) one of many territory in the way we

people who use wou Id if it were primary this territory. or secondary territory.

A. Table 10.4.2. Three types of territory

Source: Altman (1975)

Alpha space and beta space

• Alpha space is the personal space that is objective and can be measured directly {e.g. the actual distance).

• Beta space is the personal space that is subjectJve and is how a person feels when being invaded.

Measuring space: slmulatJon

Little (1968) examined cultural differences over 19 different social situations in a sample of Americans, Swedes, Greeks, Italians and Scots:

• They had to place dolls at distances that reflected where they would stand in real social situations.

• The situations they had to assess included two good friends talking about a pleasant topic, a shop owner discussing the weather with his assistant, two people talking about the best place to shop and two strangers talking about an unpleasant topic .

• Figure 10.4.1. gives the average distances at which participants placed the dolls in the 19 different social situations .

Stop-distance

This technique involves getting someone to approach a participant from a variety of angles and getting the participant to say '' Stop" when he or she begins to feel uncomfortable. The actual distance is measured so that a ,. picture" of the amount and shape of personal space can be generated. This can then be re-assessed in different situations.

Space invasions

These types of measurements involve directly invading the space of other people and noting how they react or asking them how they felt.

1.11


40

Q .. -' --American Swede Scot Greek

Males D Females

Italian Average of all nations

Nationality

~ Figure 10.4.1 Results from the Little (1968) study

Invading space and territory Invasions

Middlemist et al (1976) wanted to investigate the proposal that invasion of personal space produces arousal:

• The setting was a men's public lavatory. According to the researchers this was an ideal setting as ''norms for privacy'' are already set up (the space between the urinals), so the effect that distance had on arousal could be easily measured. The men's public lavatory had three urinals in It.

• Sixty participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1 ) the experimenter stood immediately next to the participant, (2) the experimenter stood at the other end of the three urinals to the participant or (3) the experimenter was absent.

• Two key measures were taken. The first was a measure of how quickly the participant began to urinate. The second measure was how much tfme the participant took to urinate.

• The closer the experimenter stood, the longer it took for the participant to begin urination. Also, the closer the experimenter stood, the less time it took the participant to "complete" urination.

• The evidence suggests that invasion of personal space in men produces physiological changes associated with arousal. The more the personal space was invaded, the more aroused the men became.

Fisher & Byrne (1975) carried out a study with two main aims:

1. To examine gender differences in the invasion of persona l space.

2. To examine how gender affects the pu.tting up of barriers to indicate to others where our personal space is.

• For the first aim, Fisher & Byrne's confederates

invaded the personal space of 62 males an.d 63 'females in a university library in a number of ways. They either sat next to the participant, sat one seat away from the participant or sat opposite the participant. After the invasion had taken place, Fisher & Byrne asked the participant to complete a questionnaire about the experience.

• For the second aim, a different researcher was used who was not told the aim of the research (called the single~blind technique). This person had to observe 33 males and 33 females and record where they placed their personal belongings on a library table.

Happiness rating - the higher the score, the more happy participants were:

Sitting next to Sitting opposite

Male 29.15 23.57

Female 23.46 26.79

Attractiveness rating - the higher the score, the more attracted they were to an opposite-sex confederate:


Male 10.99 9.14

Female 9.87 10.14

Perceived level of crowding - the higher the score, the more they felt crowded:


Male 11.48 17.04

Female 16.60 14.76

A Table 10.4.3 Ratings for happiness, attractiveness and perceived level of crowding

Table 10.4.4 shows the number of "barrier placements" observed on the table participants were sitting at.

Barrier next to Barrier opposite person person

Male 9 15

Female 17 6

1.i2 (people who knew what the experiment was about) A Table 10.4.4 Barrier placements

Defending territory and space Defending primary territory

Newman (1972) introduced the concept of defensible space to psychology:

• The term refers to an area of physical space that can be perceived as clearly belonging to someone.

• Any visitors to this space would quickly realise that it is someone else's territory.

• Newman (1972) then argued that if defensible spaces were deliberately designed into new multidwelling buildings, residents would feel more ownership over certain areas.

• People would be more likely to "look out for one another and their properties" .

• As a result, crime should decrease and a sense of community would be introduced.

Ham-Rowbottom, Gifford & Shaw (1999) examined defensible space theory by assessing police officers' judgments about whether a house would be burgled :

• A series of 50 photographs of detached houses was shown to 41 police officers.

• Each house had been scored on characteristics that were believed to be good indicators of defensible space.

• A total of ten physical characteristics were correlated with less vulnerability to burglary:

o At least three-quarters of the house is visible from the road.

o At least three-quarters of the yard is visible from the road.

o A glass panel is not located next to the front door.

o A garage is present.

o The front door is solid with no glass.

o The back yard is separated from the front yard by an actual barrier.

o More windows are visible from the road.

o The front door is visible from the road.

o The distance from the road is less than 20 feet.

o A neighbour's house is visible in the photograph.

• The more physical barriers there are around a house, the less likely it will be a victim of burglaries and other crimes.

MacDonald & Gifford (1989) had discovered that defensible space did not deter burglars:

• They surveyed 43 males who had been convicted of breaking and entering by showing them 50 photographs of houses.

• Each participant had to rate every photograph on a 7-point scale of vulnerability to burglary.

• The houses that had easy surveillance were rated as the ones least likely to be burgled.

• However, territorial displays (e.g. fences) around a house actually increased the likelihood it would be burgled.

Defending public territory and territorial markers

• Smith (1983) noted that there were cu ltural differences in the way people defend their area on a beach. The Germans showed a much more striking sense of territoriality compared to the French. The Germans showed many more actions linked to territorial behaviour. For example, they were much more likely to erect sandcastles to indicate that the particular area of the beach was reserved for them.

• Hoppe, Greene & Kenny (1972) examined the effectiveness of territorial markers in libraries and pubs. In libraries, leaving a territorial marker such as a note.book was no more effective than leaving no territorial marker when people asked a neighbour at a desk to defend it for them while they went away to do something. However, about half of the neighbours in the no territorial marker group subsequently placed their own territorial markers in the space they had just been asked to save. In the pub study, a half-ful l glass of beer was found to be very effective at marking territory compared to a personal marker such as a sweater.

A Figure 10.4.2 Examples of defensible space around properties

113

114


10.5 Architecture and behaviour: housing design and urban renewal

Theories and effects of urban living on health and social behaviour Adaptation level

• The idea of adaptation level states that any stimuli that are intense, complex or novel can lead to either a positive or negative effect depending on the past experience of the individual concerned.

• Due to the differing levels of stimulation in a city or urban area (e .g. you may find a quiet park or a busy shopping mall) everyone can find their optimal level of stimulation.

Behaviour constraint

• The idea of behaviour constraint is that people living in urban areas feel their behaviour is constrained in some way compared to that of people living in rural areas. For example, people may feel fearful of crime in urban areas and, for instance, they know that when they go shopping they will experience a crowded shopping centre.

• This may lead to people experiencing negative effects and as a consequence of this they may wish to try to reassert their freedom from these constraints.

Environmental stress

• The idea behind environmental stress is that specific stimuli in urban areas have negative effects on our lives (e.g. crowding and noise have been shown to negatively affect humans).

• As we may feel threatened by such stimuli, a stress response may be elicited, either emotionally, behaviourally or physiologically (or any combination of the three).

Overload

• This theory states that people living in urban areas are bombarded with so many stimuli that all of them cannot be processed.

• The stimuli can come from a variety of sources (e.g. other humans living in the urban area, noise, too many people being around, even trying to find the correct amount of money for the car park).

Effects on health

Fisher et al (1994) investigated attitudes towards eatjng and weight concern in urban and suburban adolescents:

• One aim of the study was to examine any potential differences in attitude between urban and suburban dwellers. The other aim was to examine whether there were differences in selfesteem between urban and suburban dwellers.

• Two groups of participants completed a series of questionnaires that measured attitudes towards eating and self-esteem among others.

• A total of 268 suburban females (mean age 16.2 years), 389 urban females and 281 urban males (combined mean age of 16.0 years) completed the questionnaires. One of the main factors examined was the relationship between perceived weight and actual weight (see Table 10.5.1.).

Group 3 of participants 3 of participants who perceived who were actually themselves to be more than 103 overweight over their ideal

body weight

Suburban females 63 14 Urban females 35 45

Urban males 19 39

A. Table 10.5.1 Relationship between perce ived weight and actual weight

Soderberg et af (1994) examined the differences in prevalence rates of H.IV in rural , semi-urban and urban area in Tanzania (see Table 10.5.2):

• During the period from March 1988 to April 1991 all blood donors at the llembula Luteran Hospital (Tanzania) were asked about their home village, occupation, age and marital status.

• They were also tested for the prevalence of HIV antibodies in their blood sample.

• A total of 3 474 males and 1287 females participated in the study.

Group Overall Urban SemJ~urban Rural rate( % ) rate(% ) rate (3 ) rate( % )

Male 6.6 13.6 7.2 3.7

Female 7.0 15.0 7.9 3.0

A. Table 10.5.2 Prevalence rate of HIV-1 split by gender and place of residence

Effects on social behaviour

• The study by Bickman et al (see page 106) can be used here to show how pro-social behaviour is affected by urban living - this is because urban living is of a higher population density.

• In addition, Altman (1969) found that 95 per cent of rural homes allowed a female vis itor to use their telephone to call a friend (the woman was a confederate in the study). This was compared to just 40 per cent of homes in urban areas. When the confederate was male, 40 per cent of rural homes allowed him to use the telephone while this was allowed in only 14 per cent of urban homes.

Evaluation extra • Studies like these have application and are

therefore useful . They allow health services to target areas of a country to try to reduce the number of incidences of disease. Certain groups can be targeted more effectively (see the examples above) to improve the quality of life of those people.

Urban renewal and housing design Renewal and building design

One examination of defensible space theory examined two adjacent housing estates in New York City:

• The two estates were called Van Dyke and Brownsville.

• The Van Dyke estate consisted of a series of 14storey buildings separated by small spaces that had little or no defensible space.

• The Brownsville estate, on the other hand, consisted of six X-shaped buildings only three stories high.

• As a result, the entrances to the Brownsville estate were less frequently used and nonresidents could be more easily spotted than on the Van Dyke estate.

• Within the Brownsville buildings, children played in the hallways and stairwells and it was common for residents to leave their doors open.

Another example that is used to show bad design is the Pruitt-Igoe project in St. Louis , Missouri (Bell et al, 1996):

• The estate was built in 1954 with the ethos of "no wasted space". The project was constructed to relocate 12 000 people into 43 buildings, each 11 stories high. The entire complex had 2 762 apartments.

• The main features of the building were as follows:

o Narrow hallways led to the apartments.

o There were no semi-private areas for people to meet up in (so no areas to oversee).

o The project was expensive to build.

o The wall tiles were designed so that graffiti could be easily removed.

o The light fittings seemed indestructible.

o The radiators and lifts were vandal-resistant.

• After a few years the entire project was in disarray. Within the buildings there was broken glass, rubbish and destruction of the "indestructible" features. Many windows were boarded up or smashed, the lifts had been repeatedly used as a toilet and the top floors were not lived in. Crime and vandalism were commonplace. The car park was littered with semi-destroyed cars and the children's playground was covered in broken glass.

• By 1970, of the 43 buildings only 16 were still lived in.

• In 1972 the entire project was demolished. Many people believed that the lack of defensible space had caused the downfall of the Pruitt-Igoe dream.

Newman

• Sommer (1987) compared the crime rates in university high-rise halls of residence compared to cluster halls which have more defensible space. The latter were seen to have much lower rates of crime and vandalism.

• Brunson (2000) examined the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the United States as it had recently invested millions of dollars into regenerating urban areas using defensible space theory.

• Brunson noted that some regenerations had worked, lowering crime levels and bringing about a more cohesive community. However, not all had been so successful.

• A total of 91 residents were surveyed. All were living in an area with moderate defensible space.

• Those who defended their near-home space reported that the neighbourhood felt safer and that there was a more cohesive community compared to residents who did not defend their near-home space.

• Those who spent time outside reported more often that the neighbourhood was a safe place.

• Those who participated in "greening" activities believed that the community was more cohesive.

Community environmental design Shopping mall atmospherics

• In Malaysia, Ali (2013) researched into factors that affect a mall's attractiveness and influence consumers to visit it. The following factors were important:

o Entertainment had to be part of the experience.

o There had to be a variety of shopping outlets (e.g. outlets should not all be clothes shops}.

o Mall essence was a factor- ensuring the place "felt" like it would be a good "mall experience".

o Design of the mall was also important (e.g. ease of passage throughout, parking, signage).

• Runyan, Kim & Baker (2012) wanted to see whether kiosks and kiosk salespeople affected people's perceptions towards a shopping mall. When smaller kiosks were present it had a negative effect on shoppers' perceptions of the mall. However, it did not make any difference whether the salespeople were aggressively selling or being passive; people still did not see them as adding anything to the mall. Aggressive

11.5

11.6


salespeople did get consumers more aroused but in a negative way.

• Swamynathan, Mansurali & Chandrasekhar (2013) examined people's preferences for a new shopping mall. Four main factors emerged that influence people's decisions on choice of shopping mall via its atmospherics :

o Lifestyle: people are more likely to visit if the mall is a status symbol, having high-quality goods in it and fashionable shops .

o Infotainment: having entertainment, being able to window shop and having a place simply to "hang out" were also important.

o Customer retreat: customers need to feel safe within the mall and visible hospitality appeals.

o Retail atmospherics: this includes factors such as value-added comforts in the mall, it being a " single stop shop" and clean .

Casino environments

• Wan (2013) researched the casino design preferences of Chinese gamblers. Interviews were carried out with 25 gamblers who visited casinos in Macau. A total of 30 preferences were identified overall , of which 11 were seen as being the most important. These included the casino

being spacious and open , having grand exterior and interior designs, having certain themes within the casino itself, having clear signage and having some form of greenery or natura I landscape.

• Casinos may wish to utilise the findings of a study by Spenwyn, Barrett & Griffiths (2010). They got participants to play an online version of roulette under one of four conditions:

o fast tempo music under white light

o fast tempo music under red light

o slow tempo music under white light

o slow tempo music under red light.

• Dollars spent per spin alongside speed of betting was measured. Having fast tempo music under red light made participants bet quicker. There was no effect of music or lighting conditions on dollars spent per spin.

Public places

Whyte (1980) noted that plaza areas for pedestrians liven up a public area - things like food vendors, sunny areas, seated areas, fountains etc. encourage people to congregate.

Reread the work of Newman and projects such as Brownsville, Van Dyke and Pruitt-Igoe (page U5) to pick out good and bad practice for the design of public places .

10.6 Environmental cognition

Definitions, measttres, errors and individual differences in cognitive maps Definitions

Tolman (1948) defined a cognitive map as an internal representation that animals develop about the spatial relationships within their environment.

Measures

Sketch maps

Lynch (1960) was one of the first to get people to simply sketch maps of their areas to see how they were representing their surroundings psychologically. He found five n1ain categories:

• paths: shared routes for travel (e.g. footpaths and roads)

• edges: boundaries that are defined (e.g. walls of buildings or coastlines)

• districts: large spaces with a shared cha racteristic (e.g. The West End in London)

• nodes: points on a map that act as a focus for behaviour (e.g. town squares, roundabouts or major road junctions)

• landmarks: distinctive features used as reference points wh ich are generally visible from a distance (e.g. a place of worship or a tall skyscraper).

Multidimensional scaling

This is a statistical technique u.sed to assess the "cognitive distance" people believe landmarks are separated by. Participants are asked to estimate distances between a number of buildings on a route. Once this is completed , a computer program can process the data and generate a "map" based on these estimations (so that people's drawing skills are not affecung how they perceive a map, etc.). If these are compared among a group of participants who have all estimated the distances, if all are consistent then a relatively accurate map should be produce<:!. However, as Bell et al (2001) noted, people may well exaggerate the distance between unpleasant landmarks or travel paths they do not usually take.

Errors

L.loyd & Patton (2011) asked participants to learn locations on one of three cartographic maps which contained true or novel location names:

• In terms of recall errors th.e following were found:

o There were fewer cognitive distance errors for reference points that were central to the map.

o There were fewer errors in recall when a reference point was part of a cluster.

o Females made fewer errors than males when learning novel maps.

o Males made fewer errors than females when learning maps with true names and places.

Steyvers & Koojiman (2009) examined the differences in error rates using cognitive maps of a fictitious zoo between sighted and visually impaired participants:

• Participants were matched on age, gender and education. The matched pairs were randomly assigned to one " information type":

o survey-type descriptions such as "the area containing the indoor animal exhibits is north of the children's recreational area" (2009: 226)

o rout~type descriptions such as "on your right is the petting zoo; turn right and then left after passing the petting zoo; the aquarium is now on your right" (2009: 226).

• Participants listened to the tape of information twice and then were asked questions such as "Which animals wiU you find east of the insect house?" (survey-type) and "Standing on the path with your back to the petting zoo and facing the monkeys, which animals are on your left?" (routetype) (2009: 226).

• Visually impaired participants showed no difference in the frequency of errors between survey-type and rout~type descriptions. Sighted participants made fewer errors with the surveytype descriptions. Overall, sighted participants made fewer cognitive map errors.

Individual differences

• Huynh, Doherty & Sharpe (2010) noted that when asked the draw a map, males and females tend not to differ with the initial drawing. However, as the map got more elaborate and detailed, females drew more landmarks on their maps while males drew more pathways.

• The Steyvers & Koojiman (2009) study can also be used to show individual differences.

Cognitive maps in animals Squirrels

Jacobs & Liman (1991) investigated the role of the cognitive map in allowing animals to search for food they had stored themselves:

• Each grey squirrel (sciurus carolinensis) was released into a 45m2 area to bury ten hazelnuts .

• The location of each food item was recorded and the nuts were then removed. The squirrels were returned to the area individually 2 , 4 or 12 days later.

• New hazelnuts had been placed at the individuals ' own hiding places and at an equal number of randomly chosen sites which had been used by other squirrels.

• The squirrels were more likely to find nuts from places where they had buried them even when they had to pass the sites chosen by other squirrels.

117

118

10 Psycho logy and environment

Bees

Capaldi & Dyer (1999) examined the role of orientation flights on the homing performances of honeybees:

• There were three groups of bees:

o resident bees: bees that already lived in the test location

o first-flight bees: bees that had n.ever been outside of the nest

o reorienting bees: worker bees that had foraging experience at a different site from the test site.

• Bees in the latter two groups were allowed on an "orientation" flight that typica lly lasted less than ten minutes.

• On the experimental trials after this~ homing ability was measured via vanishing bearings and homing speed (see Figure 10.6.1).

• When the first-flight bees were tested after the orientation flight, they returned to the hive faster than the reorienting bees.

• First:..flight bees also had faster homing rates than resident bees.

• When they were released at a distance, resident bees tended to outperform the other two groups.

• When there were landmarks near to the target hive, all groups tended to head towards the hive (vanishing bearings were similar). However, when they were released out of sight of any landmarks (so they had to rely on route memory), first-flight bees performed poorly, whereas resident bees could still find their way home.

Resident Reorienting Flrst-ffight

Site A ~ . • .. ... . . ........

• •••• •• • •

• •'I I

••• • • • • •••

.. • •• • '...,...;...• .. . ~ • .. .. .

• • • • • • • • • • • ••

Site E

• . . . '. .. . . . . . :: ... .

-

4):! ~...... . .. . • • • • • • • • • •

• •

•• ..

: . . -. . . . . . . .. . :• .. . .. . •• .• . . ·~-·:· • •

•

• •

~-1·;·~~. ~ ~ .. ,_.- ~· ... .....

.. ........... -. ... • •••

• .. ...

• •

•••• :: ... ..

. . .. . • • • ••• • • . . . .. .. ·... :. . •• .. • •

• • • • • • • .. :.··· ... . • • •• . •• •

• •• ·.

•

. ...__,,_~ .. -• •

.. •• • • .. ·: .. · • ... •

•• ... .. : . . .. . ' . . . : . . . . . . .. . ... . ' . ... . • • • • .. .. . .

• • • • •• ·~ . .. •

... !',. ••• .. • • . ...

• ••• ~.. . . · .. . .... .. . .. • • •

.& Figure 10.6.1 Bees' homing ability measured via vanishing bearings - site A landmarks were near to the target hives; for site Ethe bees had no route memory

Pigeons and magnetite

Walcott has researched the homing abilities of pigeons for many years:

• It would appear that magnetlc fields do help pigeons find their way home.

• Walcott noted that applying a magnetic field of 0.1 gauss to the heads of homing pigeons increased the scatter of the pigeons as they left their release site (see Figure 10.6.2).

•

• •

• • •

• • •

•

•

• • •

• • •

• • • •

327" ~.30

p = 0.011

• •

0 .1 gauss

••• • ••••• • • • ••••• •• • •• • • • •

• 0 .63 •• • • • ••

• p = 0 .000

•••

No current

.& Figure 10.6.2 Scatter of pigeons from the release site

.& Figure 10.6.3 Pigeon wearing on Its head a device that generates a magnetic field

• Therefore, it would appear that changes in the magnetic fields that a pigeon experiences affects its ability to way-find .

Designing better maps; way-finding Map design

• Levine (1982) and Levine et al (1984) have suggested strategies for improving the usefulness of "you are here" maps.

• To aid their navigation users need to know where they are in relation to the map.

• This can be achieved if they can correctly identify a minimum of two features both on the map and in the environment.

• This is called structure-matching and enables users to place themselves accurately on the map. For example, a "you are here" dot may pinpoint your position along a road running down the map.

• Many passengers travelling from north to south prefer to hold their map upside down to assist navigation.

• This restores the map to its correct orientation; that is, it achieves direct correspondence between the map and the real world - what is ahead on the road is "up" on the map (forward-up equivalence) and features to the left on the map are oh the left-hand side of the road.

Way-finding

• Possession of a cognitive map may neither be necessary for nor guarantee successful wayfinding, the process of navigating through an environment.

• We may use published maps, ask others for directions or obtain other experience or information to help us to find our way.

• By keeping moving until we find somewhere familiar or by returning to a known location we can re-establish effective way-finding:

o Determine the location.

o Localise the destination .

o Select a route.

o Decide how to travel.

• Way-finding is also facilitated by a high degree of visual access, that is, being visible from different perspectives.

• In a hilly town we are likely to be able to obtain different views of buildings and streets, increasing visual access.

• Conversely, underground, such as in car parks or particularly on tube traihs, our visual access is limited and so assimilating information about the relationships between locations is difficult.

• How difficult an area is to understand in terms of the amount of detail and its intricacy is referred to as the complexity of spatial layout.

• Way-finding is hampered in environments with a very complicated spatial layout. Within a building this may result from having several floors, unpredictable interconnections both across and between floors and having a different floor plan at each level.

Virtual way-finding

Revisit Core study 6.3 for AS level on page 40 as the researchers used virtual way-finding in their study where taxi drivers had to mentally (virtually) plan a route from location A to location B.

U9

120

Models of abnormality

11.1 Definitions of abnormality

Deviation from statistical norms

• This is an objective way of defining abnormality.

• Anything that is statistically rare is classified as being abnormal.

• However, the cut-Off point beyond which something is ''statistically rare" has to be decided.

• 011e example of this is the distribution of

>. (.) c: Q) :l Cf Q) ....

LL.

scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) tests. These usually follow a normal distribution in any given population with many people clustering around the average of 100 and then fewer and fewer scoring the higher or lower IQ points as dictated by the range of scores.

mean I

I I I

I I

65% • I I •

95%

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 IQ

A Figure 11.1.1 Normal distribution of scores on an IQ test

• People scoring below 70 on an IQ test are in the bottom 2.5 per cent of a population and could therefore be classed as "abnormal".

Deviation from social norm

• We would label people "abnormal" if their behaviour did not fit in with cultural and societal norms.

• If their behaviour is not seen as being "correct" or "moral" then we may feel that they are acting abnormally.

• Social norms do change over time and as a result so wfll the parameters of this definition. For example, in 19th-century Great Britain, moral insanity in women was defined as "women who have inherited money and spend it on themselves rather than on male relatives".

Deviation from Ideal mental health

• This definition focuses more on what characteristics a person should have for ideal me11tal health rather than directly defining "abnor111al" .

• Jahoda (1958) noted that people who have ideal mental health:

o show no signs of distress in everyday life

o are rational and can Introspect correctly

o are able to self-actualise

o can cope with stressful situations

o have a realistic outlook on tl1e world

o have good self-esteem

o can successfully work.

FaiJure to function adequately

• People who cannot function or experience psychological distress {and then try to get l1elp) are showing that they currently have some form of "abnormal behaviour".

• Therefore, anyone who is showing signs of psychological distress, be it at home or work , is ·· abnor111al".

Problems with defining and diagnosing abnormality

• Statistical norm fails to take into account the social context of behaviour. For example, people who score 130+ in an IQ test are in the upper 2.5 per cent of scores but they would be labelled gifted rather than abnormal.

• Judging social nor111s fails to account for subcultural differences in behaviour that could end up with an over-representation of "abnormal behaviour" in a certain group of people.

• People may not fulfil one of Jahoda's criteria for ideal me11tal health yet still have ideal mental health.

• Focusing on failure to function adequately is reductionist. There are otl1er factors involved in the diagnosis of ab11ormal behaviour rather than simply suffering.

Reread Core study 7 .2 for AS level on page 48 and use this as an example of how there are problems defining what is abnormal behaviour.

Models of abnormality Medical or biological

A medical professional would believe the following about abnormality:

• Psychological abnormality is an illness just like one based on physical conditions. It can be diagnosed and treated in the same way.

• Tl1e focus is 011 the physiological nature of the problem behaviour rather than behavioural or emotional factors. Somethi11g biological is the cause.

• Symptoms shown can be understood in terms of some malfunction or disruption of the person's biological systems.

• Mental illness can be treated in the same way as any physical illness via drugs. surgery, etc.

Behavioural

A behaviourist would believe the following about abnormality:

• Dysfunctional behaviour is learned in the same way as any other behaviour.

• Mental health issues occur due to the principles of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

• The focus is on observable behaviour that can be seen directly rather than "interna.I " mechanisms such as biology or emotions.

• Mental illness can be treated using behavioural techniques (e.g. using rewards to change dysfunctional behaviours into functional behaviours).

Psychodynamlc

A psychodynamic psychologist would believe the following about abnormality:

• The quality of relationships we have with our parents in early childhood are of critical importance to mental health in adulthood.

• Any early traumatic experiences that may disrupt our relationships are more likely to cause mental health issues later in life.

• Our early experiences (especially the negative ones) are stored in our unconscious mind and this affects our mental health.

• Mental illness is an emotional response to trauma, any unmet childhood needs and unsatisfied biological instincts .

Cognitive

A cognitive psychologist would believe the following about abnormality:

• Dysfunctional behaviours are caused by faulty information processing and thought processes, usually as a result of some early experiences.

• Mental health issues are caused by purely cognitive factors (e.g. memory systems, irrational beliefs).

• Mental hea Ith issues can be dealt with by restructuring the cognitions of people (e.g. helping them to think more positively or restructuring the way they process the information they receive day to day).

Treatments of abnormality Biological and medical

These are the majn biological and medical treatments~

• Drugs - these can help control neurotransmitter levels in the brain which could be causing the mental health issue.

• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT} - electrodes are placed on specific areas of the person's skull and a very brief electrical current is passed through them.

• Psychosurgery - people with certain rnental health issues could have a section of brain removed, lesioned or ablated.

Psychotherapies

The main psychotherapy is psychoanalysis. Many techniques are used:

• Free association - this is w.hen the patient is allowed simply to talk about anything and the therapist has to pick out what is causing the issue.

• Dream analysis - this involves looking at dream content for hidden meanings.

• Hypnosis - this is used to access unconscious conflict.

Cognitive behavioural

The main cognitive behavioural and behavioural therapies are as follows:

• Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) involves the therapist continually challenging any irrational thoughts.

• Systematic desensitisation is when a person constructs a hierarchy of fear and works up the hierarchy using relaxation techniques to overcome a phobia.

• Flooding is a process during which people confront a fear directly and cannot escape until they have calmed down.

Effectiveness and appropriateness of treatments

Each of the therapies listed above will feature across the five disorders that you need to study: schizophrenia, abnormal affect, addiction and impulse control disorders, phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Effectiveness studies and the appropriateness of certain treatments will be covered within the treatment section of all five disorders .

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11 Models of abnorn1ality

11.2 Schizophrenia

Types, symptoms and characteristics Schizophrenia was first called "dementia praecox" (premature dementia) as it affects people's thoughts, emotions and behaviours.

Types

Schizophrenia is an "umbrella" term used to outline a range of different psychotic disorders that affect thoughts, emotions and behaviours. These are the main diagnostic types :

• Simple - when people gradually withdraw themselves from reality.

• Paranoid - when people have delusiona I thoughts and hallucinations and may experience delusions of grandeur.

• CatatonJc - when people have motor activity disturbances that may involve them sitting or standing in the same position for hours.

• Disorganised - when people have disorganised behaviour, thoughts and speech patterns. They may also experience auditory hallucinations.

• Undifferentiated - when an individual does not fit into one of the types above but is stjfl experiencing affected thoughts and behaviours.

Characteristics

For a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) outlines the following:

• The person shows two of the following for at least one month: d.elusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech , disorganised or catatonic behaviour, flattening of emotions; or continual voices in the head giving a running commentary of what is happening.

• The person must show social and/ or occupational functioning that has declined.

• There must be no evidence that medical factors are causing the behaviours.

Symptoms can be split into positive and negative:

• Positive refers to the addition of certain behaviours. For example, hallucinations, delusions of grandeur or control and insertjon of thoughts are all positive.

• Negative refers to the removal of certain behaviours. For example, poverty of speech, withdrawal from society and flattening of mood are all negative.

Case Studies CHALLENGE YOURSELF

Find two real~life case studjes of people being either diagnosed with schizophrenia or living with schizophrenia.

Explanations of schizophrenia Genetic

• This idea states that there is a link between schizophrenia and inherited genetic material.

• If this is the case then the closer our genetic link is to someone diagnosed with schizophrenia, the more likely we are to be diagnosed ourselves.

• Gottesman (1991) examined over 40 studies conducted in Europe to pool data on research focused on genetics and schizophrenia.

Relative Percentage risk

Nephews or nieces 4

Children 13

Non-identical (dyzgotic) twins 17

Identical (monozygotlc) twins 48

In cont rast; general population 1

A. Table 11.2 .1 Link between genetics and schizophrenia

Source: Gottesman (1991)

• It would appear that the data supports the idea of schizophrenia being inherited as the more genetic material the individuals shared, the more likely they were to be diagnosed too.

• However, the highest risk was 48 per cent (and not 100 per cent, indicating a wholly genetic trait) so it looks as if people may be born with a predisposition to develop schizophrenia and it is some environmental influence that ultimately causes it.

• Yang et al (2013) analysed ten "candidate " genes that could be responsible for schjzophrenia in a sample of 1 512 participants. While there was no single gene that appeared to be associated with schizophrenia , the DAO gene was strongly associated with schizophrenia in comparison to all of the other candidate genes.

• Roofeh et al (2013) noted that the human leukocyte antigen region of a genome could well be a plausible cause for some types of schizophrenia.

• It is interesting to note in the Yang et al (2013) study that the DAO gene ma.y interact with another called RASD2 which may affect dopamine production (see below for more on dopamine).

Biochemical (dopamine hypothesis)

• This idea is based around the idea that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine in the brain. There are two key points:

o When people experience amphetamine psychosis it resembles certain types of schizophrenia. This is caused by an excess of dopamine.

o Drug treatment (e.g. prescribing phenothiazines) does help to treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia but the drugs can bring about symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease which is cause by low levels of dopamine.

• Linstroem et al (1999) used a PET scan to test out the dopamine hypothesis. Ten schizophrenics and ten healthy controls were injected with a radioactively labelled chemical called L-DOPA. This is used in the production of dopamine. The PET scan could trace its usage in all participants. The L-DOPA was taken up significantly faster in the schizophrenics, pointing towards them producing more dopamine.

• Arakawa et al (2010) noted that a drug called perospirone which has a high affinity to D2 dopamine receptors has an average 75 per cent usage rate which then blocked the further production of dopamine in schizophrenics.

• Seeman (2011) reviewed the field and noted that animal models of schizophrenia pointed towards elevation in levels of D2 receptors and that antipsychotics do reverse the elevation in D2 receptors but should only be used in the short term to stop other side effects.

Cognitive

• The idea here is that schizophrenia is caused by faulty information processing.

• Frith (1992) noted that schizophrenics might have a deficient "metarepresentation" system.

• This would deal with being able to reflect on thoughts, emotions and behaviours.

• It could also be linked to theory of mind (see Core study 3.3 for AS level on page 11) as it controls self-awareness and how we interpret the actions of others. These are characteristics lacking in some schizophrenics.

• Also, those showing more negative symptoms might have a dysfunctional supervisory attention system. This is a system that is responsible for generating self-initiated actions.

• Frith & Done (1986) reported that when participants were asked. to do things such as name as many different fruits as possible, or generate as many designs for something as possible, those with schizophrenia (negative symptom predominant) had great difficulty.

• Frith (1992) also examined a central monitoring system. This system allows us to be able to understand and label actions that we do as being controlled by ourselves.

• Frith had noticed that in some schizophrenics, inner speech may not be recognised as being selfgenerated. When these patients hear "voices" it is their own voice but they are unaware that it is themselves producing inner speech and believe it is someone else.

Evaluation extra • These studies are scientific and objective . As

they are following the biological approach they use scientific equipment and measure data objectively so it is easier to establish cause and effect.

• However, the ideas may be reductionist as they do not take into account that social and psychological factors may play a role in the development of schizophrenia.

Treatments for schizophrenia Blochemlcal

• This treatment centres on using drugs to alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia.

• Davison & Neale (1997) noted that, from the 1950s onwards, drugs classed as phenothiazines were commonly used to treat schizophrenia. They were effective as they block dopamine receptors in the brain.

• However, many had "extrapyramidal side effects" which resemble symptoms of neurological diseases such as Parkinsonian-type tremors, dystonia (muscular rigidity), dyskinesia (e.g. chewing movements) and akasthesia (inability to keep still).

• Second-generation antipsychotics were developed to also block dopamine receptors but produce fewer side effects. There are now third-generation antipsychotics that reportedly produce even fewer side effects.

• Sarkar & Grover (2013) conducted a metaanalysis on 15 randomised controlled studies testing the effectiveness of antipsychotics on children and adolescents diagnosed with schizophrenia. It was seen that both first- and second-.generation antipsychotic drugs were superior to placebo in alleviating symptoms. Second-generation drugs were superior overall with chlozapine being the most effective of all drugs. Extrapyramidal side effects were seen more in first-generation antipsychotics while side effects that affected metabolism were seen more often in second-generation drugs.

• Ehret, Sopko & Lemieux (2010) noted that a thirdgeneration drug called lurasidone had been shown to be effective in four separate clinical trials, reducing both positive and negative symptoms. Noted side effects had only been nausea. vomiting and dizziness (they noted that drugs like clozapine were now showing more metabolic dysfunction s.ide effects plus bone marrow toxicity so newer drugs needed to be developed).

• Keating (2013) noted that a first-generation drug called loxapine was now being used again as an effective treatment for agitation in schizophrenic patients by getting them to inhale it as a powder. This meant a rapid onset of effect (usually around ten minutes) by using a non-invasive method that was currently showing few side effects.

Electro-convulsive therapy ( ECT)

• ECT is basically a procedure where a person receives a brief application of electricity to induce a seizure. 1.23

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• Early attem,pts at this were not pleasant but nowadays patients are anaesthetised and given muscle relaxants.

• Electrodes are fitted to specific areas of the head and a small electrical current is passed through them for no longer than one second.

• The seizure may last up to 1 minute and the patient regains consciousness in around 15 minutes.

• There will always be debate about whether ECT should be used for any mental health issue as clinicians and psychologists are divided on the severity of the therapy itself and the longer-term side effects .

• ECT is now mainly used for depression (we will come back to its effectiveness with this on page 128), but there has been research conducted on the use of ECT with schizophrenics.

• Zervas, Theleritis & Soldatos (2012) conducted a review of the use of ECT in schizophrenia. They looked at four issues: symptom response, technical application, continuation/ maintenance ECT and its combination with medication. It would appear that ECT can be quite effective with catatonic schizophrenics and in reducing paranoid delusions. There was also evidence that it may improve a person's responsivity to medication. Lengthier courses worked well with catatonic schizophrenics. When combined with medication, ECT worked better compare·d to just using ECT.

• Phutane et al (2011) also noted that in a sample of 202 schizophrenics who had undergone ECT, the common reason why they had the ECT was to "augment pharmachotherapy" and that the main target was catatonia.

• Thirthalli et al (2009) reported that in a sample of schizophrenics (split into catatonic and noncatatonic), those who were catatonic required fewer ECT sessions to help control their symptoms.

• Finally, Flamarique et al (2012) reported that adolescents who received ECT in conjunction with clozapine had a lower rehospitalisation rate (7 .1 per cent) compared to a group who received ECT and a different antipsychotic (58.3 per cent).

Token economy

• Token economies are based on the idea of operant conditioning (rewards and learning by consequence).

• Behaviour is shaped towards something desired by giving out tokens (e.g. plastic chips or a stamp) every time a relevant behaviour is shown.

• Patients can accrue these tokens and exchange them for something they would like (e.g. money, food vouchers).

• Patients continue to show desired behaviours as they want to earn tokens to exchange for primary reinforcers that fulfil a direct biological need (e.g. satisfying hunger or giving enjoyment).

• Ayllon & Azrin (1968) introduced a token economy to a psychiatric hospital in a ward for long-stay female patients. Patients were rewarded for behaviours such as brushing their hair, making their bed and having a neat appearance. Their behaviour rapidly improved and it also had a benefit for staff morale as staff were seeing more positive behaviours.

• Ghol ipour et al (2012) tested out the effectiveness of a token economy versus an exercise programme in helping people with schizophrenia. A total of 45 patients were randomly split into three groups (two treatments and a control ). All participants were male, had been diagnosed for at least three years, were between 20 and 50 years old and had no other mental health illness. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia were measured pre- and posttreatment. The average symptom scores pre- and post-treatment are shown in Table 11.2.2.

Group Pre-treatment Post-treatment score score

Exercise 71 .07 50.47

Token economy 76.73 41.20

Control 84.67 84.87

.& Table U .2.2 Average symptom scores pre-- and post-treatment

Source: Gholipour et al (2012)

• Prior to this study, Dickerson, Tenhula & GreenPaden (2005) conducted a review of the field. They found 13 studies and it appeared that there was evidence for the effectiveness of a token economy in increasing the adaptive behaviours of patients with schizophrenia. They noted that many studies had methodological issues that could cast doubt on findings and long-term follow-ups were rare.

CBT • This type of therapy aims to change or modify

people's thoughts and beliefs and also change the way that they process information.

• A therapist will challenge irrational and faulty thoughts as well as behaviours that are not helping.

• Patients may be set tasks outside of the faceto-face therapy to help challenge faulty thoughts and beliefs.

• .For schizophrenia, the intention of CBT would be to help patients make sense of the psychotic experiences and reduce the negative effects of the condition plus any distress they may be feeling.

• Bechdolf et al (2005) assessed the effectiveness of CST versus group psychoeducation on rehospitalisation and medication compliance up to 24 months after treatment. A total of 88 patients were randomly assigned to either group and they received 8 weeks of therapy. At a six-month followup, those in the CST group were less likely to be

hospitalised and be taking their medication. At 24-months post-treatment, the CBT group had had 71 days fewer in hospital.

• Ng, Hui & Pau (2008) assessed the introduction of a CBT programme in a hostel for people who had become treatment-resistant to schizophrenia (drug therapy) in Hong Kong. Measures of schizophrenic symptoms, mood, insight and selfesteem were taken pre- and post-treatment. Six months after treatment there was a significant reduction in the symptoms of schizophrenia

alongside an increase in self-esteem. Mood a11d insight remained unchanged.

• Finally, Sarin, Wallin & Widerlov (2011) conducted a meta-analysis on the use of CBT with schizophrenics. They concluded that there was strong evidence for CBT affecting positive, negative and general symptoms of schizophrenia compared to all other therapies. They a lso stated that the effects of CBT can be delayed and having 20 sessions or more is better than shorter programmes that are available.

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11.3 Abnormal affect

Types, characteristics, examples and sex differences Types

• Unipolar - this is sometimes called a major depressive episode. Symptoms for this type include having a depressed mood for most of the day, diminished pleasure in most activities undertaken, some weight loss, insomnia or hypersomnia , some psychomotor agitation, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness and a reduced ability to concentrate on tasks.

• Bipolar - this used to be referred to as manic depression. Symptoms for th is type include having episodes of manic behaviour that cannot be accounted for by a physical condition, having some episode that is similar to unipolar depression (although this is not necessary for a diagnosis) and having some change in polarity of behaviour between mania and depression.

Causes of and treatments for manic depression

• Causes of manic depression tend to be all biological. Here are some examples:

o Genetic causes were investigated in a study by Edgunlu, Duvarci & Cetin (2013). The researchers noted that bipolar disorder may be caused by a defect on the X-chromosome after examining a case study of a 35-year-0ld male who had muscular dystrophy and bipolar disorder wh·ose mother also had bipolar disorder. Muscular dystrophy is transmitted by the X-chromosome 1 hence the link to bipolar disorder. Also, Chang et al (2013) reported on initial work on a BDgene project to try and pinpoint the genetic cause of bipolar disorder. Currently there are 43 BO core genes that require further investigation.

o Brain structure was investigated in a study by Nery, Monkul & Lafer (2013). The researchers reviewed the field and reported on isolated cases where people with bipolar disorder had decreased grey matter in the left thalamus and left hippocampal regions of the brain . However, findings are currently inconsistent.

• In terms of treating bipolar disorder, drug therapy appears to be the main treatment used.

• In a recent review, Malhi et al (2013) noted that lithium has been used for over 50 years as an effective treatment. It works well at stabilising manic moods but does not affect depression much. It also possesses anti-suicidal properties that no other drug has managed to achieve yet.

• Joshi et al (2013) noted that a drug called paliperidone was effective in treating acute bipolar disorder in children and adolescents after an

eight-week randomised trial where all participants took the drug. The only side effect seen was significant weight gain (average 4.1 lbs).

• Katagiri et al (2013} conducted a study to test the efficacy and safety of using olanzapine for bipolar disorder. There were 156 patients of which 104 were allocated to the olanzapine group and 52 to a placebo (it was a double-blind study) . Patients in the drug group showed greater improvement in symptoms across a range of questionnaire measures but also showed greater weight gain and cholesterol levels compared to the placebo.

Sex differences in depression

Nolen-Hoeksema (1987) conducted a review of sex differences in depression in terms of prevalence and potential explanations:

• Virtually all studies reported a gender bias.

• Females were up to 4.6 times more likely to be diagnosed with depression compared to males and this was seen across many nationalities and cultures.

• These figures were across a range of different types of depression.

• There were three possible explanations for the gender differences:

o It is about income not gender. However, two studies in the review did look at income differences and found no significant effect.

o Reporting bias might exist. There had been an idea that females are more likely to reveal symptoms and therefore more likely to be diagnosed. Studies did not appear to support this idea.

o The kinds of symptoms shown may provide an explanation. Depression in men usually takes a form of acting out behaviours such as sadness and crying. Males act in ways to dampen their mood when depressed whereas women are much more likely to amplify their mood by "thinking things over too much" .

Explanations of depression Biological: genetJc and neurochemical

• The genetic argument follows the idea that depression may well run in famil ies and be encoded in genetics .

• One way of testing this is by conducting studies of twins using monozygotic (MZ: identical) and dizygotic (DZ: non-identical) twins.

• McGuffin et al (1996) examined 214 pairs of twins where at least one was being treated for depression. They reported that 46 per cent of MZ and 20 per cent of DZ twins of the patients also had a diagnosis of depression.

• Silberg et al (1999) wanted to assess whether it was genetics, the environment or a combination of the two that could be causing depression. A total of 902 pairs of twins completed psychiatric

interviews to assess levels of depression alongside data about life events and from parents. In general, females were diagnosed more often with depression than males. This was more marked when life events were negative. However, there were individual differences seen among the females and those who were diagnosed with depression after a negative life event were more likely to have a twin who was also diagnosed with depression.

• Earlier studies had also shown a part-genetic component of depression .

• As shown in Table 11.3.1, Bertelsen Harvald & Hauge (1977) reported that the genetic component varied depending on the type of depression.

Type of depression Percentage Percentage chance for chance for MZ twins DZ twins

Bipolar disorder 80 16 Severe depression 59 30 (three or more episodes of depression)

Depression (fewer than 36 17 three episodes of depression)

A Table 11.3.1 Genetic component and type of depression

• In terms of a neurochemical cause, there are two neurotransmitters that have been investigated: norepinephrine and serotonin. Low levels of both of these may well be a cause of depression. Davison & Neale (1998) highlighted how certain drugs block the reuptake of these neurotransmitters so that more of them can be used in the postsynaptic neuron.

Cognitive: Beck

Beck (1976) was interested in examining the irrational thought processes involved in depression:

• He believed that there were three factors which make people cognitively vulnerable to depression.

• These are called the cognitive triad and are:

o negative view of self

o negative view of the world

o negative view of the future.

• These three can interact with each other to make a person depressed.

• They will also "change'' the way information is processed as they become an "automatic" way of thinking.

Internal

Stable Unstable

Global "I lack general "I am really, really tired intelligence for exams." today."

Specific "I lack the abil ity '' I am fed up with to pass psychology studying psychology." exams."

• When information Is being processed it is affected by all three so the information will be processed in a "negative way".

• People may simply overestimate the negative aspects of a situation, meaning they will conclude that whatever happens, something bad will come of it.

• Depressives may also have negative self-schemas (packets of information about themselves) that have developed since childhood by having negative experiences and/ or overly critical parents, peers or teachers . All new information that is processed will become negative as the mechanisms are all negative. As a result, depression develops.

Learned helplessness or attributional style

• Learned helplessness is about individuals becoming passive because they feel they are not in control of their own life.

• This is caused by unpleasant experiences that people have tried to control in the past (unsuccessfully) .

• This gives people a sense of helplessness which in turn leads to depression.

• The idea was based on Sellgman's (197 4) research on dogs.

• They received electric shocks that they could not escape from (lack of control) and it did not take long for the dogs to stop trying to escape.

• They all became passive and appeared to accept the painful situation they were in.

• When in future trials there was an opportunity to escape, the dogs still did not try to do this.

• This is the sense of helplessness that depressives will fee l if they cannot escape situations that are negative and out of their control.

• Weiner et al (1971) noted three levels of attribution that can affect people 's views of their own behaviour:

o internal (personal) or external (environmental}

o stable or unstable

o global or specific .

Table 11.3.2 highlights an example of how the different attributional schemata can be used to explain why someone failed a psychology exam.

External

Stable Unstable

"Exams are an unfair way "It's an unlucky day." to test my ability."

!he psychology exam "My psychology exam had was really unfair as rt had 13 questions, which is questions I did not know unlucky." the answers to."

.A Table 11.3.2 Using attributional schemata to explain exam failure

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Treatments for depression Biological: chemical or drugs

• Here are two examples of antidepressants that are commonly used:

o Selective serotonergic reuptake inhibitors (SSRls) - the possible side effects of these drugs are fatigue, headaches and insomnia.

o Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOls) -these work by inhibiting monamine oxidase (this breaks down neurotransmitters such as norepineprhine and serotonin) which means more serotonin and norepinephrine is available in the synapse. Possible side effects include hypertension (which is potentially fatal), dizziness and nausea.

• Rucci et al (2011) tested out the effectiveness of SSRls versus interpersonal psychotherapy on suicidal thoughts in a group of 291 outpatients with major depression. Participants were randomly assigned to either treatment regime and suicidal ideation was measured using a questionnaire. The 231 patients who had shown no suicidal ideation pre-study were analysed and 32 of these did exhibit suicidal Ideation during the treatment. For those on SSRls, the time taken for these thoughts to emerge was much longer than in the psychotherapy group. Therefore SSRls may reduce suicidal thoughts in people with major depression.

• Nakagawa et al (2008) conducted a metaanalysis on the efficacy and effectiveness of a drug called milnacipran (a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor} in comparison to other antidepressants. The studies selected for the analysis had to be randomised controlled trials with milnacipran compared to at least one other antidepressant. While there tended to be no differences in clinical improvement across all antidepressants, people taking antidepressants called tricyclics tended to withdraw from treatment sooner.

Blologlcal: electro-convulsive therapy ( ECT)

See page 124 for a description of the procedure used to administer ECT.

• Nordenskjold et al (2013) tested the effectiveness of using ECT with drug therapy compared to using drug therapy alone. A total of 56 patients were randomly assigned to either 29 treatments of ECT alongside drug therapy or just drug therapy. The researchers measured relapse of depression within one year of completing treatment. In the group of patients on drug therapy alone, 61 per cent of patients relapsed within the year compared to just 32 per cent of patients who had ECT and drug therapy.

• Dierckx et al (2012) reviewed the field in terms of whether response to ECT differs in bipolar disorder patients versus unipolar depressed patients. A total of six studies formed their

analysis. The overall remission rate was nearly 51 per cent for unipolar depression and over 53 per cent for bipolar disorder. The data covered over 1 000 patients. Overall, the data was encouraging as it showed similar efficacy rates for the two types of depression.

• Dunne & Mcloughlin (2012) reviewed the effectiveness and side effects of three types of ECT: bifrontal (BF}, bilateral (BL} and unilateral (UL). Eight studies were used in the analysis. It covered data on 617 patients. There was no difference in the effectiveness of the three types in terms of efficacy - all appeared to have some level of effectiveness. UL ECT impaired complex figure recall more than BF ECT. However, BF ECT impaired word recall more than UL ECT.

• Jelovac, Kolshus & Mcloughlin (2013) reviewed relapse rates following successful ECT for major depression. Thirty-two studies were used in the analysis and all had at least a two-year follow up. Compared to relapse rates for drug therapy (51.1 per cent 12 months following successful initial treatment with 37. 7 per cent relapsing in the first six months), ECT did not fare any better with a 37 .2 per cent relapse rate in the first six months. Those who took antidepressants post-ECT had a risk of relapse half of those who took a placebo.

Cognitive restructuring

• The idea of this therapy follows Beck's cognitive triad approach to the potential causes of depression.

1. The therapist explains the rationale behind the therapy and what its purpose is.

2. Clients are taught how to monitor automatic negative thoughts and negative self-schemata.

3. Clients are taught to use behavioural techniques to challenge negative thoughts and information processing.

4 . Therapist and client explore how negative thoughts are responded to by the client.

5 . Dysfunctional beliefs are identified and challenged.

6. The therapy ends with clients having the necessary "cognitive tools" to repeat the process by themselves.

• Hans & Hiller (2013) conducted a meta-analysis on the effectiveness of CST on adults with unipolar depression. A total of 34 studies formed the analysis and they had to assess the effectiveness of individual or group CST, as well as drop-out rates. The studies also had to have at least a six-month follow up. It would appear that outpatient CST was effective in reducing depressive symptoms and these were maintained at least six months after the CST ended.

• Cuijpers et al (2013) also conducted a review examining CST in relation to depression and comparing it to other treatments. A total of 115 studies were used and each had to be a

CST study that either had a control group or a comparison "other" treatment (e.g. psychotherapy or drug therapy). CST was effective at reducing depression in adults but the effect size was lower when the study was classed as high quality. Therefore, the positive effects of CST may well have been overestimated and more high-quality studies are needed.

• Burns et al (2013) conducted a pilot study to assess the effectiveness of CBT for females with antenatal depression. Thirty-six women who met the diagnostic criteria for depression were randomly assigned to either a CST treatment programme or usual care. Of those who completed nine or more sessions of CBT or completed their usual care, 68. 7 per cent of women in the CST group had recovered from their depression (15 weeks after treatment) compared to 38.5 per cent fn the usual care group.

Rational emotive behaviour therapy ( REBT)

• Ellis (1962) stated that rationality consists of thinking In ways that allow us to reach our goats; irrationality consists of thinking in ways that prevent us from reaching our goals.

• The idea behind the therapy follows an ABC model:

o Activating event: this is a fact, behaviour, attitude or an event.

o Beliefs: the person holds beliefs about the activating event.

o Cognitive: this is the person's cognitive response to the activating event as well as emotions.

• Using the example from Table 11.3.2 on page 127 about failfng a psychology exam, this failure would be the A. The B that might follow could be "I am a failure" or "I hate it when I do not pass an exam" and then the C becomes depression.

• Szentagotai et al (2008) examined the effectiveness of REBT, CBT and drug therapy for the treatment of a major depressive episode. A range of outcome measures were taken based on a questionnaire that tested three main depressive thoughts: automatic negative thoughts, dysfunctional attitudes and irrational beliefs . There were 170 participants who were randomly assigned to either the REST (n = 5 7), CST (n = 56) or drug therapy (n = 57) groups. In terms of depressive symptoms, there were no significant differences between the three groups but the REST group had an average score significantly lower than the drug therapy group. Jn terms of the three main depressive thoughts, all three treatments appeared to decrease these immediately post-treatment and then at follow-up.

• Sava et al (2008) compared REST, CBT and the use of prozac in a sample of depressives. The participants were split into the three treatment groups and all had 14 weeks ' worth of therapy. All participants completed the Beck Depression Inventory prior to the therapy and then at 7 and 14 weeks post-therapy. There were no significant differences between the three groups in terms of scores on the inventory but REBT and CBT cost less for the same outcomes so are a preferred treatment.

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11.4 Addiction and impulse control disorders

Definitions, types and characteristics Definitions

According to Griffiths (2005), there are six components to any addiction disorder:

• Salience - when the addiction becomes the single most important activity in the person's life. It dominates the person's behaviour, thoughts and feelings.

• Euphoria - the subjective experience that is felt while engaging in the addictive behaviour like a "rush" or a "buzz".

• Tolerance - when the person has to do more of the addictive behaviour to get the same effect.

• Withdrawal - this refers to the unpleasant thoughts and physica I effects felt when the person tries to stop the addictive behaviour.

• Conflict - when the person with the addiction begins to have conflicts with work colleagues, friends and family.

• Relapse - the chances of the person "going back" to the addictive behaviour are high.

Types

• Pyromania - when people deliberately start a fire because they are attracted to fires or seeing the fire service "in action". They may feel a sense of arousal and satisfaction once the fire has started .

• Kleptomania - when people have the urge to collect and hoard items in their homes. They may go out and steal objects even if the items have little monetary value or they could afford to buy them. The more difficult the challenge of gaining the objects, the more thrilling and addictive it becomes.

• Compulsive gambling - when people feel the need to gamble to get a sense of euphoria especially if they win. They will continue to gamble whether they win or lose.

Physical and psychological dependence

• Physical dependence refers to times when the body becomes used to functioning with the drug in its system and so " requires" the drug to maintain normal functioning.

• Psychological dependence is when the drug or activity becomes of great importance to the person's life to maintain a "stable" mental state .

Causes of addiction and impulse control disorders Genetic: alcohol

• Edenberg & Foroud (2006) reported on findings from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism. Early research suggested that there are three potential candidate genes that had been found in families with multiple alcoholic members: GABRA2, CHRM2 and ADH4. A further five genes were noted that needed further investigation.

• Edenberg (2013) also noted some evidence relating to two variants in genes that encode two enzymes that are involved in the metabolism of alcohol: (alcohol dehydrogenase ADH1B and aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH2).

• Agrawal & Bierut (2013) had also noted that the same two genes (ADH1B and ALDH2) appear to play a key role in alcoholism. They added that GABRA2 could also play a role as it encodes information about receptor sites in neurons linked to alcohol-related processing.

• Biernacka et al (2013) analysed 43 single nucleotide polymorphisms in 808 alcoholics and 1 248 control participants. One in particular (rs1614972) in the ADH1C gene was found to be a key difference between the two groups. This was also irrespective of the sex of the participant.

Biochemical: dopamine

• Dopamine has been linked to addiction and impulse control disorders as when it is released in the body it gives us feelings of pleasure and satisfaction.

• Once these feelings become a desire, we then repeat behaviours that cause the release of dopamine and the cycle continues with repetitive behaviours.

• Yoon et al (2010) reported that when participants were given a dopamine agonist (which activates dopamine receptors), impulsive choice increased, reaction times became faster and participants showed fewer decision conflicts compared to a control group.

• One drawback is that the participants had Parkinson's disease so whether this can be related to people with impulse control disorder needs investigating.

Behavioural: positive reinforcement

• This follows the idea of rewards. When an action is followed by a pleasurable outcome, the person is more likely to engage in that behaviour again. Therefore, if an addictive behaviour or impulse control behaviour is followed by a positive outcome, the person is likely to repeat that behaviour (e.g. setting fire to a house or winning on a fruit machine).

Cognitive or personality

• Gannon et al (2013) examined 68 pyromaniacs and 68 control participants. Participants were given a range of questionnaires to complete that measured a range of personality traits. The characteristics more common in the pyromaniacs were:

o higher anger-related cognitions

o interest in serious fires

o lower levels of perceived fire safety awareness

o lower general self-€steem

o external locus of control.

• Kennedy et al (2006) reviewed the literature (six studies) and reported the following about adolescent pyromaniacs who set fires again after being convicted (compared to those who did not got back to fire-setting). The adolescents repeating the behaviour:

o had a great interest in fire-setting and showed higher levels of covert antisocial behaviours

o were more likely to be male and older

o had poorer social skills with a high level of family dysfunction.

• Cunningham et al (2011) researched nine women who were pyromaniacs. They were interviewed and the qualitative analysis revealed that they had distressing experiences and lack of support pre-pyromaniac behaviour. They conducted the fire-setting to influence others, gain help and feel a sense of achievement and control.

• Wedekind et al (2013) studied the personality and attachment profiles of 59 alcoholics (43 male and 16 female). They completed a battery of questionnaires as well as taking part in a structured interview. Only one-third of the sample were securely attached and the sample had high levels of trait-anxiety and showed higher levels of cognitive avoidance as well as higher scores on a number of pathological measures.

Coping with and reducing addiction and impulse control disorders Behavioural

• One technique that has been used with alcoholics is establishing a token economy (see page 124 for a description of a token economy).

• Petry et al (2000) researched 42 alcoholdependent older adults in an outpatient setting. They were randomly assigned to a standard treatment-only group or a standard treatment plus token economy group (the TE group). The latter had the chance to earn tokens that could go towards prizes for submitting negative breathalyser tests and completing set steps towards desired behaviours.

• The treatment lasted eight weeks and the first measure was the percentage of participants who completed the full treatment: 84 per cent in the TE group and 22 per cent in the group receiving standard treatment only. By the end of the treatment phase, 69 per cent of those in the TE group were still abstinent compared to just 29 per cent in the other group. Participants in the TE group earned, on average, about $200 worth of prizes.

Aversion therapy

• Aversion therapy is based on classical conditioning.

• The idea is that an undesirable behaviour (e.g. when an alcoholic drinks alcohol) is paired with an aversive stimulus (something unpleasant).

• This decreases the frequency of the behaviour as the two elements are associated and so the behaviour is no longer enjoyable.

• For alcoholics this could be that whenever they smell or taste alcohol they are given an emetic drug (a drug that makes them vomit). They should begin to associate being sick with drinking alcohol and then avoid drinking alcohol or redu.ce the amount they drink, so their behaviour will be changed.

• Howard (2001) examined the effectiveness of aversion therapy using 82 hospitalised patients. They all went through a pharmacological aversion treatment and the results were as follows:

o The strength of "positive outcomes for drinking alcohol" were significantly reduced.

o Participants' confidence that they could avoid drinking alcohol in "high-risk situations" was sign·ificantly increased.

o Those who had a greater experience of alcohol-related nausea pre-treatment or were involved in antisocial conduct showed reduced effectiveness for the treatment.

• Smith, Frawley & Polissar (1997) assessed the effectiveness of aversion therapy compared to counselling with alcoholics. A total of 249 patients went through the aversion therapy and were matched with participants who had the counselling. The group who rece ived aversion therapy had significantly higher rates of alcohol abstinence at 6 and 12 months post-treatment.

CBT for kleptomania

• Hodgins & Peden (2008} reviewed the current field at the time in relation to CST usage for kleptomania (see page 124 for a description of CST}.

• The first thing the researchers noted was that there was little systematic research in the area.

• Covert sensitisation is when patients have to visualise a negative (aversive) image with the kleptomania behaviours. The idea is to make them associate the two so the behaviour decreases.

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• lmaginal desensitisation is when patients are taught relaxation techniques. They have to visualise themselves engaging in the in1pulsive behaviour while also engaging in relaxation. Impulsion and relaxation cannot happen at the same time and the idea is that relaxation takes over when people have the urge to involve themselves in kleptomania .

• Kohn & Antonuccio (2002) noted that CBT is very successful with kleptomaniacs especially if kleptomania-related consequences are used

(e.g. getting arrested and going to jail) instead of just general aversive imagery (e.g. nausea and vomiting). It is also effective when the kleptomaniac describes the scenarios out loud, in as much detail as possible, so that the anxiety continues to increase with the imaginings. This repeated pairing of aversive stimuli with kleptomania thoughts and ideas does decrease behaviour especially if patients are then reinforced for not engaging in kleptomania-related behaviours.

11.5 Anxiety disorders (phobias)

Definition, types and examples (case studies) Deflnltion

• A phobia is defined as an irrational fear of something, someone or some object.

• By irrational we mean unreasonable and illogical. There may be no reason why we fear the object or situation.

Types and examples

• Agoraphobia is the intense fear of open spaces and/ or public areas. For example, a person may fear leaving the house.

• Social phobia is the intense fear of being in social situations. People with this phobia actively avoid social situations as they dislike social interaction. They may also feel that other people are judging them.

• Clinophobia is a fear of going to bed .

• Hippophobia Is a fear of horses.

• Pteronophobla is a fear of being tickled by feathers!

Explanations of phobias Behavioural: classical conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves learning through association: it is a form of conditioning where the organism (be it human or animal) associates an unconditional stimulus (UCS) with a neutral stimulus (NS).

• After repeated associations, the organism then responds to the NS, now ca lled a conditioned stimulus (CS), without having the unconditional stimulus (UCS) present anymore.

Case study Re-read Little Hans on page 26.

The case of Little Albert Watson & Rayner (1920) were interested in two aims. The following is taken directly from the paper they wrote about the case of Little Albert:

"1 . Can we condition fear in an animal, e.g. a white rat, by visually presenting it and simultaneously striking a steel bar?

2 . If such a conditioned emotional response can be established , will there be a transfer to other animals or other objects?" (Watson & Rayner, 1920).

• At approximately nine months of age, Little Albert was presented with a range of stimuli (e.g. a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey). Albert showed no fear towards any of the objects.

• When Albert reached 11 months and three days, the experimental procedure began to test out the first aim.

• Albert was presented with a white rat again and as before he showed no fear.

• However, as Albert reached out to touch the rat, Watson struck an iron bar immediately behind the Albert's head. Of course, Albert "jumped violently and fell forward, burying his face in the mattress" (1920: 4).

• In total , Albert experienced the loud hoise and white rat occurring together on seven occasions. Finally, the rat was presented by itself and Albert began to cry and crawled away rapidly.

• This was the first time he had cried during the study in response to the rat.

• Over the next month Albert's reactions to a range of objects were observed.

• He was still fearful of the white rat. He showed negative reactions to a rabbit being placed in front of him and a fur coat (made from seal skin). He did not really like cotton wool but the shock was not the same as it was with the rabbit or fur coat. He even began to fear a Santa Claus mask.

• Albert's experiences can be explained with reference to classical conditioning, as shown in Figure 11.5.1 .

Before conditioning

Loud noise

White rat

During conditioning

Loud noise +white rat

After conditioning

White rat

Fear

No response

. Fear

Fear

.A Figure 11.5.1 Classical conditioning of Little Albert

Psychoanalytic (Freud)

Refer back to Core study 5.2 for AS level on page 26 that Investigated Little Hans.

Biomedical or genetic

• Could it be that we are pre-programmed to fear certain objects that may be potentjally harmful? That is, there are certain objects or things that we are expected to be frightened of so we are biologically prepared to fear them.

• This theory could help us to explain fears that are not totally irrational (e.g. fear of snakes - they can be dangerous).

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• Seligman (1971) had proposed the idea that we had evolved to be frightened of fear-relevant stimuli.

• So, we fear objects and things that might be a survival threat in evolutionary terms (Mineka & Ohman, 2002).

• We have fear-relevant stimuli (e.g. snakes) that we may be "prepared" to fear. We also have fearirrelevant stimuli (e.g. flowers) that we are not "prepared'' to fear.

• Cook & Mineka (1989) conducted a study with rhesus monkeys as the participants. The researchers wanted to see whether the monkeys could become phobic of objects such as a crocodile, a flower, a snake or a rabbit even though they had never seen them before.

• The monkeys were split into four separate groups so they only saw one of the objects. Cook & Mineka controlled what the monkeys saw as they watched a video.

• Using the technique of splicing the video, each monkey saw the same rhesus monkey being scared of the object that a group had been assigned. So, for example, one monkey saw another monkey on the video being scared of the crocodile. The next monkey saw the same monkey on the video but this time it was being scared by the flower.

• Each monkey was then tested on its fear towards the object.

• The monkeys in the crocodile and snake groups showed fear of a toy crocodile and toy snake.

• However, when the other two groups were shown their "feared object" (the flower or the rabbit), they did not show any fear.

• Ost et al (1991) examined people who were needle-phobic within the same family. This study reported that 64 per cent of patients with a blood and/ or injection phobia had at least one firstdegree relative (immediate family) with the same phobia. In the general population, between 3 per cent and 4 per cent of people are phobic of blood and/ or needles.

• Fredrikson, Annas & Wik (1997) examined 158 phobic females who were scared of snakes or spiders. Participants had to report on their family history of their phobia. Fredrikson discovered that 37 per cent of mothers and 7 per cent of fathers also had the same phobia. This looked as if it supported th.e idea that th.e phobic women had inherited their phobia.

• However, Fredrikson asked participants another question: whether participants had experienced direct exposure to the phobic stimulus (they had· been frightened by the phobic object directly) or had experienced indirect exposure to the phobic stimulus {they had seen someone else being phobic towards the object). Indirect exposure was more common for snakes (45 per cent) than for spiders (27 per cent}. So, even though it looked

as if the phobia was caused by genetics, nearly half of the snake-phobic participants could have their phobia explained via social learning.

Cognitive

• The view of cognitive psychologists is that phobias being caused by the anxiety is linked to the phobic being more likely to attend to negative stimuli and to believe that negative events are much more likely to happen in the future.

• DiNardo et al (1988) reported that in a group of dog phobics, only 50 per cent could report having a previous traumatic experience. However, in a group of people with no phobia of dogs, 50 per cent could also report a previously traumatic experience involving a dog.

• The key difference was that those who developed a phobia of dogs tended to focus on and become anxious about the possibility of having a similar experience in the future and this obviously affected the way they processed information about dogs.

• Kindt & Brosschot (1997) conducted a study to test out cognitive biases In people with arachnophobia.

• They created a Stroop-type test where the participants had to the read out the colour of the ink of spider-related words or pictures.

• Those who claimed to be arachnophobic took significantly longer to name the ink colour of the spider-related words compared to a control group.

• This hints at phobics having an automatic cognitive process of attending to phobia stimuli for longer than usual.

Treating phobias Systematic desensitisation (Wolpe)

• First, patients are taught relaxation skills so that they understand what it feels like to have relaxed muscles.

• This should enable patients to recreate this feeling in a variety of situations including when confronted with their phobic stimulus.

• Second, patients produce an anxiety or fear hierarchy to work through with the therapist. A simple hierarchy, for someone fearful of snakes, would be as follows:

1. This the least anxious situation - looking at a cartoon snake in a children's book.

2. The person looks at a picture of a real snake in a book.

3. The person watches a snake on a wildlife programme.

4. The person sees a real snake in the same room but in a cage.

5. The person sees a real snake in the same room out of the cage.

6. The person is within three feet of the snake.

7. The person touches the snake.

8 . This is the most anxious situation - the person lets the snake go around his or her neck.

• Patients can only work up the hierarchy of fear once each stage has been successfully completed; that is, they are showing signs of relaxation in the presence of the specific thing on the hierarchy (e.g. for stage 2 above, looking at book; for stage 7, when touching the snake).

• Figure 11.5.2 shows the principles of classical conditioning linked to systematic desensitisation in a three-stage process.

Stage 1

Spider (CS)

Relaxation technique

CUCS}

Stage 2

Spider (CS)

Stage 3

Spider (CS)

.

+

-

Fear (CR)

Calmness (UCR)

Relaxation Calmness technique

(UCR) <UCS)

Calmness (CR)

.A Figure 11.S.2 Principles of classical conditioning linked to systematic desensitisation

• Capafons, Sosa & Avera (1998) reported that their 20 patients with a fear of flying who had several sessions progressing up their anxiety hierarchy became much less fearful of flying after the study ended. However, like most studies in this area, there was no follow-up session to see whether the fear reduction had lasted.

• Zettle (2003) showed that systematic desensitisation can be applied to people who fear mathematics. Twenty-four college students underwent treatment for six weeks (split between systematic desensitisation and a different therapy) and had to rate their anxieties towards mathematics before, during and after the treatment. Anxiety decreased markedly for those who completed their systematic desensitisation even though their mathematics ability never changed. Zettle did not follow up participants after the study ended.

• Ventjs, Higbee & Murdock (2001) found that both relaxation techniques and simply laughing at the phobic stimulus were effective in reducing the fear in arachnophobics. All participants had been matched on fear: some progressed through their hierarchy with relaxation and others by laughing. Again , the researchers did not conduct follow-up sessions.

Flooding

• In this technique the patient is exposed to the largest anxiety-provoking stimuli straight away (usually direct contact with the stimuli - this is called in vivo).

• Obviously, the patient is going to feel extreme levels of fear and anxiety when confronted with the phobic stimulus.

• However, this dies off qutte rapidly as the body cannot sustain such a high level of arousal for a long time.

• Therefore, the fear and anxiety will diminish.

• As a result of the phobic stimulus not causing any more fear or anxiety, the patient quickly learns that there is now nothing to be fearful of .

• The association between phobic stimulus and fear has been broken to form a new relationship of phobia stimulus producing calm.

Applied tension {Ost) -• Ost developed the technique of applied tension to help people with blood and injury phobias. Participants had to repeatedly contract the major muscle groups of the arms and legs to decrease vagovasal (fainting) reactions when highly anxious.

• This technique has been reported to increase cerebral blood flow.

• Ditto et al (2003) tested out the effectiveness of applied tension with people who were phobic of giving blood (having fear of needles, etc.). A total of 605 donors were randomly assigned to one of three groups: applied tension, a no-treatment control or a placebo control. Those in the applied tension group watched an instructional video that taught them how to contract and relax the main muscle groups in the arms and legs. The placebo control simply watched the video but they were not told to use the technique. Those in the applied tension group reported significantly fewer phobic symptoms related to being blood donors and actually produced more full quotas of blood than the other two groups.

• Holly, Balegh & Ditto (2011) examined the role of applied tension on anxiety in people giving blood. Seventy participants were randomly assigned either to a control group or the experimental group who were taught applied tension before watching a video that showed someone giving blood. The females in the applied tension group showed significant reduction in vasovagal symptoms (especially in those who reported high fear of needles).

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CBT

• Lilliecreutz, Josefsson and Sydsjo (2010) tested the effectiveness of CST for blood and inject ion phobias in pregnant women. A total of 30 women took part in the study. They had been diagnosed with the phobias. The comparison groups were 46 pregnant women who received no CBT and 70 healthy pregnant women. Women in the CST group showed significant reductions in their anxiety levels (measured by the Injection Phobia Scale-Anxiety) after each CBT session. This continued after the birth of their child.

• Melfsen et al (2011) examined the effectiveness of using CBT for socially phobic children. A total of 44 children who were diagnosed with social phobia were randomly assigned to a CBT condition or a "waiting-list"

condition. The main outcome measure was clinical improvement but other aspects were measured such as coping ability, dysfunctfonal cognitions and frequency of interactions. There were significant differences between the groups post-therapy with those in the CBT group being more likely to be free from their previous diagnosis of social phobia.

• Galvao-de Almeida et al (2013) reviewed the impact that CBT had on people with phobias. However. all studies in the review had to have functional neuroimaging measures as part of them; A total of six studies met this inclusion criteria for the review. It would appear that people who underwent CBT had significant "deactivations" in the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampal regions of their brain.

11.6 Anxiety disorder (obsessions and conipulsions)

Definitions, measures and examples Defining obsessions and compulsions

• Obsessions are recurring and persistent thoughts (even images and thoughts) that are intrusive and inappropriate but they cause high levels of anxiety.

• These thoughts are not just excessive worries about life problems.

• Compulsions are repetitive behaviours (e.g. hand washing or checking the order of something) or mental acts (e.g. counting or repeating words).

• The people affected feel driven to perform these behaviours in response to an obsession.

• They also perform the behaviours to reduce anxiety or, as they believe, to prevent some devastating event or situation from occurring.

• For a diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a person must recognise that the obsessions and/or compulsions are excessive and unreasonable. Also, they may consume time (more than one hour per day) and interfere with aspects of the person's life such as his or her job and relationships.

Case studies and examples Rapoport (1989) reported on Charles in his book The Boy who Couldn 't Stop Washing. At the age of 12 he began to wash obsessively. For some time he managed to keep it under control but then spent more and more of his school day washing. Eventually, he did it so often he had to leave school. The ritual was always the same: he would hold the soap in his right hand and out it under a running tap for one minute. He would then transfer the soap to his left hand away from the tap for another minute. He would repeat this for about one hour. He would than wash for about another two hours before getting dressed. His mother did discourage him to begin with but seeing how upset Charles got began to clean items in the house with alcohol and then stopped people from visiting as they have 'germs' and it would upset Charles. Rapoport wanted Charles to have an EEG but he refused as Charles found stickiness to be 'terrible' like a 'disease '. Charles had drug therapy and his symptoms disappeared for about a year. However, he developed a tolerance for the drug but only then engaged in this OCD behaviour in the evening so not to disrupt his day.

Measures

• The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (OCI) (Foa et al, 1998) is a 42-item questionnaire that patients complete. They answer each statement from O (not at all) to 4 (extremely) based on the previous month in their lives. There are seven sub-scores that are added together to make a total OCI score:

o Washing: " I wash and clean obsessivelyn is a statement on the OCI that measures this. Other examples of statements on the OCI are given below.

o Checking: "I ask people to repeat things several times, even though I understood them the first time."

o Doubting: "Even when I do something very carefully I feel that it is not quite right."

o Ordering: '' I feel obliged to follow a particular order in dressing, undressing and washing myself.n

o Obsessions: "Unpleasant thoughts come into my mind against my will and I cannot get rid of them."

o Hoarding: " I collect things I don't need."

o Neutralising: " I feel that I must repeat certain words or phrases in my mind in order to wipe out bad thoughts, feelings and actions " (Foa et al, 1998).

• If the person scores 42 or more on the OCI then it suggests the presence of OCD.

• The Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive Inventory (VOCI) (Thordarson et al, 2004) is another validated measure of OCD. Th is scale has 55 items that patients complete and they rate each statement on a scale of O (not at all) to 4 (very much). There are six sub-scales that are added together to give a total score:

o Contamination: "I feel dirty after touching money" is a statement on the VOCI that measures this. Other examples of statements on the VOCI are given below.

o Checking: "One of my major problems is repeating checking."

o Obsessions: " I am often upset by my unwanted thoughts of using a sharp weapon."

o Hoarding: " I become very tense or upset when I think about throwing anything away."

o Just right: " I feel compelled to be absolutely perfect."

o Indecisiveness; "I find it difficult to make even trivial decisions."

• The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive ScaJe (please see page 233 of the Student Book) (Y-BOCS) is another validated measure of OCD. There are two parts to the measurement and it is used as a semi-structured interview technique:

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o The symptom checklist gives 67 symptoms for OCD. The interviewer notes whether each. symptom is current, past or absent (in which case it is not recorded). This helps the interviewer determine whether there are groups of clustered symptoms (the list is divided into groups such as aggressive obsessions, sexual obsessions, contamination obsessions, checking compulsions, ordering compulsions.)

o The Y-BOCS itself consists of 19 items that the interviewee completes during the interview based on responses and observations. An example question is included in Figure 11.6 .1 (please see page 233 of the Student Book).

• As you can see, there is a part-script for this question alongside how to score it. The scores are transferred to a grid that measures obsessions, compulsions and other aspects of the condition. A person is given an obsessions score out of 20 and a compulsion score out of 20 and then nine other items are noted on the 1-4 scale for severity. There is also a children 's version of the scale.

Explanations of OCD Biomedical

• Ozomaro et al (2013) noted that the SLITRK1 gene appears to be linked to some aspects of OCD. The researchers examined 381 individuals with OCO and 356 control participants. They discovered three novel variants on this gene present in seven of the OCD individuals and concluded that the SLITRK1 and variants need more research but currently they appear linked to OCD.

• Taj et al (2013) researched another candidate gene called DRD4 (dopamine 04 receptor). A total of 173 individuals with OCD were compared to 201 healthy controls. They completed a range of questionnaires that measured OCD and mental health and all were genotyped for the DRD4 gene and variants. It was revealed that the 7R allele frequency was higher in the OCD group (especially so for females), suggesting another potential genetic cause for OCD.

• Humble et al (2011) wanted to test whether the neuropeptide oxytocin wa.s correlated with OCD symptoms as previous studies had hinted at this. Even though the researchers were testing whether SSRls affect oxytocin, the main result they reported was that, at baseline, levels of oxytocin positively correlated with OCD symptoms as measured by the Y-BOCS. Those with early onset OCD had the highest levels of oxytocln.

Cognitive-behavioural aspect

• The behavioural aspect of this is linked to the compulsions that people perform during OCD.

• Psychologists consider performing compulsions to be a learned behaviour that is being reinforced by the consequences of performing them. For example, if a compulsive behaviour ends in a favourable outcome (e.g. with hand washing, reduction of anxiety or hands are now free of germs) this is positive reinforcement.

• Behaviours can have two reinforcement mechanisms working - for example, with placing clothes in a precise order, negative (removal of anxiety) and positive (clothes are now in arranged in the desired order).

• The cognitive aspect of this is linked to the obsessive thoughts that OCD individuals have.

• It would appear that these thoughts increase with levels of stress.

• Jn an everyday situation, most people can learn to control these thoughts but people with OCD tend to have thoughts that are more vivid and elicit greater concern.

• Psychologists believe that this could be due to chi ldhood experiences that have taught them that some thoughts are dangerous and unacceptable and this has affected their information-processing networks.

• Therefore, when new information is being processed, it is affected by these processing networks and generates anxiety and stress that can only be alleviated with compulsive behaviours.

Psychodynamic

• OCD is caused by instinctual forces (driven by the id in the unconscious) that are not under full control due to traumatic experiences In the anal stage of psychosexual development.

• This person is therefore fixated in the anal stage.

• It is the battle between the id's desires and the superego's morals that can cause OCD as the ego (and its defence mechanisms) fail to control either.

• Obsessive thoughts may be generated by the id (e.g. to be messy and out of control) but the ego uses defence mechanisms to counteract this by making the person behave in a way that is completely opposite to that (e.g. being neat and tidy).

• If a child has a traumatic experience while potty training (e.g. the child is harshly treated for being messy) then the obsessive thoughts of being neat and tidy re-emerge in adolescence and adulthood and the person develops OCD as a result.

Treatments for OCD Drug therapy

• Selvi et al (2011) studied the effects that two "extra" drugs had on OCD patients who had not responded successfully to just taking SSRls. A total of 41 patients were chosen from this part of the study and were randomly assigned to either

the risperidone (n = 21) or apripiprazole (n = 20) group. They were then given these drugs as well as SSRls for eight further weeks. The researchers measured success by a patient having a 35 per cent or more reduction in scores on the Y-BOCS. Of those in the aripiprazole group 50 per cent did reduce their scores by at least this, as did 72.2 per cent of participants in the risperidone group.

• Askari et al (2012) examined the effectiveness of using granisetron in conjunction with fluvoxamine (an SSRI). Participants were people aged 18-60 years who were diagnosed with OCD via DSM/V-TR. They were randomly assigned to either a granisetron or placebo group. They received 1mg of their "drug" every 12 hours for 8 weeks. All patients were assessed using the Y-BOCS at baseline then at weeks two, four, six and eight. The researchers measured outcomes in the following ways:

o A partial response was a minimum 25 per cent reduction in Y~BOCS scores.

o A complete response was a minimum 35 per cent reduction in Y-BOCS scores.

o Remission was scoring 16 or less on the Y-BOCS.

• By week 8, 100 per cent of the granisetron group had scored a complete response and 90 per cent had met the remission criterion. Only 35 per cent of patients in the placebo group managed the same.

CBT

• Olatunji et al (2013) tested the effectiveness of CBT and behavioural therapy (BT) with OCD patients. Participants were 62 adults diagnosed with OCD who were randomly allocated to the CBT or BT group. The ma in therapy lasted for 4 weeks (16 hours) with 12 weeks of maintenance therapy thereafter (4 hours). OCD symptoms were measured using the Y-BOCS and measures were taken at baseline, weeks 4, 16, 26 and 52. The participants in the BT group had lower scores at the final assessment compared to participants in the CBT group. Therefore, it would appear that BT is superior to CBT for reducing OCD symptoms in this sample.

• Storch et al (2013) examined whether CST used in conjunction with a drug (sertraline) was more effective with OCD patients than CBT alone. Participants were 4 7 children and adolescents with OCD (a.ged 7-17 years) who were randomly

assigned to one of three groups: CBT plus standard sertraline; CBT plus slow-release sertraline; CBT plus placebo. The treatments lasted 18 weeks. Assessments of OCD severity were measured at baseline then weeks 1-9, 13 and 17 then post-treatment using the Y-BOCS. All groups showed a significant decreased in OCD symptoms.

• Bolton et al (2011) examined the effectiveness of full and brief CBT for children with OCD. Participants were 96 children diagnosed with OCD who were randomly assigned to one of three groups: full CBT (12 sessions), brief CBT (5 sessions) or a waiting-list group. The measure for OCD severity was the child version of the Y-BOCS. For both types of CST there was a significant improvement in OCD symptoms compared to the waiting-list group, showing that brief CBT is useful and cost-effective.

Psychoanalytic therapy

• Ftee association - the patient lies back on a couch and is allowed to continually talk. The therapist then has to interpret the monologue to see ·what could be troubling the patient. The idea is that at some point the core problem will be exposed by the patient, especial ly a problem linked to the anal stage of psychosexual development.

• Dream analysis - the patient tells the therapist about a dream (manifest content) and the therapist has to analyse it for symbols to uncover the underlying meaning (latent content).

• Hypnosis - this can be used to help access the unconscious mind too.

• Chlebowski & Gregory (2009) noted that psychoanalysis can be particularly effective with OCD patients whose condition is labelled as " late onset that coincides with st ressors in the patients' lives" or those who have a borderline personality disorder too. This allows the therapist to delve into the unconscious mechanisms causing the OCD.

• Leichsenring et at (2008) examined the long-term effectiveness of using psychoanalytic therapy with OCD patients. They reported that long-term psychoanalysis was associated with a significant reduction in the OCD symptoms reported by patients and this was still seen one year after treatment had ended.

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Psychology and organisations

12.1 The selection of people for work

Selecting people for work Selection procedures: applications

• Many organisations use "in house" application forms to collect all of the relevant demographic, occupatio11al and biographical data.

• A standard application form may ask for personal details, employment records, educational records, training, any skills or employment training and referees.

• Personnel staff can look at all of tl1e application forms and produce a sl1ortlist of ideal candidates.

Weighted application blank or form (WAB)

• This is a standard applicatio11 form but certain aspects of the form have bee11 .. pre-scored n.

• This means that a certain area of, say, education or previous experience carries more weight in the application.

• Each applicant can be given a score depending on the weightings and those with the highest scores go through to the next selection stage.

Selection Interviews

As we have covered for AS level, structured and unstructured interviews are used. In terms of the psychology of organisations, they can be used in the following ways:

• In structured interviews, members of the interview panel will have a pre-determined list of questions that must be asked at each interview. Each candidate gets the same questions in the same order.

• In unstructured interviews, members of the interview panel wi ll have certain "bits of infor111ation" that they need to get the candidate to talk about and therefore can u.se any question they think of to get it. Each candidate has a different interview "pathway".

Evaluation extra • A structured interview is preferred and has

more validity as all the necessary information is covered. There is a set time for tl1e interview so the selection day can run smoothly.

• There appear to be other issues with any type of interview including the prejudices of the panel, the gender ratio of the panel and any bias an interviewer may have.

• Reliability 111ay be questioned: if all of those on the panel do not agree on who is the best candidate the interview will have low reliability.

• Organisational psychologists point out that people can be chosen on erroneous first impressions ba·sed on limited information. This can obviously l1ave a huge impact on post-recruitment working if the candidate does not "live up to" what he or she presented at interview.

Decision making In personnel selection

• The interview panel scores the candidate on certain dimensions that were agreed pre-interview.

• All members of the panel can have a record sheet of the interview so they can write down comments and then generate a score for each criterion that they want to assess the candidate on.

• They can then simply sum up the values and the highest score is the strongest candidate.

Interview Record Sheet

Date: Interviewers: KT, PL, AC

Job title of vacancy: Interviewee's name:

Project Coordinator, UK (Grade 3)

Score for evidence on the criteria listed below.

Use a scale of 1- 10 where 1 = weak or no evidence and

10 = very strong evidence.

Criteria

Verbal communication skills

Teamwork skills

Relevant experience in project planning and n1anagement

Accurate data input and record keeplng

Willingness to undertake part-time college training

Experience in managing external contractors

Ability to coordinate projects with other departments

Ability to work in an environment of change

Familiarity with relevant software

A Figure 12.1.1 Example of a record sheet used in an interview

Use of psychometric tests

Score

1

1

5

(p

s 3

')

5

~

• Cognitive ability tests include the Comprehensive Ability Battery (CAB). This comprises 20 tests with each designed to test a very specific cognitive ability. This gives companies an overall assessment of individuals but also how well they perform on all 20 tests.

• Mechanical abi lity tests include the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test. This is a 68-itern questionnaire that assesses the person's ability to understand physical and 1nechanical principles across a range of situations.

• Motor and sensory ability tests include the O'Connor Finger Dexterity Test. This measures the ability to use fine motor skills with small objects. It is timed to see how the candidate copes with pressure.

• Job skills and knowledge can be tested, for example, using the Minnesota Clerical Assessment Battery. This is a computeradministered test that assesses abilities such as proofreading, filing and clerical knowledge.

• Personality tests include the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire . This measures 16 basic personality elements and is used quite extensively in personnel selection procedures.

Evaluation extra • Predictive validity is an issue. Does the

performance on a paper and pen task predict how well a candidate will cope with the actual job or whether the person performs well at the tasks that have been measured?

• Riggio (1999) noted that some standardised tests for managerial jobs have been quite successful in predicting who is then the best manager or who then performs well in a particular managerial role.

• Riggio (1999) noted an example of this whereby a company can assess how much it will gain from performing such tests on applicants. A computer programming company reportedly tested a lot of people to find ''the best people for the job" and it cost the company $10 per applicant. The estimated monetary gain for finding which programmers performed the best on a psychometric test was nearly $100 million.

• Collection of quantitative data means direct comparisons betwee·n candidates can be made.

• However, candidates cannot expand on their answers to explain why they have answered questions in a particular way.

• All of the tests described above can be useful in reducing a large amount of candidates down to a shortlist of the ones who best fit the job description.

Personnel selection decisions and job analysis Selection of personnel: decision making

• The multiple regression model takes scores from a variety of tests or interviews that the applicants have completed and combines them into one final score.

• Various pred ictors of potential job performance are "added together" to generate a final score. A high score means that the candidate correlates well with the job on offer.

• Beforehand, different criteria can .be "weighted" based on previous appointments (e .g. better predictors have more weighting).

• In the multiple cutoff model there are many different predictors of the job that the applicants are trying to obtain, but there is a rninimum score set for each of the predictors or tasks.

• As soon as applicants fail to reach the minimum score on any one predictor or task they are eliminated from the recruitment process.

• The multiple hurdle model is when there is an ordered sequence of tasks that an applicant has to go through.

• At each stage (called a "hurdle" here), there ls a decision whether the applicant has passed or failed.

• If applicants pass they continue with the next task but if they fail then they have "fallen at that hurdle" and they are eliminated from the process.

• The applicant who is left after the "final hurdle " is given the job.

The relative strengths and weaknesses of each approach are highlighted in Table 12 .1.1.

Technique Strength Weakness

Multiple This method If a score is very regression may glve a more low on one criterion

"'rounded" overview it cou ld prevent of a candidate. For a person being example, a lack of employed who

• previous expenence scores well on other of a similar job criteria that are also can easily be relevant to the job. compensated for by a strong skill needed for the job.

Multiple This method does Some of the cutoff cutoff ensure that all points may be

eligible applicants subjective and have the minimum discriminate against amount of abil ity certain applicants across the different unfairly. How do we criteria for the job. calculate what the

cutoff points are?

Multiple This method a llows This technique can be hurdle for the elimination very t ime consuming

of candidates early and expensive for on in the process businesses as many who are unqualified - hurdle criteria could this means fewer be in place and each resources are applicant needs to be wasted on unsuitable assessed on then1 applicants. (and the information

may not simply be in their application)

_. Table 12.1.1 Strengths and weaknesses of the multiple regression, multiple cutoff and multiple hurdle methods

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12 Psychology and organisations

Biases in selection. decisions and equal opportunitl.es

• Stereotyping can occur. Hayward (1996) noted that females can still be stereotyped as "not management material., and are therefore overlooked as they do not have the "masculine traits" needed to take on such roles.

• Previous similar candidates can be an issue. Hayward (1996) also notes that some interviewers may see applicants as being "similar" to other workers (this can be positi·ve or negative) and therefore make instant judgments based on t his rather than the applicants themselves.

• The decision-making models noted above may be a factor. For example, there could be bias introduced when weighting the tasks or setting the standard for the muftiple cutoff and multiple hurdle methods. Who is to say the person setting them is correct?

• Subjectivity in interviews is a factor. Riggio (1999) notes that there will always be people questioning the accuracy of interviews. This is because a lot of informat ion is qualitative rather than quantitative and therefore subject to interviewer interpretation bias. Also, if an unstructured method is chosen then there is reduced reliability as not all interviewees will have the same experience.

• Snap judgments can be made. Riggio (1999) also notes that a snap judgment (a similar issue to snapshot studies) can happen in interviews. Interviewers can make a very quick instant decision on someone (e.g. based on what the person is wearing or his or her answer to the first question) that may bear no re·semblance to who the person actually is or the individual 's competencies for the job.

• The use of psychometrics raises the general concern of whether a psychometric test really is measuring the skill it is supposed to be measuring. This can invalidate people 's scores on these tests.

Job descriptions and specifications

• These are documents that an organisation will produce when there is a job vacancy and they will contain all the information potential applicants will need.

• When a person specification is produced, the organisation must have details that are directly relevant to the job.

• Many UK organisations have "essential" and "desirable" aspects to person specifications.

• Essential aspects are those that applicants must have whereas desirable aspects are those that applicants may have and if they do it will make their application stronger.

Job analysis techniques

• Functional j ob analysis (FJA) is a technique developed in the United States. It was developed to help create the Dictionary of Occupational

Titles (DOD. This is a reference guide to over 40 000 job titles. It contains general descriptions of these jobs as a starting point for staff in the personnel department to tailor the descriptors to a specific job. The DOT classifies all jobs us.ing a nine-digit code which represents the sector of work, type of work and how much interaction with people is necessary for that job. Once the nine-digit code has been established for a job, the personnel department can use the description as part of the recruitment process.

Data People Things (4th digit) (5th digit) (6th dlgit)

0 Synthesising 0 Mentoring 0 Setting up

1 Coordinating 1 Negotiating 1 Precision working

2 Analysing 2 Instructing 2 Operating-controlling

3 Compiling 3 Supervising 3 Driving, operating

4 Computing 4 Diverting 4 Manipulating

5 Copying 5 Persuading 5 Tending

6 Comparing 6 Speaking, 6 Feeding, signal ling Off-bearing

7 Serving 7 Handling

8 Taking instruction, helping

£.Table 12.1.2 Examples of functions used in FJA

Source: Adapted from: US Department of labor. 1991. Dictionary of Occupational Tit/es. Rev. 4th ed. Washington DC, Government Printing Office.

• The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PQA) is a structured questionnaire that can be used to analyse a job in terms of 187 "elements" that are split into six different categories:

o information input: what the applicant needs in terms of skills

o mental processes: the cognitive skills needed for the job

o work output: what tasks need to be performed as part of the job

o relationships with other people: what interactions Will be necessary in the job and with whom

o job context: physical and social contexts that are part of the job

o other job characteristics: anything else that is necessary to the specific job being analysed.

A series of statements are rated either with an N (does not a.pply) or from 1 to 5 with 1 being very infrequent and 5 being very substantial.

Performance appraisal All jobs require a "review" of progress and these are called performance appraisals . Usually, a worker is assessed, aga inst pre-determined standards that the organisation has, to see how well the worker is progressing in his or her job.

Performance appraisal: reasons for it and techniques

• Performance appraisals allow both the company and the worker, in a supportive environment, to see how well the worker is doing in his or her job.

• They can be linked to pay increases and potential promotion opportunities.

• They can provide feedback on strengths and areas of improvement.

• They can allow communication between workers and managers which sometimes is logistically not possible on a day-to-day basis.

An organisation can use a range of techniques to collect information:

• Objective performance criteria - these are aspects of the job that can be quantified and measured objectively (based on factual data). They could include number of sales, number of days off sick, etc.

• Subjective performance criteria - these are aspects of the job that cannot be accurately measured quantitatively. They include elements such as how a manager feels workers have been progressing in their job or asking workers how happy they are in their current role.

• 360-degree feedback - this is information about workers gathered from managers, peers, customers (if applicable) etc. to get an overall feel of each worker. Workers are also allowed to give feedback about the performance of their managers in supporting them in their job.

• Rankings - a manager can rank his or her entire immediate workforce on different criteria. Then when an individual is appraised the manager can see how well the person is progressing in comparison with other workers who have a similar job.

• Self-rating - workers can assess themselves on progress by completing a questionnaire. They assign values to how well they think they are doing on a range of criteria pre-selected by the organisation as those that require assessing.

• Behavior Observation Scale (BOS)- the person who is conducting the appraisal needs to complete a document highlighting how often certain elements of the job have been observed in that worker.

Appraisers, problems with appraisal and improving appraisals

When conducting and analysing an appraisal, a number of problems and biases can occur, including the following:

• Errors - these can be leniency errors in which the appraiser always assess workers positively

or severity errors where the appraiser always assesses workers negatively. In between these is the central tendency error where an appraiser always rates workers near the mid·point of any rating scale.

• Halo effect - this is a psychological phenomenon that can be applied here. It is when an overall appraisal is very positive based on a worker doing an outstandingjob on one task. The idea is that If the worker did so well on that task then he or she must be doing well on all other tasks so any issues with the worker are overlooked.

• Recency effect - this is another psychological phenomenon that can be applied here. It is when the appraiser only uses recent performance indicators to judge the work examined in the appraisal. The whole procedure is weighted towards recent successes and failures rather than looking at the whole picture.

• Attribution errors - these can take the form of an appraiser giving more "extreme appraisals" to workers who are perceived to be working well (or not) due to effort rather than actual ability at the job.

So, how can appraisals be improved, given the above issues? Riggio (1999) noted that there are several ways in which appraisals can be improved:

• The appraiser can use online systems to record performance "instantly" rather than waiting 12 months to remember how the worker has performed in the job. Therefore, the appraisal will accurately reflect what has happened during the period. This makes it more valid.

• The appraiser can be descriptive rather than evaluative while being specific about performance.

• The appraiser can give "constructive feedback" based on things that a worker can actually do something about and change.

• Feedback given should always be clear and honest and understood by everyone.

• Getting both the appraiser and worker actively involved in performance target setting wil l make it easier to agree on final performance targets for the next appraisal.

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12.2 Motivation to work

Need theories of motivation Hierarchy of needs (Maslow)

• Maslow created a hierarchy of needs that starts at basic needs and moves up to higher level "meta needs" (see Figure 12.2.1).

• A worker must work up the hierarchy of needs to achieve self-actualisation - this is realising and reaching one's full potential.

Selfactua lisation

needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

.A Figure 12.2.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

• The basic needs always 'have to be met (even if partially) before a human being can consider working up the hierarchy towards selfactualisation.

• A worker has to be motivated and fulfilled at a physiological and safety level before attempting anything higher.

Greenberg & Baron (2008) set out how this can be applied to the workplace in the following ways:

• Physiological needs - organisations can make sure that workers take breaks for coffee or water and other refreshments. Some companies, especially those where the W·orkforce is quite sedentary in an office environment, provide exercise facilities for free.

• Safety needs - organisations can ensure that workers have protective clothing if necessary and use specifically designed products, for example to reduce the strain of using computers and keyboards all day as part of a worker's job.

• Social needs - organisations can organise events, such as a "family day", that can build a "team spirit" into the workforce.

• Esteem needs - organisations can create incentives such as "employee of the month" or have annual awards ceremonies for the workforce. They can also award bonuses for suggestions for improvements within the organisation.

• Self-actualisation needs - organisations can nurture their workers to allow them to reach their full potential (e.g. via career progression and appraisals).

ERG theory (Aldefer, 1972)

• ERG theory proposes three levels:

o Existence needs: these are similar to what Maslow called physiological needs.

o Relatedness needs: these are similar to what Maslow called social needs.

o Growth needs: these are similar to what Maslow called self-actualisation needs.

• The main difference between Maslow's idea and the ERG model is that for the latter there is no strict hierarchy.

• All of the needs have to be addressed at work in some form or another.

• The greatest motivator is when all three needs are being fulfilled at work.

• However, when one need is not totally fulfilled , a worker may still feel motivated if the other two a.re. For example, gaining a pay rise because there is no current chance of being promoted fulfils the ER but not the G but the worker will still feel motivated to work.

Achievement motivation (McClelland, 1965)

• People have a need for achievement. This is about having the drive to succeed in a situation .

• Workers driven by this need will love the challenge of their job.

• They want to get ahead in their job and be excellent performers.

• They like to solve immediate problems swiftly and will go for challenges that offer a moderate level of difficulty.

• They also desire feedback about their efforts so will thrive on appraisals.

• People have a need for power. This relates to having the drive to direct others and be influential at work.

• These workers are status driven and are more likely to be motivated by the chance to gain prestige.

• They will want to solve problems individually and reach appraisal goals.

• The drive for power can be for personal gains or organisational gains.

• People have a need for affiliation. This involves having the drive to be liked and accepted by fellow workers in the organisation.

• People driven by this prefer to work with others and will be motivated by the need for friendship and interpersonal relationships .

• Workers can be assessed on these three key needs and motives by taking a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as follows:

o The worker has to look at a series of ambiguous pictures that tell a story.

o The person has to tell whatever story he or she feels is behind the picture and these are then scored on a standardised scale that represents the three key needs and motives.

.&. Figure 12.2.2 Example picture used during a TAT

Motivation and goal setting Goal-setting theory (Latham & Locke, 1984)

• Performance at work is affected by the goals that a workforce is set.

• The setting of these goals affects people's beliefs about whether they can perform a task or not.

• Goals need to be specific to an individual or group. Simply saying "work harder" has very little effect on a workforce.

• Setting specific and achievable goals allows workers to direct their attention towards achieving them while assessing how well they are doing.

• Therefore, an organisation must set challenging but attainable goats, give workers the necessary equipment and support to attain the goals and give them feedback throughout the process as this will motivate the workforce to attain the goal.

Setting effective goals Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted three main guidelines for setting effective goals:

• Assign specific goals. Goals have to have clarity, be measurable and achievable. An organisation cannot say "do your best" and then hope the workforce gets motivated.

• Assign difficult, but acceptable, performance goals. Goals that are perceived as unachievable will demotivate the workforce, as will those that are seen as being "too easy" . Therefore, a goal must be difficult to get workers motivated but not impossible to attain.

• Provide effective feedback on goal attainment. Feedback throughout the process allows workers to know how far they are progressing and what is left to attain a goal. This keeps motivation at an optimal level. If feedback is used wisely, then workers believe even more that they can attain the goal and will be more motivated to achieve it .

VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964)

VIE theory can be outlined as follows:

• Valence refers to the value that workers place on any reward they believe they will receive from the organisation . The overall reward must be one that reflects the efforts put into attaining a goal and therefore be desired.

• Instrumentality refers to any perceived relationship between effort and outcome that may affect motivation. This can be based around rewards as well. If any performance or motivation is not perceived as being instrumental in bringing about a suitable reward , then it is less likely to happen - motivation will be low.

• Expectancy - this refers to any perceived relationship between effort and performance that may affect motivation. If workers do not expect their efforts to make any difference to attaining a goal then their motivation will be low. If they do feel effort brings about reward then their performance will increase as they will be motivated.

This can be expressed as an equation:

M = V x l x E

Managerial applications of expectancy theory

• Managers need to define any goal-based work outcome very clearly to all workers . Clarity is the key to success. All rewards and costs of performance based around these rewards must be known and be transparent.

• Managers should get workers involved in the setting of any goals and listen to their suggestions about ways to change jobs and roles to help attain goals. This should help to increase VIE levels.

• For the valence element, managers need to ensure that the rewards are ones that employees desire and see in a positive light. These may need to be individually specific as not all workers are motivated by the same things .

• The link between rewards and performance is important. Any performance-related goal (especially if workers have some performancerelated pay) has to be attainable for all. Workers who have a portion of their wage based on performance need goals that are attainable but where motivation is the key to reaching them.

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Motivators at work Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

• Extrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a task or behaviour because it gives positive reinforcement (e.g. a reward) or it avoids some kind of punishment.

• In terms of the workplace, this might n1ean workers gain extra pay or a day off for their efforts.

• Intrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a task or behaviour because it gives internal pleasure or helps to develop a skill.

• In terms of the workplacet workers will attribute success to their own desires (autonomy) and may be interested in simply mastering a task rather than focusing, for example, on extra pay.

Types of reward system

• Pay - having some pay linked to a certain task or goal can increase workers ' motivation as they want to earn more money.

• Bonus - offering a bonus is quite widespread in organisations linked to sales and finance. At the end of each year (maybe after an appraisal), workers will be given a bonus payment based on their performance and that of the company as a whole.

• Profit-sharing - a certain percentage of any profit a company makes can be "ring fenced" to be shared by all workers. Therefore, everyone may be more motivated to attain goals and reach performance criteria so that there is a monetary reward at the end of the year.

Non-monetary rewards

• Praise - simply gaining praise from a superior at work can motivate a worker to continue to work hard and meet targets and goa.ls. It is a form of positive reinforcement.

• Respect - gaining respect ·from superiors and fellow colleagues is also important within an organisation. This internal feeling of "good" can motivate workers to continue to try hard at a task.

• Recognition - simply being recognised for any "over and above" effort can motivate a worker to continue to work hard. Something like an "employee of the month" scheme or being mentioned in a work newsletter can motivate people greatly.

• Empowerment - when workers succeed at a difficult task or achieve a difficult goal they may have a sense of empowerment. This may make them believe that the next task is attainable even if it looks difficult. It equips them to continually try hard at a task.

• Sense of belonging - making workers feel "part of the team" and that their individual efforts are appreciated can motivate them to keep trying hard and reaching even difficult goals.

Career structure and promotion prospects

• Career structure - having a set career structure when a worker begins employment can keep the worker motivated.

• If the worker's career is "mapped out'' showing a career development within the company then the worker can be motivated by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

• Promotion prospects - as part of the career structure, a manager could also "map out" potential promotion prospects with the worker.

• The worker would then have clearer ideas about what he or she needs to achieve to gain promotion. The motivation for this is both extrinsic (more money) and intrinsic (the satisfaction of being promoted).

12.3 Leadership and management

Theories of leadership Great person theory

• "Great leaders are born, not made."

• You are either a "natural " leader or not.

• People's natural abilities allow them to "rise to the top" of any organisation because of the skills they were born with.

• These leaders have special traits that allow them to progress up the managerial levels of an organisation and then lead the company effectively over time.

• These traits are stable and effective when they are used in a position of authority.

Charismatic and transformational leaders

• These leaders have the necessary charisma to become leaders.

• They possess first-class interpersonal skills.

• They tend to have very good public speaking skills - they exude confidence, inspire people and captivate their audiences every time.

• As a result, the workforce is motivated to follow them and attain the goals set by them.

• Greenberg & Baron (2008) reviewed the field and produced a list of five "agreed" traits that charismatic lea.ders have:

o Self-confidence: they show high confidence about their own ability and the ability of their workforce to attain a goal.

o A vision: this usually takes the form of "making working conditions or life better".

o Extraordinary behaviour: they show some unusual or unconventional behaviours.

o Recognition as change agents: in other words, they make things happen.

o Environmental sensitivity: they show realism about what can be achieved given the resources they have available.

Transformational leaders, according to Riggio (1999), involve a leader changing how workers think, reason and behave. They inspire workers using six different behaviours:

• Identifying and articulating a vision - they excite workers with their vision for the company.

• Providing an appropriate model - the leader "practises what he or she preaches".

• Fostering the acceptance of group goals -cooperation between all workers is promoted and a common goal is set.

• Maintaining high performance expectations -excellence is encouraged and work quality is improved.

• Providing individualised support - the leader will show care and concern for all individuals.

• Providing intellectual stimulation - the leader will challenge workers to rethink how they do things.

Ohio State studies

Researchers from Ohio State University collected data from self-reports and observations of leaders and their workers:

• They listed over 100 different behaviours shown by leaders.

• They found that there are just two broad categories of leaders:

o Leaders who Initiate structure, which includes assigning specific tasks to peo.ple, defining groups of workers, creating and meeting deadlines and ensuring that workers are working to a set standard.

o Leaders who show consideration. They show that they have a genuine concern for the feelings of workers and their attitudes. They establish rapport with workers while showing them trust and respect. They will listen to workers more often and try to boost the self-confidence of their workforce.

University of Michigan studies

Researchers from the University of Michigan also examined many leaders of large organisations. They found two main types of behaviour in t hese leaders:

o Task-oriented behaviours were behaviours that had a focus on the actual work task being conducted. These leaders are more concerned with setting up structures within an organisation such as targets, standards, supervising workers and achieving goals.

o Relationship-oriented behaviours were behaviours that had a focus on the wellbeing of the workforce. These leaders would look at interpersonal relationships between worker and worker plus worker and manager. They would also take the time to understand the feelings of their workforce.

Evaluation extra • All of the above ideas are useful in helping

organisations choose the correct leader to help increase their staff motivation and productivity.

• There is a natur~nurture debate here: is a leader born or made?

• An issue here is individual versus situational explanation. Some theories say it is the individual that makes a good leader whereas others believe it is the situation a person is placed in that makes him or her a good leader.

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Leadership style and effectiveness Contingency theory (Fiedler, 1976)

• This theory looks at the interaction between the style of leadership that leaders adopt and the situation that they find themselves in.

• For a leader to be effective in the workplace, the leader's style must fit with the amount of authority, power and control the leader is given in the organisation.

• There are various ways of assessing whether a leader will be effective in a workplace:

o Completion of the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire involves leaders completing a questionnaire about the person with whom they can work least well. Leaders rate co-workers on bipolar adjectives such as boring/interesting and helpful/frustrating. From t his, certain leaders can be seen as being either task-oriented (so they give harsh ratings to fellow workers) or relationshlporiented (so they give favourable ratings even though the person ls the least preferred).

o Leader-members relations is measured by getting the workforce to assess the leader on how well liked the person is, etc.

o Task structure measures how well a particular work task is structured with welldefined goals.

o Position power looks at company policy and examines how the leader can hire and fire, discipline and reward workers ..

• Riggio (1999) notes that a task-oriented leader is most effective when the situation is at the extremes: either highly favourable or highly unfavourable. Relationship-oriented leaders appear more effect ive in the middle-ground projects t hat need more support and coaching than goal setting.

Situational leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1988)

• This is based around the task and relationship behaviour.

• There are four different types of situation in the workplace, as shown in Table 12.3.1.

Path-goal theory (House, 1979)

This theory identifies four behaviours seen in leaders that can help workers to attain a goal:

High relationship

High These are situations where workers need both task structure and emotional support. They need help

improving a skill with set guidelines and need the emotional support to do it. The best behaviour for the leader is sell.fng the idea to the workforce.

Low These are srtuations where workers need very little task guidance on what to do but need a lot of emotional

• Directive behaviour is focused on "getting the job done". Leaders can provide specific guidelines for the task with work ru les and distinct schedules Which they coordinate and oversee.

• Achievement-oriented behaviour is focused on "outcomes" and involves leaders setting challenging goals to achieve but they encourage improvement in skills and attainment.

• Supportive behaviour is focused on "interpersonal behaviour" and involves leaders boosting these relationships by showing concern for each worker's wellbeing in a friendly environment.

• Participative behaviour is focused on getting "all involved" . Leaders encourage all workers to have a say in suggesting ways to achieve the goal, etc.

Permissive versus autocratic

• Permissive means that workers are not told how to do their jobs.

• Autocratic means that workers are not allowed to participate in any decision making.

• Four combinations can be found:

o Permissive and autocratic: leaders will make decisions by themselves and let the workers "get on with it".

o Permissive but not autocratic: leaders will make decisions with others involved and will then let the workers "get on with it" .

o Not permissive but autocratic: leaders will make decisions by themselves and then closely monitor how workers are performing on the task.

o Not permissive or autocratic: leaders will make decisions with others involved and will closely monitor how workers are performing on the task.

Leadership training and characteristics of effective leaders

Riggio (1999) noted two main approaches to leadership training:

• The first is to teach leaders diagnostic ski lls.

• This will allow them to assess a work situation and choose which leadership style would work best in it.

• This skill can be tra ined " into" leaders via role play and work-based examples.

• The second approach is to teach leaders very specific skills or behaviours that they appear to lack. For example, if a leader is task-oriented

Low relationship

These are situations where workers need structure and direction from their leader to achieve a set goal but requ ire very little emotional support to do so. The best behaviour for the leader is telling the workforce what to do.

These are situations where workers are already able to perform the task and are willing to do so. The best

support to achieve it. The best behaviour for the leader behaviour for the leader ts delegating the workload is participating with the workforce on the task. across the workforce.

A Table 12.3.1 Task and relationship behaviours in workplace situations

1, 9 pattem 9 , 9 pattern ueountry club" Team management-management the ideal style

High ~ 9

8 Cl.I -a. 7 0 Cl.I a. 6 ... 0 5, 5 pattern -;; 5 Middle-of -the-road ... Cl.I

~ 4 management 0 (.) 3

2

Low 1 ~ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1, 1 pattern Low Concern for production

High 9, 1 pattern Impoverished management

.& Figure 12.3.1 The grid training method

more training on being more relationship-oriented could be arranged so that the individual becomes more of a "rounded " leader.

• One way in which such leaders' training can be assessed is by using the grid training method (Greenberg & Baron , 2008). Figure 12.3.1 shows the grid used. Leaders complete standard questionnaires that set out to measure their concern for production and their concern for people.

In terms of the characteristics of effective leaders, Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted a review of the field and listed the main features:

• Effective leaders have socialised power motivation. This means they are motivated to achieve shared goals and ideas. These leaders will cooperate with the entire workforce without dominating.

• They show flexlblllty. They can act upon and adapt to numerous situations instead of having a "one style fits all" approach.

• They are moralistic. Authentic leaders tend to be highly moral in their approach to work, meaning they are confident, hopeful and always optimistic about goals and their workforce within moral boundaries.

• They show multiple Intelligences. Effective leaders tend to show three levels of intelligence: cognitive intelligence (informational processing), emotional intelligence (see page 80) and cultural intellfgence (especially in a multinational orga·nisation).

Leaders and foil owe rs Leader-member exchange model (LMX)

• Leaders form different relationships with their workforce early on in any process.

• Based on very limited information, they classify workers into two distinct groups:

o The favoured ones (be it because they follow the same ideals as the leader or are seen as hard workers, etc. ) form part of the in group.

Task management

o By default, there is an out group which consists of workers that do not "fit in " with what the leader wants .

• Riggio (1999) noted that an LMX can be of low quality where the leader has a very negative view of the out group and workers in the out group do not see the leader as effective.

• An LMX can be of high quality where the leader has a very positive view of workers in the in group and those workers see the leader as being encouraging and motivated.

Normative decision theory (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)

This theory outlines five potential strategies for decision making:

• Al (autocratic): leaders will solve a problem or make a decision by themselves using whatever information they can find.

• All (autocratic): leaders will solve a problem or make a decision by themselves but only after they have obtained the necessary information from their workforce.

• Cl (consultative): leaders will solve a problem or 111ake a decision by themselves but only after they have shared it with the workforce individually.

• Cll (consultative): leaders will solve a problem or make a decision by themselves but only after they have shared it with the workforce as a group.

• Gii (group decision): leaders will share the problem or potential decisi.on with the workforce in a group meeting. A decision is reached by consensus .

Originally, a leader would have to answer 7 questions with a yes or no (now expanded to 12). Example questions are " Is the problem structured?" and " If I make the decision alone, is it likely to be accepted by my workforce?" Once all of the questions have been put into a decision tree, the most effective strategy from the five above is recommended. 149

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12.4 Group behaviour in organisations

Group dynamics, cohesiveness and teamwork Group development

Tuckman & Jensen (1977) noted a five-stage formation process:

1. Forming - members of a group get to know each other and ground rules are established in terms of conversations and appropriate behaviours. These ground rules are based around the job (the reason) that they are working on but also the social skills side (e.g. hierarchy).

2. Storming - this stage is characterised by group conflict. Members may want to resist any authority from whoever becomes the "group leader" and there may be conflict between equals too (e.g. personality clash). If nothing can be resolved then the group dissipates.

3. Norming - this involves the group becoming more cohesive. Identification as a group member becomes stronger and the "unit" beings to work well on tasks. Group members will begin to feel more comfortable in sharing feelings.

4. Performing - the group now works as a cohesive unit on the task set to attain any goals in place. The group energy is diverted towards completing tasks to a high standard. The leader is now fully accepted.

5. Adjourning - once the goals have been attained, there may no longer be any need for the group so it dissipates. This can happen abruptly (e.g. when a charity event ends) or it takes longer (e.g. new goals are formed that only some members of the group want to attain).

A theory called punctuated-equilibrium model has just two phases that any group in an organisation goes through:

1. Phase 1 . This is when group members define who they are and what they want to achieve (e.g. goals). This phase usually lasts around 50 per cent of the group's entire lifetime so new ideas tend not to be acted upon and the group is in a state of "equilibrium" moving slowly towards its target.

2. Phase 2 . Suddenly the group has a "midlife crisis" and members realise that they will not achieve their goal. They recognise that they must change their outlook and pathway towards a target so they do take on new ideas and work harder to attain any goals. They move into a state of "punctuating" to cope with t .hese changes.

Group cohesiveness, team building and team performance

• Cohesiveness, according to Riggio (1999), is the amount or degree of attraction among group members.

• This can be used to explain "team spirit" in organisations and these types of group tend to be more satisfied at work.

• It would appear that smaller groups, where everyone is of an equal status, show the most cohesiveness.

Greenberg & Baron (2008) note that there are some factors that can greatly increase group cohesiveness:

• Severity - if the initiation to the group is severe then the group becomes more cohesive (i.e. the more difficulties people have to overcome to be part of a group, the more they will want to stick with that group).

• Competition - groups tend to be more cohesive if they are competing against other groups (especially from competitor organisations).

• Time - the more time its members have to spend together on a task, the more cohesive a group should become.

• Group size - smaller groups tend to be more cohesive.

• History - if the group has succeeded many times in the past then cohesiveness tends to be higher.

According to Greenberg & Baron (2008) there are two areas that have to be covered in any team building intervention:

• Being a team member matters. There has to be harmony and cohesiveness in a team with group decisions being the norm. Members have to be able to advocate ideas, enquire about ideas, share responsibilities and value the diversity of the group.

• Self-management is important. Members have to be able to manage themselves for a team to work. Various skills such as observing, setting difficult goals, practising new skills and being constructively critical are key behaviours that should be shown.

In terms of actual exercises that can be used, these are the most common:

• Exercises to define roles ·- members of the group talk about what they think their roles and the roles of others are to see where disagreements lie. These can then be resolved.

• Exercises to set goals - clarification may be needed on what goals the group is trying to attain.

• Exercises on problem solving - these can be set up in such a way that all team members have to work together to succeed.

• Exercises about Interpersonal processes - tasks that can re-establish trust and cooperation can be used.

Characteristics of successful teams

Hackman (2000) noted six main mistakes that happen to make teams not successful:

• Use a tea1n for work that is better done by individuals

• Call the performing unit a team but really manage members as individuals

• Fall off the authority 'Balance Beam' by being too authoritative too often

• Dismantle existing organizational structures so that teams will be fully "empowered" to accomplish the work

• Specify challenging team objectives, but skimp on organizational supports

• Assume that members already have all the skills they need to work well as a te-0m

Therefore, the main characteristics of a successful team would be, according to Hackman:

1. The task is one that is fully appropriate for performance by a team.

2 . The team is an intact performing unit whose members perceive themselves as a team

3. The team has a clear, authoritative, and engaging direction for its work.

4. The structure of the team - its task, composition, and core norms of conduct - promotes rather than impedes competent teamwork.

5. The organizational context provides support and reinforcement for excellence through policies and systems that are specifically tuned to the needs of work teams.

6. Ample, expert coaching is available to the team at those times when members most need it and are ready to receive it.

Decision making The decision-making process

We covered aspects of the decision-making process on page 149 when looking at autocratic and permissive leadership styles.

Decision style and individual differences In decision making

This was also covered when we looked at leadership and management (see pages 148-150).

Individual versus group decisions

Riggio (1999) highlights the advantages and disadvantages of group decisions:

• The advantages are that there is more of a knowledge base to draw on and the fina l decision will be accepted by group mem.bers as they have all helped out. The final decision will be well critiqued already and different parts of the decisions can be delegated to different members of the group who have different specialities.

• The disadvantages are that the process can be very slow as everyone i'S involved and conflict can be

generated if not everyone agrees. There is potential for the group simply to break down. Also, leaders may dominate and make it their own decision.

In addition, Greenberg & Baron (2008) investigated individual versus group decisions:

• They noted that group decisions are superior to individual ones when the overall decision is complex.

• They use an example of deciding whether two companies should merge.

• A group decision would cover a lot more "bases" than an individual pondering the issue as group members will have a wide range of viewpoints to discuss and consider before making the very important decision.

• As long as the group is cohesive and respecting then a group decision here would be much more favourable.

• When a task requires creativity and 1t is poorly structured, individuals work better and come up with more productive ideas than a group would.

Groupthlnk and group polarisation

• Groupthink is what happens when a highly cohesive group, where all members respect each others· viewpoints, comes to a consensus on a decision too quickly without any critical evaluation.

• The group then makes a very poor decision as a result.

Riggio (1999) notes eight "symptoms" of groupthink:

• Illusion ot invulnerability - as the group is so cohesive group members see themselves as powerfu I and invincible. They then fail to spot poorly made decisions.

• Illusion of morality - group members see themselves as the "good guys" and believe that they can do nothing wrong.

• Shared negative stereotypes - group members hold common negative beliefs.

• Collective rationalisations - group members easily dismiss any negative information that goes a.gainst their decision with no thought.

• Self-censorship - group 1nembers suppress any desire to be critical.

• Illusion of unanimity - group members can easily (and mistakenly) believe that the decision was a consensus.

• Direct conformity pressure - all group members showing doubts have pressure applied to them to join the majority view.

• Mindguards - some group members buffer any negativity away from the group's decision.

Group polarisation is another factor that affects group decision making:

• Group polarisation refers to when groups make· "riskier" decisions compared to those made by individuals.

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• Group polarisation follows the idea that, after discussion, people begin to hold even stronger views about a decision. For example, certain members of the group want to sell part of a company and after discussing the issue they feel even more strongly about wanting to sell.

• However, there may be some people who do not want to sell. After discussion, they feel even more strongly about not selling.

• Group members "polarise" towards a stronger position than before discussion. This "shift" toward.s the polar end of a decision is called a. "risky shift" as the group will the attempt to take the riskier option if a consensus can be reached (or just a majority one).

• Therefore, the majority may win but then take a more extreme view of the decision.

• However, some psychologists state that group polarisation can still happen even with a "cautious risk" - group members may still polarise after discussion but not in an extreme way.

Strategies to overcome groupthlnk and training to avoid poor decisions

Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted four different ways in which groupthink can be avoided:

• Promote open enquiry . A group leader could question all decisions made in order to get group members to "think again'' and not go for the first "easy option".

• Use subgroups. Split the main group up and set the subgroups exactly the same decisionmaking tasks. Get them to present their findings; differences between the subgroups can be discussed to form an overall group decision.

• Admit shortcomings. The group leader needs to get members of the group to be critical and point out any potential flaws or limitations of the decisions being made. This should allow the group as a whole to discuss these to ensure that members have not simply decided on the easiest option.

• Hold second-chance meetings. Allow group members to digest the original decision then get them back for a second meeting so they can discuss anything that is worrying them about the decision. This allows "freshness " to be resumed; if a decision task is tiring, group members will go for the easy option.

Evaluation extra • These theories are useful for companies as

they may help them to make groups work more effectively and to increase productivity.

• Individual differences may make generalisation difficult here. Not everyone will react in the same way as these theories suggest.

• Another issue Is individual versus situational explanation . Some theories look at how the individual fits into a group but others look at how the situation may well form the group in the workplace.

Group conflict • Intra-group conflict is when people within the

same group conflict and this interferes with the pathway towards a goal.

• Inter-group conflict is when there is conflict between different groups within an organisation.

• Inter-individual conflict is when two individuals within a group or organisation have a dispute.

Major causes of group conflict: organisational and interpersonal

There appear to be two broad categories according to Riggio (1999):

• Organisational factors are things such as status differences within an organisation that cause friction. There could be conflict between people about the best pathway towards a goal. There may .be a lack of resources such as money, supplies or staff which can cause conflict too.

• Interpersonal elements are things such as the personal qualities of two workers "clash ing" and meaning they do not cooperate on tasks. In some cases individuals simply cannot get along with each other, or due to a failed task may never want to work with each other again. Sometimes, if the conflict is between two heads of different departments, this can escalate into conflict between those departments as a result.

Positive and negative effects of conflict

• There are various negative effects of conflict. Group cohesiveness may diminish as people do not get on. Communication can be inhibited as a result of pe.ople not talking. Workers may no longer trust each other due to conflict. Constant "bickering" can reduce productivity and goal attainment.

• The positive effects of conflict include the following. Conflict may get members of a group to rethink what they are doing and this improves creativity and innovation (and reduces the problems of groupthink). Workers may become less complacent with their work if conflict is occurring. If it means that the whole workforce is listened to and consulted then productivity may increase as all workers feel "part of the organisation ··.

Managing group conflict

Thomas (1992) identified five different strategies that can be used to manage group conflict in an organjsation:

• Competition - individuals may persist in conflict until someone wins and someone loses and then the conflict, apparently, diminishes within the groups these individuals are from.

• Accommodation - this involves making a "sacrifice" in order to reduce conflict. This can help to cut losses and save the relationship between the two groups in conflict.

• Compromise - each group under conflict must give up something to help resolve the conflict. This can only be achievable if both sides can lose things that are comparable.

• Collaboration - the groups need to work together to overcome the conflict as long as resources are not scarce.

• Avoidance - this involves suppressing the conflict or withdrawing from the conflict completely.

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12.5 Organisational work conditions

Pollution and aesthetic factors are covered in Chapter 10.

Physical and psychological work conditions PhysicaJ work conditions

• In terms of lighting (illumination), workers require adequate levels in order to perform any given task.

• Artificial light ing must be provided if there is not enough natural daylight to complete a task at work.

• A worker who is performihg a fine motor skill may need much more Il lumination compared to someon.e on a production line.

• Illumination is necessary for night workers and many companies provide light that mimics sunlight so that workers' biological mechanisms are tricked into believing it is actually daytime.

• In terms of temperature, there must be an optimal level set depending on the job being undertaken.

• There are rules about minimum temperature although none about maximum temperature. Air conditioning can obviously keep temperature at a set level in offices.

• People who work in refrigerated areas need protective clothing to stop them from getting too cold.

• When people become too hot or too cold they begin to slow down in terms of cognitive functioning and motor skill coordination so an optimal temperature needs to be set.

• Noise can be very distracting in the workplace especially if it is loud and uncontrollable.

• There are legislations that state workers should not be exposed to more than 90 decibels (dB) in a "normal" working environment. Anything above this and workers wil l lose concentration and their task efficiency will suffer.

• There are jobs where the noise will be over 90dB constantly (a pneumatic drill is nearly 130dB), so the worker will need ear protectors to stop any permanent damage occurring to the worker's hearing.

• Motion can be an issue for certain types of jobs too.

• Workers who use pneumatic equipment where the whole body vibrates when It is used may have longer-term issues. These can include decreasing fine motor skill ability and maybe developing a repetitive stain injury in joints or tendons.

Psychological work conditions

Density and crowding are covered in the "Psychology and environment" section on pages 105-107.

• ln terms of social interact ions, there can be two extremes that workers have to contend with: excess or absence.

• Excess social interactions can obviously reduce product ivity in workers, though some of it can be blamed on people simply chatting.

• The layout of an office can promote or inhibit communication. If desks face each other and have an opportunity for face-to-face communication then there will be an excess of social interaction.

• Solitary booths will reduce socia I interaction.

• There may be some jobs where there is an absence of social interaction with other workers (e.g .. people working in laboratories where only one person is needed to handle trials).

• A sense of status or importance can enhance productivity in a workforce.

• If people are given titles for their jobs which show they have some status within the organisation (e.g. supervisor) they are more likely to be motivated to work.

• This psychological sense of being important can boost self-esteem and self-efficacy and have a very positive "knock·on'1 effect on productivity and goal attainment.

• However, the opposite can happen if people are not given status for their job (especially if they feel they do play a vital role in the organisation).

• This can quickly demotivate .people who will then fail to attain goals or care about the qual ity of their work.

Temporal conditions of work environments • Temporal conditions refer to the "time" conditions

in which people work.

• There are many different work patterns that people follow around the world f rom the 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. work pattern to shift work, to working "on call " .

Shift work

Rapid rotation theory and slow rotation theory

• Shift work refers to when a worker does not do the same work pattern each week.

• Workers may need to alternate the times they work so that an organisation can, say1 operate on a 24-hour basis.

• Many organisations run a rotation of three shifts per day: day shift (typically 6 a.m. to 2 p.m.), afternoon or twilight shift (2 p.m. to 10 p.m.) and night shift (10 p.m. to 6 a.m.).

• Therefore, workers need to change their "working day". There are different options that an organisation can use for this:

o Rapid rotation refers to frequent shift changes that workers have to follow. There are two types:

Metropolitan rota: workers follow two day shifts then two twil ight shifts then two night shifts. This is then followed by two days off work.

Continental rota: workers follow two day shifts, two twilight shifts, three night shifts, two days off work, two day shifts, three twilight shifts, two nights then three days off work. After this, the rotation begins again.

o Slow rotation. These are infrequent changes of shift that workers have to follow. For example, they may work day shifts for three weeks or more, have a few days off then work night shifts for three weeks or more, etc. This type of shift pattern allows workers ' circadian rhythm (their daily rhythm of sleep and wake) to adapt to a particular shift rather then it being "out of sync" with work patterns which can happen on a rapid rotation.

• Circadian rhythms need time to adapt to a change in shift pattern.

Compressed work weeks and flexitime

• Organisations may adopt a compressed working week. Workers can work three 12-hour shifts per week leaving them with four days off. They will still have worked a standard 36 hours. However, Riggio (1999) notes that completing a series of longer shifts is tiring and there has to be concern about the quaLity of work being finished and levels of productivity.

• Organisations may offer flexitime. Workers still have a contracted amount of hours that they have to be engaged in work for the organisation. They can choose their daily working hours as long as the total time spent at work is their agreed contracted hours. A worker may decide to work 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Monday but only work from 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. on Tuesday then work extra hours on days later in the week.

Ergonomics • Ergonomics refers to the study of attempting

to match (or improve on) the design of tools, gadgets, machines, work systems and work stations for the workers who will have to use them.

• Engineers and psychologists will work together to design, for example, some work stations, machines and gadgets, with 90 per cent of any given population's dimensions covered (e .g . height , weight, knee height when sitting down).

Operator-machine systems: visual and auditory displays, controls

Visual displays

• Quantitative - these are displays that project numbers of some form (temperature, time, speed, etc.). Digital displays have taken over from "clocklike" displays as they are much easier to read and fewer errors occur.

• Qualltatlve - these are displays that allow for a judgment using "words" as the tool. For example, a piece of machinery may not project temperature as a number but have sections simply labelled "cold" , "normal '1 and "hot" - the worker can then judge what to do based on this information.

• Check-reading - these are simpler displays where the information is limited but highly useful. For example, there may be a simple on-off button or a light that comes on when something is not working correctly (or is working correctly).

Auditory displays • Sounds such as buzzers, bells or a constant pitched

sound can alert workers to a potential problem or that a job is completed in a production line.

• Workers no longer have to be looking at a display to know what is happening; the sound tells them.

• A really loud blaring horn or repetitive short beeps are usually perceived as "danger" so workers will be alerted to something that is occurring.

Riggio (1999) noted when it was better to use either visual displays or auditory displays:

• It is better to use visual displays when a message is complex, a permanent message is needed, the work area is noisy to hear an auditory message, the worker's job involves reading information from displays, etc.

• It is better to use auditory displays when a message is simple, the work area is too dark to see a visual display, workers need to move about as part of their job, the message is urgent, information is continually changing, etc.

Errors and accidents in operator-machine systems

• Error of omission refers to a failure to do something (e.g. a worker may fail to switch something on or off).

• Error of commission refers to performing a task incorrectly (e .g. worker may simply not follow an instruction).

• Error of sequence refers to not following a set procedure for a task (e.g. a worker may work "out of sequence" causing an error).

• Error of timing refers to performing a task too slowly or too quickly (e.g. a worker may press a button too quickly on a machine or not press it quickly enough to turn the machine off).

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There are other factors which may well affect workers and cause them to perform a task incorrectly:

• There may be lack of training on a piece of equipment or the manual may be too complicated to understand.

• Some workers have a personality trait called accident proneness -the way they coordinate themselves both physically and psychologically makes them more likely to have an accident or make an error.

• Another factor is fatigue. Workers who are having to cover a night shift are more likely to have accidents or perform an error as they are working against their natural circadian rhythm -between 1 a.m. and 4 a.m. the human body is in a "cognitive dip" as the body is primed for sleep, not for working machinery.

Reducing errors: theory A and theory B

See the "Psychology and health" section, page 99 for details.

12.6 Satisfaction at work

Job design Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted that job design is about making workers more motivated by making their job or work more appealing.

Job characteristics

Hackman & Oldham (1980) introduced us to the job characteristics model. Personnel staff, managers, leaders, etc. can use it to devise and create jobs that will appeal to workers and keep them motivated. The model covers the following:

• Skill variety - does the job require different activities that utilise a range of the worker's skills and talents? It should.

• Task identity - does the job require the completion of a whole piece of work from its inception to its completion? It should.

• Task significance - does the job have a real impact on the organisation or even beyond that? It should .

• Autonomy - does the Job allow the worker some freedom in terms of planning, scheduling, carry out tasks and organising teams? It should.

• Feedback - does the job allow for easily measurable feedback to assess the effectiveness of the worker? It should.

All of these added together bring about three critical psychologica I states according to Hackman & Oldman (1980). Workers:

• experience meaningfulness at work

• experience responsibility In terms of the outcome of work

• have knowledge of the actual outcome of the job which can help employee· growth.

Job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement

• Job enrichment gives workers more jobs to do that involve more tasks to perform that are of a higher level of skill and responsibility. Workers can then have greater control over their job and it makes the job more interesting. Both of these increase satisfaction and motivation. One drawback is that this may be difficult to implement across many jobs within one organisation.

• Job rotation gives workers regular changes to tasks within their role at work. There may be daily, weekly or monthly changes to the tasks that they are required to perform and this should keep them "fresh" and highly motivated throughout their working day. This increases workers' skills base too.

• Job enlargement gives workers more tasks to do but at the same level and usually as part of a team effort. There is no more " responsibility'' or they are not required to learn new skills, rather they perform a wider variety of differing tasks during their workihg day.

Designing jobs that motivate

Organisations could use the following ideas when designing jobs:

• Combine tasks - have workers performing a variety of different tasks rather than just one task that is part of a "bigger picture".

• Open feedback channels - ensure that workers get a lot of feedback about each and every task that is assigned to them. This will Improve task efficiency, productivity and motivation.

• Establish client relationships - provide opportunities for workers to meet the clients who will be buying the f inished product. Th is allows them all to engage in feedback discussions.

• Load jobs vertically - give workers more responsibility for elements of their job. This gives workers some degree of autonomy which has been shown to be a core element of job satisfaction in workers.

Evaluation extra • These ideas are useful as they allow an

organisation to develop jobs that motivate workers so that they work to their full potential and productivity increases.

• There may be a problem with generalisation. Can the models above be used with all workers? There are individual differences in a workforce and to try to find jobs that equally motivate would be very difficult.

Measuring job satisfaction Rating scales and questionnaires

• The Job Descriptive Index is a self-report questionnaire for workers . It measures satisfaction on five dimensions: the job, supervision, pay, promotions and co-workers. Phrases are read and the worker has to write "Yes", "No" or "?" (if undecided) on the questJonnaire. See Figure 12.6.1 for an excerpt. Each answer to each phrase is already assigned a numerical value based on standardisation scoring. Therefore, the worker's satisfaction can be summed for the five different dimensions to see whether all or just one or two dimensions are bringing about satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

• The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire is also a self-report questionnaire for workers. It measures satisfaction on 20 dimensions such as supervisors, task variety, responsibility, promotion potential. See Figure 12.6.2 for some examples. Each item is read and workers rate how much they agree with the statement on a five-point scale from very dissatisfied to very satisfied. Again, each worker generates a score overall and for each of the 20 dimensions so satisfaction and dissatisfaction can easily be identified. 157

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Think of your present work. What is Think of the pay you get. How well Think of the opportunities for it like most of the time? In the blank does each of the following words promotion that you have now. How space beside each word write: describe your present pay? In the well does each of the following words

blank space beside each word or describe them? In the blank space phrase write: beside each phrase write:

y for ''Yes" If it describes your work y for " Yes" if it describes your pay y for ''Yes ~ if it describes your opportunities for promotion

N for "No" if It does not describe it N for "No" if it does not describe it N for "No" If it does not describe them

? if you cannot decide ? if you cannot decide ? if you cannot decide .

Work on present job Present pay Opportunities for promotion

- Routine - Income inadequate for - Dead-end job

- Satisfying normal expenses - Unfair promotion policy

Good - Insecure Regular promotions - -- Less than I deserve

A Figure 12.6.1 Excerpt from the Job Descriptive Index

Source: Smith, Kendall & Hulin (quoted in Riggio, 1999)

On my present job, thls is Very how I feel about .•. dissatisfied

1 Being able to keep busy all the time 1

2 nie chance to work alone on the job 1

3 The chance to do different things from 1 time to time

4 The chance to be " somebody" In the 1 community

5 The way my boss handles his/her workers 1

6 The competence of my supervisor in 1 making decisions

7 The way my job provides for steady 1 employment

8 My pay and the amount of work I do 1

9 The chances for advancement on this job 1

10 The working conditions 1

11 The way my co-workers get along with 1 each other

12 The feeling of accomplishment I get from 1 the job

Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Very satisfied

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

.& Table 12.6.2 Excerpt fron1 the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

Source: Weiss et a/ (quoted in Riggio, 1999)

Critical incidents

• Critical incidents technique is a way of collecting information about workers' job performances.

• This is when workers fill in quest ionnaires about their progress and are interviewed about it. Their fellow workers and managers can do the same.

• The interviews or questionnaires will ask people about any "incidents" at work, both positive and negative, which have contributed to successful or unsuccessful progress on tasks.

• There will be hundreds of these. Job analysts in the personnel department can then analyse all of them to see which incidents make for a satisfying job for a worker.

• This is good as the qualitative data can give a 0 Whole feel" for the job, showing exactly what satisfies a worker across a range of tasks and jobs.

Interviews

Interviews can be structured or unstructured. Reread about these types of interview on page 2 and apply them to organisations.

Attitudes to work Theories of job satisfaction and dissatisfactl.on

Herzberg (1966) proposed a two-factor theory:

• He bel ieved that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are two independent things when it comes to the workplace.

• Prior to this, many psychologists believed there was a continuum from being satisfied to being dissatisfied at work.

• Herzberg surveyed many workers and asked them what made t hem feel especially bad or good about their jobs.

• He analysed the contents of these surveys and concluded that there are two main factors at work here:

o Motivators are factors related to the content of the actual job. These include level of responsibility within the job, how much the worker has already achieved in the job, what recognition the worker has received while doing the job, etc. These have to be present to achieve job satisfaction.

o Hygienes are factors related to the context of the job. These include how company policies and administration affect the job, what level of supervision workers have in the job, etc. These have to be absent or negative for job dissatisfaction to occur.

Job withdrawal, absenteeism and sabotage

• Job withdrawal (or employee turnover) can come in two forms : voluntary and involuntary.

o Involuntary withdrawal is when an organisation has to fire people for various reasons (e.g. the company is not making enough profit or the worker is not performing his or her job properly or up to the standards expected).

o Voluntary withdrawal is when the worker decides to leave a11d the main reason is that he or she has found other employment (this could be linked to job dissatisfaction but not always).

Many days present

(low absenteeism)

...,

Absenteeism rose among workers whose job satisfaction decreased

' '

• Research has been rare in this area as it can be very difficult to dissect what is voluntary and involuntary job withdrawal and even within each category there may be sub-categories of why people may leave their job. Therefore, it is a low validity method of measuring job dissatisfaction.

• Job absenteeism can also be categorised as voluntary and involuntary.

o Voluntary refers to instances where the worker has chosen to take time off.

o Involuntary refers to times when the worker does not choose to be off work. The main example of this is absenteeism due to illness.

• Organisations have to be prepared for a certain number of instances of absenteeism occurring per worker and have policies in place to deal with it (e.g. use temporary workers or use an agency to find cover workers).

• Voluntary absenteeism may well be a measure of job dissatisfaction but, as with job withdrawal, the reasons vary so widely that it is another low validity attempt (people may just take the odd day off to do other things but really love their job).

Greenberg & Baron (2008), however, noted a study that had found a relationship, as shown in Figure 12.6.3 .

Absenteeism decreased among workers whose job satisfaction rose over time

c: cu (/)

',, Job satisfaction ~ c. (/) :;>, «I

"C ..... 0 ... cu .0 E =s z

Few days present

(h igh absenteeism)

Initial measurement

', increased ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

Time

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ',. Job satisfaction decreased

Two years later

A Figure 1.2.6.3 Relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism

159

160


• Job sabotage is about breaking rules and is when workers make a conscious effort to stop themselves and others from working effectively for an organisation.

• This can be brought about by frustration as workers begin to feel powerless in their job.

• It can also be brought on as an attempt to make working conditions better, for Instance to gain better wages or physical conditions in a factory.

• Finally, it can be brought about in an attempt to challenge authority as workers feel that their managers or leaders are not performing in their job.

• This is an extreme form of dissatisfaction so cannot be used to discover job dissatisfaction on a daily basis and in the majority of workers.

Organisational commitment

• Continuance commitment is about workers staying in the job as it is probably too costly for them to leave it financially. The longer that a worker has been in the same organisation , the more difficult it is to leave. Therefore, workers are not willing to risk leaving the organisation.

• Affective commitment refers to workers stayi11g In the job because they strongly agree with the organisation's goals and overall beliefs and views. They fully support what the organisation does and how it does it. As long as the goals and beliefs of the worker match those of the organisation, the worker feels committed to the job.

• Normative commitment is when workers stay in the job because of pressure fron1 other people. They may not want to leave a company because they fear "what people might say" if they do. They do not want to disappoint their organisation by leaving and even though they may feel a bit dissatisfied, they remain committed to the job.

Promoting job satisfaction

All of the units in this section have ideas about promoting job satisfaction (e.g. the selection process, why people are motivated to work, what leaders are present in the organisation, how groups work in the organisation, the physical surroundings of the workplace and assessing job satisfaction).

Exam centre Paper 3 A-Level The questions, example answers, marks awarded and/or comments that appear in this book were written by the author. In examination, the way marks would be awarded to answers like these may be different

Section A type of pain is detected and still picked up by

Q: Explain , in your own words, what is meant by the sensory signals but the spinal cord plays a term ''giftedness". (2 marks) key role in the experience of the actual pain.

A: Children with one or more abilities developed to a level significantly ahead of their year group, e.g. in mathematics.

Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 2 marks as it is a clear, accurate and explicit explanation of the term.

A: It is when someone is really good at a subject in school.

Comment: This answer would be likely to receive 1 mark as it shows some understanding but it lacks clartty.

Q: Explain , in your own words, what is meant by the terrn "extrinsic motivation" . (2 marks)

A: It is a desire to perform a task or behaviour because it gives internal pleasure or helps to develop a skill when at work. People feel good inside about themselves.

Comment: This answer would not gain any marks as it gives an incorrect definitlon. The student has written about intrinsic motivation by mistake.

Q: Describe two ways of measuring personal space. (4 marks)

A: One way is to use the stop-distance measure. For this, a person has to approach you and you simply say "Stop'' once you begin to feel uncomfortable. The person can then repeat this from a different direction a number of times. Measurements are taken from the person to the point where he or she says "Stop" so this can be drawn as a diagram. A second measure is to use a simulation with dolls so that it represents the distance you feel uncomfortable at.

Comment: The first measurement is clear and tells the examiner exactly how personal space could be measured. The second measure is correct but the explanation lacks any real detail. This answer would be likely to receive 3 niarks.

Q: Outline one theory of pain . (4 marks)

A: One theory of pain is phantom limb pain. This is a condition whereby a patient who is an amputee still experiences pain in a limb that is no longer physically there or In a limb that has no functioning nerves in it. Yet, the pain is described in the same way as any other ache or pain that people experience daily. This

The spinal cord has a mechanism within it that acts just I ike a gate: it is either open or closed in the main.

Comment: At first it looks as if this answer wi ll not gain any marks as the student begins to write about phantom limb pain . However, the student then begins to write about the gate control theory. It would have been better to name the theory but the information given about it is correct. Therefore, this answer would be expected to receive some marks. The detail for the gate control theory is likely to be enough for this answer to receive 2 marks.

Section B

Q: Describe what psychologists have discovered about treatments for schizophrenia. (8 marks)

A: Biochemical treatn1ent centres on using drugs to alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia. Davison & Neale (1997) noted that from the 1950s onwards drugs classed as phenothiazines were commonly used to treat schizophrenia. These drugs were effective as they block dopamine receptors in the brain and thus reduce schizophrenic symptoms. Sarkar & Grover (2013) conducted a meta-analysis on 15 randomised controlled studies testing the effectiveness of antipsychotics on children and adolescents diagnosed with schizophrenia. It was seen that both first- and second-generation antipsychotic drugs were superior to placebo in alleviating symptoms.

Another treatment is etectro-convulsive therapy (ECT). This is where a person receives a brief application of electricity to induce a seizure. Early attempts at this were not pleasant but nowadays patients are anaesthetised and given muscle relaxants. Electrodes are fitted to specific areas of the head and a small electrical current is passed through them for no longer than one second. The seizure may last up to one minute. Zervas, Theleritis & Soldatos (2012) conducted a review of the use of ECT in schizophrenia. It would appear that ECT can be quite effective for catatonic schizophrenics and in reducing paranoid delusions. There was also evidence that it may improve a person's responsivity to medication. Also, Thirthalli et al (2009) reported that in a sample of schizophrenics (split Into catatonic and non-catatonic), those who were catatonic required fewer ECT sessions to help control their symptoms.

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Exam centre - paper 3

Another treatment involves token economies. Behaviour is shaped towards son1ething desired by giving out tokens (e.g. plastic chips or a stamp) every time a relevant behaviour is shown. Ayllon & Azrin (1968) introduced a token economy in a psychiatric hospital in a ward for long-stay female patients. The patients were reinforced for behaviours such as brushing their hair, making their bed and having a neat appearance. Their behaviour rapidly improved and staff morale improved as staff were seeing more positive behaviours. Finally, Dickerson, Tenhula & Green-Paden (2005) conducted a review of the field. They found 13 studies and it appeared that there was evidence for the effectiveness of a token economy in increasing the adaptive behaviours of patients with schizophrenia.

Comment: This is a very thorough answer that is accurate and uses psychological terminology throughout. The answer is well organised into the three different treatments. Each treatment is described well and then evidence is presented to show whether it was effective and/ or appropriate. This answer would be likely to be receive 7 or 8 marks.

Q: Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about treatments for schizophrenia and include a discussion on reductionism. (12 marks)

A: Research into the treatment of schizophrenia has some ethical issues. For example, the use of ECT involves fitting electrodes to specific areas of the head and then passing a small electrical current through them for no longer than one second. The seizure may last up to one minute. The patient regains consciousness in around 15 minutes. The argument is whether a person truly understands what the procedure involves if the individual has a serious mental health issue that affects thought processes, such as schizophrenia. With any long-term memory problems unknown after using ECT, is it fair to give it to patients who may not understand this?

However, research has shown that ECT is a useful treatment for schizophrenia. Thirthalli et al (2009) reported that in a sample of schizophrenics (split into catatonic and noncatatonic), those who were catatonic required fewer ECT sessions to help control their symptoms. Therefore, this study found that ECT may be more useful for those with catatonic schizophrenia than other types. Also, Flamarique et al (2012) reported that adolescents who received ECT in conjunction with clozapine had a lower rehospitalisation rate (7 .1 per cent) compared to a group who received ECT and a different antipsychotic (58.3 per cent).

Some psychologists would say that biological treatments for schizophrenia are reductionist. They are based on the idea that we need to treat the biology of the condition (e.g. excess dopamine) without tackling the psychological elements of the disorder. It ignores aspects such as schizophrenia

being caused by faulty information processing. Frith (1992) noted that schizophrenics might have a deficient "metarepresentation" system. This would deal with being able to reflect on thoughts, emotions and behaviours. Therefore, a different treatment might be more appropriate yet a patient may have to go through ECT or some form of drug therapy which may give the person unnecessary side effects.

Comment: The answer covers three main evaluation points: ethics , usefulness and reductionism. The question asked about reductionism so the answer is able to access more than 6 marks if it fulfils the criteria for 7 + rnarks. The evaluation is good and the student uses the information to show how each point is a strength or a weakness. Another evaluation point, written In the same way as the other three, would have been likely to guarantee a top mark so this answer would be likely to be placed in the 7- 9 mark band.

Q: Describe what psychologists have discovered about leadership style and effectiveness. (8 marks)

A: The great person theory follows the idea that "great leaders are born , not made". Therefore, a person is either a "natural " leader or not. People's natural abilities allow them to " rise to the top" of any organisation because of the skills they were born with. These leaders have special traits that allow them to progress up the managerial levels of an organisation and then lead the company effectively over time. There are also leaders who have charisma and this makes people want to listen to them and follow them.

In terms of leadership style, psychologists know a great deal. Some leaders can be permissive and autocratic and others can be not permissive and not autocratic. These are different styles that can be seen at work. House highlighted directive behaviour, achievement-oriented behaviour, supportive behaviour and one other. Support is focused on interpersonal behaviour and involves the leader boosting these relationships by showing concern for each worker's wellbeing in a friendly environment. There are also four situational leaders.

Comment: The first paragraph cannot gain any credit as it is not answering the question (it focuses on theories of leadership rather than leadership style). The second paragraph can gain credit as it shows some understanding of leadership style. The student does just name the different styles without really outlining any of them, so the answer is brief, but terminology is accurate. This answer would be expected to receive 3 or 4 marks.

Q: Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about measuring pain and include a discussion on the use of psychometrics. (12 marks)

A: One way of measuring pain is via questionnaires. This may improve validity as people may be more likely to reveal truthful answers in a questionnaire as it does not involve talking face

to face with someone. Therefore, a patient using the McGill questionnaire may give tnore accurate results about where the pain is located on a picture (especially if it is in a sensitive part of the body) rather than in front of a doctor. This could lead to quicker and more effective treatment.

However, patients tTiay give socially desirable answers as they want to look good rather than giving truthful answers. Some people may want to appear stronger and more resistant to pain than they actually are so, again on the McGill questionnaire, people may choose descriptors that do not truly describe their actual pain feelings instead choosing descriptors that are not "as strong". This could have an effect on getting the most appropriate treatment.

Also, there may be some reliability shown by people as they can fill in the same self-rating scale every week to see if their pain is in the same place, etc.

Comment This student has chosen three evaluation points to raise. The first two show some understanding in terms of evaluation questionnaires linked to measuring pain. The last point on reliability is quite weak. However, what the student has failed to do Is answer the second half of the question directly about the use of psychometrics. Therefore, the maximum this answer would be likely to receive Is 6 marks. As there is some attempt to evaluate and all of the information given is brief, thls answer would be expected to fall into the 4-6 mark band.

Section C

Q: Describe one strategy that can be used to prevent disruptive behaviou.r in the classroom. (6 marks)

A: One strategy can be based on the work of Cotton. The entire staff of a school needs to be committed to any policy in the school. This would cover appropriate behaviours in the classroom. There has to be some form of high behavioural expectations. The policy must have clearly high standards of behaviour that must be adhered to. There also needs to be clear rules. The rules and punishment for disruptive behaviour must be very clear and some schools get their students to help produce these so everyone is involved and knows what is expected of them. Students are more likely to "stick to rules" if they are involved in the production of them. Staff should try to create a "warm'' climate. Staff must take personal interest in students and their achievements, goals , etc. and give them support whenever it is necessary. There also needs to be a supportive headteacher. The headteacher needs to be seen around school, caring for students too and showing some informal behaviour towards them when necessary.

Comment: This answer shows clear understanding of the material (preventive rather than corrective discipline) and includes a ''global" strategy based on the work of Cotton. This answer would be expected to receive 5 or 6 marks.

Q: Suggest how you might help correct the disruptive behaviour of a child in your class. On what psychology is your suggestion based? (8 marks)

A: I would use the Idea of behaviour modification to correct the behaviour of a disruptive student. I would use a series of rewards and a punishment to make sure that the behaviour I wanted was seen in the student and that the disruptive behaviour was eliminated. I could use a sticker chart to encourage good behaviour so every time the student showed this behaviour the student got a sticker. When five stickers had been awarded they could be exchanged for a treat. If the student began to show disruptive behaviour again then stickers could be taken off the chart. I may even choose to ignore any bad behaviour as giving the student attention for the bad behaviour might even encourage the individual to do it more. The student with the most stickers at the end of the year could win an even bigger prize such as money.

Comment: The suggestion here is appropriate and is clearly based on psychological knowledge although the answer never mentions operant conditioning or learning by consequence. The suggestions should work and the answer is coherent and mainly accurate. Therefore, this answer would be expected to receive 5 or 6 marks.

Q: Describe one example of behaviours shown during natural disasters and catastrophes. (6 marks)

A: One example of behaviours shown during a disaster can be seen in contagion theory. Le Bon (1879) suggested that the behaviour of an individual within a crowd is irrational and uncritical and so the person becomes "primitive" and acts strangely as a result. People may feel more anonymous when in a. crowd and show behaviours they would never normally show such as being aggressive to ensure their own safety.

Cornment: There is some good psychology in this answer but it only covers one of the elements of contagious behaviour. What the student does write is correct but it is brief so this answer would be expected to receive 3 or 4 marks.

Q: Suggest how you would help people get prepared for a natural disaster. On what psychology is your suggestion based? (8 marks)

A: There are many factors that can affect people's ability to react to a disaster. I would educate the community on what a siren actually means and then what people should do once they hear it. Balluz et al reported that only 45 per cent of people knew what to do once a siren had been sounded. I would get emergency management officials to plan some form of protection measure for vulnerable areas as people may have limited time to respond to the siren. They could strategically erect shelters to reduce the

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Exam centre - paper 3

time taken from people starting to respond to their reaching a place of safety. This should allow people to feel prepared if, say, a hurricane were to hit an area quickly. Also, Sattler, Kaiser & Hittner (2000) noted that about half of the participants had petrol for the car, flashlights, bottled water, candles and matches, and canned or dried food for use in an emergency. Therefore, I would produce a leaflet that people can stick to their fridges telling them what essentials they would need to help them if a disaster were to strike. A separate leaflet could also be produced with known evacuation routes printed on it that is brief but informative. As Loftus found, these types of notice work the best, especially if a disaster is quick to happen so people need

to read information in a hurry. Any important messages (e.g. "Ensure you have some food with you'' ) should be repeated on the notice and leaflet. There h1ay have to be some community meetings so that people are clear about what to do as people are never really prepared if they are reading and trying to understand information while a disaster is happening, according to Tamima & Chouinard (2012).

Comment: This is a very good answer that has suggestions that are directly linked to the question. The ideas are based on psychological research that has been named and used to show why they have been suggested. The outlining ls accurate, coherent and detailed and is shows very good understanding. It is likely that this answer would gain 7 or 8 marks.

Index A abnormal affect

cause of and treatments for 126 types 126

abnormality 120 behavioural models of abnormality

121 biological and medical treatments

121 cognitive behavioural therapies 121 cognitive models of abnormality 121 deviation from ideal mental health

120 deviation from social norm 120 effectiveness and appropriateness of

treatments 121 failure to function adequately 120 medical or biological models of

abnormality 12~1. problems with defining and diagnosing

abnormafity 120 psychodynarnic models of abnormality

121 psychotherapies 121

accidents 99 accident proneness 99 cognitive overload 99 human error and the Illusion of

invulnerability 99 individual and system errors 99 reducing accidents at work with token

econo1nies 100 reorganising shift work 100 shift work patterns 99

accommodators 69 acupuncture 92 acute pain 88 addiction and in1pulse control disorders

aversion therapy 131 behavioural causes 130 behavioural treatments 131 biochemical causes 130 CST for klepto1riania 131 cognitive or personality causes 131 components 130 covert sensitisation 131 genetic causes 130 imaginal desensitisation 132 physical and psychological dependence

130 types 1,30

adherence to medical advice evaluation extra 87 Im proving adherence 86-7 measuring adherence and non-

adherence 85-6 memory intervention 87 rational non-adherence 85 types and extent of non-adherence 85

alcoholism 130 anti-social behaviour 102 anxiety disorders (obsessions and

compulsions) 137-9 anxiety disorders (phobias) 133-6 appearance 82 application forms 140

weighted application blank or form (WAB) 140

approaches to study inventory (ASI) 69

achieving orientation 69 meaning orientation 69 non-academic orientation 69 reproducing orientation 69

architecture and behaviour 106-7 housing design and urban renewal

114-16 Asperger syndrome 66 asslmilators 69 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) 74 genetic causes 7 4 neurotransmitters 7 4 physiological arousal 7 4

attractiveness study 28-30 aim 28 conclusion 29-30 context 28 method 28-9 results 29

attractiveness and smells study 42--4 arm 42 conclusion 43 context 42 evaluation 43-4 method 42-3 results 43

attribution retraining 72 analysing success 73 changing attributions 72. 73 discussion 72 Dweck way 73 role play 73 student modelling 73 teacher modelling 73

attribution theory 72 controllability 72 locus of control 72 stability 72

auditory displays 155-6 autism spectrum disorders 65

impairment of social communication 65-6

impairment of social imagination 66 impairment of social interaction 66

autonomic nervous system 93 avoidant learning 68 B backwards searching 81 behaviour modification techniques 62

naughty corner or step 62 sticker charts 62 tokens 62

behaviourist applications to learning 61 behaviour modification techniques 62 classical conditioning 61 higher-order conditioning 61 motivation 71, 72 operant conditioning 61 programmed learning 62

benzodiazapines 95 beta-blockers 95 biofeedback 95-6 bipolar disorder 126 body dysmorphic disorder (BOD) study

53-5 aim 53 conclusion 55 context 53

evaluation 55 method 53-4 results 54-5

British Ability Scale (BAS) 78 core scales 78 diagnostic scales 78 intelllgence and educational

performance 78-9 reliability, validity and predictive validfty

78 bullying 74

attachment style 7 4-5 effects of bullying 75 family functioning 75 parenting styles 75 socio-economic status 75 teaching environment 75

bystander behaviour study 20-1 aim 20 conclusron 21 context 20 evaluation 21 method 20 results 20-1

c case studies 2 casino environments 116 catastrophes 108-10 Chernobyl 99 child development theory 63

concrete operational stage 63 formal operational stage 63 pre-operational stage 63 sche1nas 63 sensori·motor stage 63

chronic pain 88 classical conditioning 61, 133 cognitive applications to learning 63

adherence to medical advice 87 motivation 71-2 underlying theory 63

cognitive behaviour modification 76 co-working 76 cognitive modelling 76 imitation 76 sub-vocal performance 76

cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT ) 124-5 kleptomania 131 obsessive-compulsive disorders 139

cognitive map study 40-1 aim 40 conclusion 41 context 40 evaluation 41 method 40-1 results 41

cognitive psychology study of false memory 9-10 study of lying behaviour 7-8 study of nature and nurture 13-14 study of reading the mind in the eyes

11-12 cognitive restructuring 128-9 cognltive strategies for pain management

distraction 91 imagery 92

cognitive style study 50-2 aim 50 165

166

conclusion 51 context 50 evaluation 52 method 50-1 results 51

collaborative learning 68 communities 98 com1nunity environmental design 115-16 competitive learning 68 compulsions 137 conditioning 61. 133 contingency theory 148

completion of the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire 148

leader-members relations 148 position power 148 task structure 148

control 93 chance heaJth locus of control 93 internal health locus of control 93 powerful others· control over health

93 convergers 69 creativity 80

Divergent Production Test 80-1 problem-solving 81 unusual uses test 81

critical incidents technique 158 crowd behaviour

anonyinlty 108 contagion 108 impersonality 108 laboratory experiments 108 scripts 108 simulations 108 suggestibilfty 108

crowding 105 coping with crowding 107 modifying architecture 106-7 visual escape 107

crystallised intelligence 80

D decision making 151

evaluation extra 152 groupthink and group polarisation

151- 2 individual versus group decisions 151 strategies to overcome groupthink

151- 2 decision making In personnel selection

140 biases in selection decisions and

equal opportunitJes 142 job analysis techniq.ues 142 job descriptions and specifications

142 multiple cutoff model 141 n1ultlple hurdle model 141 multiple regression model 141

delay in seeking treatment 83 appraisal delay 83 illness delay 83 utilisation delay 83

density and crowding 105 animal studies 105-6 health 106 performance 106 preventing and coping with the effects

of crowding 106-7 pro-social behaviour 106

dependent learning 68 depression 83

che1Tiical or drug treatments 128 cognitive explanations 127 cognitive restructuring 1.28-9

electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) 128 genetic and neurochemical

explanations 126-7 learned helplessness or attributional

style 127 rational emotive behaviour therapy

(REST) 129-30 sex differences in depression 126

designs of study 3 matched pairs 3 repeated measures 3

destructive obedience study 15-16 aim 15 conclusion 16 context 15 evaluation 16 method 15-16 results 16

determinism 6 developmental psychology

attractiveness study 28-30 moral behaviour study 31-3 observational learning of aggressive

behaviour study 24-5 Oedipus complex study 26-7

disasters 108 behaviours during events 108 evacuation plans 109 Herald of Free Enterprise 109-10 London bombings, July 2005 110 preparedness 108-9 psychological intervention before and

after events 108-10 treating PTSD 109

disclosure of information 83 discovery learning 62

correct mode of representation 62 spiral curriculum 62

disruptive behaviour in school 7 4 aggression 7 4 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) 74 attention-see kl ng 7 4 behaviour modfficatlon 75-6 bullying 7 4-5 calling out 74 cognitive behaviour modification 76 corrective strategies 75-6 distracting other students 7 4 effective classroom management 75 out-of-seat behaviour 7 4 poor teaching style 7 4 preventive strategies 75

divergers 69 dopamine 122-3, 130 dreaming and REM sleep study 37-9

ai111 37 conclusion 38-9 context 37 evaluation 39 method 37-8 results 38

dyslexia 65

E

causes and effects of dyslexia 66 characteristics of dyslexia 65 educational strategies 67

ecological validity 4 effective teaching style 7 4

"group-alerting" 7 4 "overlap" 74 ·smoothness and momentum'' 74 "stimulating seatwork" 74 "withitness .. 74

electro.convulsive therapy (ECT) 123-4,

128 emotional intelligence 80 endocrine system 93 environmental cognition 117

cognitive maps in bees 118 cognitive maps in squirrels 117 designing better maps 118-19 errors 117 individual differences 117 multidimensional scaling 117 pigeons and 1nagrietite 118 sketch maps 117 virtual way-finding 119 way-finding 119

ERG theory 144 ergonomics 155

auditory displays 155 errors and accidents in operator

machine systems 155-6 visual displays 155

ethics 4 ethnocentric bias 4 exam questions and answers 56

core studies 1 56-7 core studies 2 58-60 Paper 3 (A Level) 161-4

expository teaching 63 advance organisers 64 correlative subsumption 63 derivative subsumption 63 discriminability 64 1naking it meaningful 64

extrinsic motivation 71. 146

F facial expressions 82 factor-analytic appfoach to intelligence

79-80 false memory study 9-10

aim 9 conclusion 10 context 9 evaluation 10 method 9 results 10

field experiments 1 fluid intelligence 80 formal teaching style 68 4-mat study system 70

G

application 70 c-0ncept development 70 motivation 70 practice 70

GAS model of stress 93 alarm reaction 93 exhaustion stage 93 resistance stage 93

gate control theory of pain 88 generalisations 5 gestures 82 gi~edness 65

educational strategies 66-7 goal-setting 145 group behaviour in organisations

decision making 151-2

H

group cohesiveness, team building and team performance 150-1

group conflict 152-3 group development 150

Hassles Scale 93-4 Head Start Program (cycle helmets) 98 health and safety

accident proneness and personality 99

accidents 99 reducing accidents and promoting

safety behaviours 100 health promotion

communities 98 fear arousal 97 medical settings 97 protnoting health in a specific area of

concern 98 providing information 97 schools 97-8 worksites 98 Yale model of communication 9·7

Herald of Free Enterprise 99, 109-10 high-initiative teachers 68 higher-order conditioning 61 hun1anistic applications to learning 62

cooperative learning 62 discovery learning 62 expository teaching or reception

learning 63-4 learning circles and the open

classroom 62~3 motivation 71 Summerhill School 62 underlying theory 62 zone of proximal development (ZPD)

64 hypnosis 92, 139 hypochondriasis 83-4

I

depressive type 83 obsessive-anxious type 83 somatoform type 83

imagery 92, 96 improving adherence to medical advice

Im prove practitioner style 86 letters 86-7 provide prompts and reminders 86 tailor the regimen 86 use behaviour contracts 86 use of text messaging 86 use self-monitoring 86

in-group and out.group study 22-3 aim 22 conclusion 23 evaluation 23 method 22 results 22-3

independent learning 68 individual versus situational explanations

4-5.147 individual versus situational study 17-19

aim 17 conclusion 19 context 17 evaluation 19 method 17-18 pathological prisoner syndrome 19 pathology of power 19 results 18- 19

inforrllal teaching style 68 intelligence 77

alternatives to intelligence 80-1 British Ability Scale (BAS) 78-9 IQ 77 Stanford-Binet Test 77 theories of intelligence 79-80 Weschler (WAIS and WISC) tests 77-8

Internet 97 interpersonal skills 82

non-verbal comn1unications 82 verbal communications 82

interviews 2 Job satisfaction 158 work selection 140

intrinsic motivation 71, 146

J job analysis techniques 142 job descriptions and specifications 142 Job Descriptive Index 157 job design 157 job satisfaction 157-8

promoting job satisfaction 160

K kleptomania 130, 131

L laboratory experiments 1 leader-member exchange model (LMX)

149 leadership and management

charismatic and transformational leaders 147

contingency theory 148 great person theory 14 7 leaders and followers 149 leadership training and characteristics

of effective leaders 148-9 Ohio State studies 14 7 participative behaviour 148 path-goal theory 148 permissive versus autocratic

leadership 148 situational leadership 148 supportive behaviour 148 University of Michigan studies 147

learned helplessness 72, 127 learning and teaching styles 68

accommodators 69 approaches to study inventory (ASI)

69 assimilators 69 avoidant learning 68 collaborative learning 68 competitive learning 68 convergers 69 dependent learning 68 dfvergers 69 effective teaching style 7 4 formal teaching style 68 high-initiative teachers 68 improving learning effectiveness 70 independent learning 68 informal teaching style 68 onion model 68 participant learning 68 psychometric measures 69-70 teacher-centred and student-centred

styles 69 learning circles 62-3

learning together 63 student teams achievement division

63 life events 94 locus of control 72. 93 London bombings, July 2005 110 longitudinal data 5-6 lying behaviour study 7-8

aim 7 conclusion 8 context 7 evaluation 8 method 7-8 results 8

M manic depression 126 map design 118-19 Mastow's hierarchy of needs 144 means-end analysis 81 measures of stress

blood and urine tests 95 blood pressure 95 galvanic skin response 95 se Lf·report questionnaires 95

measuring adherence and non-adherence to medical advice objective methods 85-6 subjective methods 85

measuring pain behavioural or observational scale 91 pain measures in children 91 psychometric measures and visual

rating scales 89-91 self-report measures 88-9

media 97 medical jargon 82 memory intervention 87

develop cues 87 do it now 87 elaborate the action 87 emphasise routine 87 lmplen1entation intentions 87 teach - ask -\.vait - ask again - wait -

ask again 87 mental health diagnosis study 45-7

aim 45 conclusion 46 context 45 evaluation 47 method 45. 46 results 46

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire 157-8

misusing health services delay in seeking treatment 83 hypochondriasis 83-4-Munchhausen syndrome 84 Munchhausen syndrome by proxy 84

modeJs of abnormality abnorn1al affect 126-9 addiction and impulse control

disorders 130-2 anxiety disorders (obsessions and

compulsions) 137- 9 anxiety disorders (phobias) 133-6 definitions of abnormaflty 120-1 schizophrenia 122-5

moral behaviour study 31-3 aim 31 conclusion 33 context 31 evaluation 33 method 31-2 results 32

motivation and education performance 71-3 attribution theory and learned

helplessness 72-3 definitions. types and theories of

motivation 7.1 improving motivation 71-2

motivation to work achievement motivation 144-5 career structure and promotion

prospects 146 ERG theory 144 goal-setting theory 145 hierarchy of needs 144 managerial applications of expectancy

theory 145 1..67

168

motivators at work 146 reward systems 146 setting effective goals 145 VIE (expectancy) theory 145

multiple intelligences 80. 149 multiple personality disorder (MPD)

disorder study 48-9 aim 48 conclusion 49 context 48 evaluation 49 method 48 results 48-9

Munchhausen syndrome 84 Munchhausen syndrome by proxy 84

music

N

consumer behaviour 103 performance 104 stress reduction 103-4

nature and nurture 5, 147 nature and nurture study 13-14


noise 101 anti-social behaviour 102 occupational noise 101-2 perceived control 102 performance In children 103 positive uses of sound (music) 103-4 predlctabil ity 102 pro-social behaviour 102 transportation noise 101 volume 102

non-verbal communications appearance 82 facial expressions 82 gestures 82 paralanguage 82 personal space invasion 82

normative decision theory 149

0 observational learning of aggressive

behaviour study 24-5 aims 24 conclusion 25 context 24 evaluation 25 method 24-5 results 25

observations 2 obsessions 137 obsessive-compulsive disorders 137

biomedical explanations 138 case studies 137 CBT 139 cognitive-behavioural explanations

138 drug therapy 138-9 Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory (OCI)

137 psychoanalytic therapy 139 psychodynamic explanations 138 Vancouver Obsessive-Compulsory

Inventory (VOCI) 137 Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsory

Inventory (Y-BOCS) 137-8 Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory (OCI)

137

occupational noise 101-2 Oedipus complex study 26-7

afnis 26 conclusion 27 context 26 evaluation 27 method 26 results 26

onion model of learning 68 operant conditioning 61 organisational commitment

affectlve comn1itment 160 continuance corn1nitment 160 norrnative commitment 160

organisational work conditions compressed work weeks and flexitime

p

155 ergonomics 155-6 physical work conditions 154 psychological work conditions 154 shift work 154-5 temporal conditions of work

environments 154-5

Pacific Western Airline crash (1978) 99 pain

acute pain 88 alternative techniques 91-2 analgesics 91 chronic pajn 88 cognitive strategies 91-2 definitions of pain 88 gate control theory of pain 88 indirectly acting drugs 91 local anaesthetics 91 managing and controlling pain 91-2 measuring pain 88-91 phantom limb pain 88 psychogenic pain 88 specificity theory of pain 88

paralanguage 82 participant learning 68 participants and sampling 3 path.goal theory 148

achievement-oriented behaviour 148 directive behaviour 148 participative behaviour 148 supportive behaviour 148

patientpractitioner relationship case studies 84 interpersonal skills 82 misusing health services 83-4 practitioner diagnosis and style 83

Pediatric Pain Questionnaire 91 performance appraisal 142-3

appraisers 143 improving appraisals 143 problems with appraisal 143

performance In children 103 performance In students 104 permissive versus autocratic leadership

148 personal space and territory 111- 13

alpha space and beta space 111 defending territory and space 112 invading space and territory 112 measuring space simulation 111 space invasions 111 stop.distance 111 territorial markers 112

personal space invasion 82, 111 personality 94

accident proneness 99 perspectives on learning

applications based on cognitive theory 63-4

applications based on humanism 62-3

applications based on the behaviourist perspective 62

behaviourist applications to learning 61

cognitive applications to teaming 63 humanistic applications to learning 62

phantom limb pain 88 phobias 133

applied tension 135-6 biomedical or genetic explanations

133-4 cognitive explanations 134 explanations 133 flooding 135 Little Albert 133 psychoanalytic explanations 133 systematic desensitisation 134-5 types and examples 133

physiological psychology attractiveness and smells study 42- 4 cognitive map study 40-1 dreaming and REM sleep study 37-9 two factor theory of emotion study

34-6 planning strategies 81 PQRST study method 70

preview 70 question 70 read 70 self-recitatlon 70 test 70

practitioner diagnosis and style disclosure of information 83 doctor-centred style 83 patient-centred style 83 type I and type II errors 83

pro-socfal behaviour 102 problem-solving

backwards searching 81 means-end analysis 81 planning strategies 81

programmed learning 62 psychoanalytic therapy

dream analysis 139 free association 139 hypnosis 139

psychogenic pain 88 psychology and education

disruptive behaviour in school 7 4-6 intelligence 77-81 learning and teaching styles 68-70 motivation and education performance

71-3 motivation and education performance

71-3 perspectives on learning 61-4 special educational needs 65-7

psychology and environment architecture and behaviour 114-16 density and crowding 105-7 environmental cognition 117-19 natural disaster and technological

catastrophe 108-10 noise 101-4 personal space and territory 111-13

psychology and health adherence to medical advice 85-7 health and safety 99-100 health promotion 97-8 pain 88-92 patient-practitioner relationship 82-4

stress 93-6 psychology and organisations

group behaviour in organisations 160-3

leadership and management 147-9 motivation to work 144-6 organisational work conditions 154-6 satisfaction at work 157-60 selection of people for work 140-3

psychology of individual dtfferences body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) study

53-5 cognitive style study 50-2 mental health diagnosis study 45-7 multiple personality disorder (MPD)

disorder study 48-9 psychometric measures 69-70 psycho1Tietric tests 140-1

predictive validity 141 psychometrics 5 PTSD 109-10 public places 116

Q

quantitative and qualitative data 5 questionnaires 1-2

R rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)

129-30 reading the mind in the eyes study 11-12


reception learning 63 reductionism 6 reliability 4 research methods 1

case studies 2 design of study 3 field experiments 1 interviews 2 laboratory experiments 1 observations 2 participants and sampling 3 questionnaires 1-2

reward systems 146 non-monetary rewards 146

s satisfaction at work

attitudes to work 158-60 job design 157 measuring Job satlsfaction 15 7-8

schizophrenia 122 biochemical explanatfons {dopamine

hypothesis) 122-3 biochemical treatments 123 CBT 124-5 characteristics 122 cognitive explanations 123 electro-convulsive therapy (ECT)

123-4 evaluation extra 123 genetic explanations 122 token econorTiies 124 types 122

schools 97-8 selection of people for work

application forms 140 decision makjng in personnel selection

140,141-2 decision making in personnel selection

140.141-2 interviews 140 performance appraisal 142-3 use of psychometric tests 140- 1

self-efficacy 72 emotional arousal 72 personal accomplishments 72 verbal persuasion 72 vicarious experience 72

shopping malls 115-16 situational leadership 148 snapshot data 5-6 social density 105 social psychology

bystander behaviour study 20-1 destructive obedience study 15-16 in-group and out-group study 22-3 individual versus situational study

17-19 spatlaldensrry 105 special educational needs

causes and effects of dyslexia 66 definitions of special educational

needs and giftedness 65 integration versus separation 66 strategies for educating children with

special needs 66-7 types of special educational needs

65-6 specificity theory of pain 88 SPELT (strategies for effective learning and

thinking) 70 Stanford-Binet Test 77 stress 93

daily hassles 94-5 GAS model 93 lack of control 93 life events 94 management of stress 95-6 measures of stress 95 personality 94 preventing stress 96 work 93-4

stress inoculation therapy 96 application and follow-through phase

96 conceptualisation phase 96 skill acquisition and rehearsal phase

96 student-<:entred learning styles 69 study skills 70

T

4-mat system 70 PQRST method 70 strategies for effective learning and

thinking (SPELT) 70

teacher-centred teaming styles 69 teams 150

characteristics of successful teams 151

territory 111-13 Three Mile Island 99 token economies 100, 124 Titanic, The 99 transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation

{TENS) machines 92 transportation noise 101 triarchic theory of intelligence 80 two factor theory of emotion study 34-6

aim 34 conclusion 36 context 34 method 34-5 results 35-6

u UAB Pain Behavior Scale 91 unipolar disorder 126 urban living

adaptation level 114 behaviour constraint 114 effects on health 114 effects on social behaviour 114 environmental stress 114 evaluation extra 115 overload 114

urban renewal and housing design 115 use of animals in psychological research

6 use of children In psychological research

6 usefulness of psychology 4

v validity 4 Vancouver Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory

(VOCI ) 137 verbal communications 82 VIE (expectancy) theory 145 visual displ.ays 155

w way-finding 119 Weschler Adult Intelligence Seate (WAIS)

77, 78 Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children

(WISC) 77 work 93-4

job withdrawal, absenteeism and sabotage 159-60

organisational commitment 160 promoting job satisfaction 160 theories of job satisfaction and

dissatisfaction 158-9 worksltes 98

y

Yale model of communication 97 acceptance 97 attention 97 communicator 97 comprehension 97 content 97 medium 97

Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsory Inventory (Y-BOCS) 137-8

z zone of proximal development (ZPD} 64

scaffolding 64

1..69

for Cambridge International AS & A Level

• • ev1s1on

• UI

Craig Roberts

Endorsed by Cambridge and accurately matched to the most recent Cambridge International AS & A Level syllabus, this text supports theoretical understanding and builds essential research skills. The Revision Guide works alongside the Student Book to reinforce knowledge and understanding.

Oxford and Cambridge are world leaders in international education. Our combined expertise and knowledge shape Oxford's resource packages for

Cambridge International AS & A Level. This Revision Guide provides:

A fully comprehensive and structured approach to guide Learners through the course logically

Focus on the development of essential high level research skills, with a student-centred approach to learning

Extensive and relevant exam practice so that students fully understand the requirements for the Cambridge A Level exams

Revi~ion advice supp_orts a_sseSSITJent confidence and .achievem~nt·

The clear, visual approach solidifies understa11ding and supports tl1e knowledge of difficult psychology concepts

·-ol~!_!·~

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Psychology for Cambridge International AS & A Level: Revision Guide