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Psychology 307: Cultural Psychology

Emotions

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Emotion

1. What are emotions?

2. What is the universalist vs. cultural constructionist debate regarding emotions?

3. What evidence provides support for the universalist position?

4. What evidence provides support for the cultural constructionist position?

5. Can the universalist vs. cultural constructionist debate be resolved?

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● Although there has been disagreement among psychologists regarding how best to define emotions, most believe that emotions consist of at least 2 components: a physiological component and a subjective component.

What are emotions?

● Many psychologists also believe that emotions consist of a third component: a cognitive component.

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● There are 2 major theories of emotion:

1. James-Lange theory of emotion

Suggests that the physiological changes that occur in response to antecedent events produce emotions.

Proposed by William James and Carl Lange in the late 1800s.

According to this view, “we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble” (James, 1884).

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Antecedent event: Seeing an

angry dog

Physiological changes: Heart

pounding, trembling, sweating,

running away

Emotion felt: Fear

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

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On the basis of this theory, Tomkins (1963) proposed the facial feedback hypothesis.

Although some studies have provided support for the facial feedback hypothesis, in particular, and the James-Lange theory, in general, many researchers have criticized the theory.

In light of these criticisms, the James-Lange theory has fallen out of favor with many psychologists.

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2. Two-factor theory of emotion

Proposed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer in the 1960s.

Suggests that the physiological changes that occur in response to antecedent events and our cognitive appraisals of those events produce emotions.

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Antecedent event: Seeing an

angry dog

Physiological changes: Heart

pounding, trembling, sweating,

running away

Emotion felt: Fear

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Cognitive appraisal: That is an angry dog,

it is going to attack me.

+

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Substantial evidence has provided support for the two-factor theory. The bulk of this evidence comes from studies in which experimenters have

manipulated participants’ physiological arousal and examined their appraisals of that arousal.

Example: Dutton and Aron, 1974, Capilano Suspension Bridge study.

In light of the evidence that has accumulated to support the two-factor theory, this theory is the most

widely accepted theory of emotion today.

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What is the universalist vs. cultural constructionist debate regarding emotions?

● Universalist position:

emotions are experienced similarly across cultures.

common emotions have evolved among humans because they serve adaptive functions.

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● Cultural constructionist position:

emotions are experienced differently across cultures.

emotions are largely determined by our appraisals of antecedent events.

● Research evidence provides support for both positions.

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● Four types of evidence support the universalist position on emotion:

(a) Evidence for the universality of emotional antecedents

Emotional antecedents: Events that elicit emotion.

What evidence provides support for the univeralist position?

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Example: Brandt and Boucher (1985)

Recruited informants from the U.S., Korea, and Samoa.

Informants wrote stories about events that produced anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or surprise.

Stories were administered to participants in the U.S., Korea, and Samoa, who identified the predominant emotion of the individual in the story.

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Found:

(i) substantial agreement in the assignment of emotions to stories across cultures.

(ii) participants’ accuracy was not greater for stories generated by informants from their own culture than stories generated by

informants from other cultures.

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Example: Scherer and Wallbott (1994)

Recruited participants from 37 countries (e.g., Australia, Botswana, Chile, El Salvador, Finland, France, Germany, Guatemala, Japan, Lebanon,

Portugal, U.S., Yugoslavia, Zimbabwe).

Had participants recall situations in which they experienced joy, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, shame, or guilt.

(b) Evidence for the universality of physiological responses associated with emotions

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Participants were presented with three types of physiological responses:

1. Ergotropic responses.

2. Trophotropic responses.

3. Felt temperature responses:

For each situation, asked participants to respond to questions assessing their physiological

responses to the situation.

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Found that, across cultures, each emotion was associated with similar physiological responses.

E.g.,

Anger: Associated with relatively high levels of ergotropic responses, relatively low levels of trophotropic responses, and the sensation of being hot.

Sadness: Associated with relatively low levels of ergotropic responses, relatively high levels of trophotropic responses and the sensation of being cold.

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(c) Evidence for the universality of emotional appraisal

Emotional appraisal: Process by which individuals evaluate the antecedent events or

stimuli that elicit emotions.

Example: Scherer et al., 1997

Proposed the Stimulus Evaluation Check (SEC) Model of Emotional Appraisal.

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According to this model, emotional appraisal of antecedent events occurs in the form of a series of “stimulus evaluation checks.” Antecedent events are evaluated along 8 dimensions:

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Expectation Did you expect the event to occur?

Pleasantness Did you find the event pleasant of unpleasant?

Goal conducivenessDid the event help or hinder you in the

achievement of your goals?

Fairness Was the event unjust or unfair?

CausationWho caused the event—you, someone else,

or an “impersonal agent?”

Coping abilityWere you able to cope effectively with the

event and its consequences?

MoralityWas your behaviour in relation to the event

improper or immoral?

Self-consistencyDid the event have a positive or negative

influence on your self-worth?

Scherer et al.’s (1997) Emotional Appraisal Dimensions

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Recruited participants from 37 countries (e.g., Austria, Botswana, Brazil, China, Finland, Greece, Honduras, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Lebanon,

Mexico, New Zealand, Nigeria, Poland, Zambia).

Had participants recall situations in which they experienced joy, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, shame, or guilt.

For each situation, asked participants to respond to questions assessing each of the 8 appraisal

dimensions identified by the SEC Model.

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Found that, across cultures, each emotion was produced by a similar appraisal process.

E.g.,

Joy: Elicited by events that were appraised as high in expectedness, pleasantness, goal conduciveness, and fairness; for which participants felt they had coped effectively, behaved morally, and experienced an increase in self-worth.

Anger: Elicited by events that were appraised as low in expectedness, pleasantness, goal conduciveness, and fairness; that participants believed were caused by others or an impersonal agent.

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(d) Evidence for the universality of emotional expression

Cross-cultural studies:

Have shown that, across diverse cultures, people create similar facial expressions when they experience happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, or surprise.

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Example: Ekman and Friesen (1971)

Took posed photos of facial expressions reflecting happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, and

surprise.

Showed the photos to participants in 5 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Japan, and the U.S.

Asked participants to select the emotional label that best described the individual in each photo.

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Ekman and Friesen’s (1971) Six Emotional Expressions

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Country Happiness Anger Disgust Fear Sadness Surprise

Argentina 94 72 79 68 85 93

Brazil 97 82 86 77 82 82

Chile 90 76 85 78 90 88

Japan 87 63 82 71 74 87

U.S. 97 69 82 88 73 91

Percentage of Participants Who Correctly Identified Each Emotion

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Found that:

(a) the rate of correct identification was high across cultural groups.

These findings were replicated among the Fore of New Guinea.

(b) when the six emotions were combined, there were no significant differences across cultural groups.

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On the basis of these findings, Ekman concluded that there are 6 emotions for which there are universal facial expressions (i.e., “basic emotions”):

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Emotion Associated Facial Expression

Anger

Both the lower and upper eyelids tighten as the brows lower and draw together. Intense anger raises the upper eyelids as well. The jaw thrusts forward, the lips press together, and the lower

lip may push up a little.

FearThe eyes widen and the upper lids rise, as in surprise, but the

brows draw together. The lips stretch horizontally.

DisgustThe nose wrinkles and the upper lip rises while the

lower lip protrudes.

Surprise The upper eyelids and brows rise, and the jaw drops open.

HappinessThe corners of the mouth lift in a smile. As the eyelids tighten,

the cheeks rise and the outside corners of the brows pull down.

SadnessThe eyelids droop as the inner corners of the brows rise and, in

extreme sadness, draw together. The corners of the lips pull down, and the lower lip may push up in a pout.

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Ekman and Friesen’s (1971) Six Emotional Expressions

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More recent work by Ekman suggests that there is a 7th emotion for which there is a universal facial

expression:

EmotionAssociated Facial

Expression

_________

This expression appears on just one side of the face: One half of the upper lip tightens upward.

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Developmental studies:

Have shown that:

(a) newborn infants possess the same facial musculature as adults.

(b) the facial musculature of infants is fully functional at birth.

(c) infants display facial expressions similar to those that adults display when they

experience happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, and surprise.

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Examples of Infant Facial Expressions

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At birth, infants are capable of producing facial expressions that display disgust and happiness.

At 2 months, infants are capable of producing facial expressions that display anger and sadness.

At 6 months, infants are capable of producing facial expressions that display fear and surprise.

Infants’ ability to produce facial expressions similar to those of adults appears to be culturally universal.

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What evidence provides support for the cultural constructionist position?

● Two types of evidence support the cultural constructionist position on emotion:

(a) Evidence for the cultural construction of emotional expression: Display rules

According to Ekman (1973), display rules dictate how universal emotions are expressed, are learned

early in life, and become automatic determinants of emotional expression by adulthood.

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Ekman and Freisen (1969) identified 6 display rules: Amplification, deamplification, neutralization, qualification, masking, and simulation.

Researchers have examined cultural differences in the tendencies to amplify, deamplify, neutralize, qualify, mask, and simulate emotional expression.

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Example: Matsumoto et al. (2005)

Developed the Display Rule Assessment Inventory (DRAI) to assess the extent to which participants modify their emotional expressions in diverse social situations (e.g., with family, close friends, colleagues, strangers).

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Sample Response Sheet from the DRAI

Instructions: Please tell us what you think people should do when they feel each of the emotions listed toward someone in each of the four situations when interacting with that person. At the top of the page is a list of seven possible responses for how one may behave in those situations. Please select a response for each emotion and each situation. Record that number in the appropriate space provided for that emotion and situation.

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Possible responses:

1. Express the feeling as is with no inhibitions.

2. Express the feeling, but with less intensity than one's true feelings.

3. Express the feeling, but with more intensity than one's true feelings.

4. Try to remain neutral; express nothing.

5. Express the feeling, but together with a smile to qualify one's feelings.

6. Smile only, with no trace of anything else, in order to hide one's true feelings.

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Recording sheet:

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Found that:

Recruited participants from Japan, Russia, and the U.S.

(a) the American participants had higher expression and amplification scores than the

Japanese and Russian participants.

(b) the Japanese participants had higher deamplification and qualification scores than

the American and Russian participants.

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Consistent with these findings, Matsumoto et al. (1998) found that the tendency to “control” emotional expression through the use of deamplification, neutralization, qualification, and masking was positively correlated with collectivism.

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Sponge Bob

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Hello Kitty

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In collectivistic cultures, the tendency to control the expression of negative emotions was greatest when interacting with ingroup members. In contrast, in individualistic cultures, the tendency to control the expression of negative emotions was greatest when interacting with outgroup members.

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Notably, research suggests that when individuals control the expression of emotion through

deamplification, neutralization, qualification, and masking, the subjective experience of the emotion is dampened.

Thus, people living in cultures that promote the control of emotional expression tend to report fewer and less intense emotional experiences than people living in cultures that promote emotional expression.

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(b) Evidence for the cultural construction of emotional states: Emotional lexicon

Analyses of diverse languages suggest that different languages recognize different emotions.

Although some languages have equivalent terms for all of the “universal” emotions identified by

Ekman, other languages do not.

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Emotion Languages in Which an Equivalent Term Does Not Exist

AngerOverlaps with sadness or grief in Luganda, Illongot,

and Ifaluk.

Fear Missing in Ifaluk; overlaps with shame in Gidjingali.

DisgustMissing in Polish, Ifaluk, and Chewong; overlaps with

hate in Samoan.

Surprise Missing in Fore, Dani, Malay, and Ifaluk.

Happiness Missing in Chewong.

SadnessMissing in Tahitian and Chewong, overlaps with anger in

Luganda, Illongot, and Ifaluk.

Languages in Which Terms for Ekman’s “Universal” Emotions Do Not Exist

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Moreover, there are emotional terms in some languages for which an equivalent term does not exist in English.

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Language Emotional Term Description of Emotion

Czech LitostGrief, sympathy, remorse, longing, “torment caused by a sudden insight into one’s own

miserable self” (Kundera, 1979).

German SchadenfreudePleasure derived from another’s

displeasure.

Japanese AmaePleasure derived from dependence on a

close other.

Javanese Iklas Pleasant or indifferent frustration

!Kung KuaA combination of awe, respect, and fear associated with ceremonially recognized

milestones in one’ life.

Samoan LotomaualaloAn absence of malice, anger, or resentment

in situations of potential conflict.

Emotional Terms for Which an Equivalent Term Does Not Exist in English

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Some theorists argue that the diversity of emotional terms across languages is meaningless because language does not influence our experience of emotion.

In contrast, other theorists argue that the diversity of emotional terms across languages indicates that there is significant cultural variation in the

experience of emotion. This view is consistent with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

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Can the universalist vs. cultural constructionist debate be resolved?

Although some researchers adhere to the universalist position on emotions and other researchers adhere to the cultural constructionist position on emotions, there are an increasing number of researchers who recognize that the two positions are not mutually exclusive.

Their views are consistent with the Neurocultural Theory of Emotional Expression, first proposed by Ekman in the 1970’s.

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According to this theory:

“Universality may be limited to a rather small set of basic emotions, which serve as platforms for interactions with learned rules, social norms, and shared social scripts, resulting in a myriad of more complex culture-specific emotions.” Matsumoto (2004, p. 259)

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Emotion

1. What are emotions?

2. What is the universalist vs. cultural constructionist debate regarding emotions?

3. What evidence provides support for the universalist position?

4. What evidence provides support for the cultural constructionist position?

5. Can the universalist vs. cultural constructionist debate be resolved?