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LAURA A. KING

PSYCHOLOGYTHE SCIENCE OF

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BiologicalFoundations

of BehaviorFinding the Secrets of Wisdom, in the Brain

In 2010, Tamar Gefen worked on a project involving adults, called SuperAgers. They were so named because their memory

abilities in their 80’s were equal to or better than those of adults in their 50s. When they died,

many of these SuperAgers donated their remarkable brains to science. So Tamar now is able

to study these individuals by examining their brains for clues (Gefen & others, 2015).

She has found that the brains of the SuperAgers have an unusually large number of cells

called von Economo neurons. These stick-shaped cells, larger than other neurons, are densely

packed in a band of the brain called the anterior cingulate cortex. Their function is not well

understood, but could reveal the secret of healthy cognitive aging. (Gefen & others, 2015).

The secrets of all of human behavior, thoughts, and feelings lie in the incredible organ that is

reading these words right now. Imagine: This intricate 3-pound structure that you are reading

about is the engine that is doing the work of reading itself. The brain is at once the object of

study and the reason we are able to study it.

As you study this chapter, focus on the basic processes of neural functioning, including the

influence of drugs on neurotransmitters. Understand the effects of the endocrine system on

behavior. Be able to divide the nervous system into its subdivisions and functions. Know the

major brain regions, and be able to explain brain lateralization and hemispheric specialization.

Understand how the brain can adapt after injury. Compare modern technologies for

studying the brain, such as imaging techniques, to older research strategies, such

as case studies. Explain the role of genetics on behavior. Be sure to note the

contributions of key figures such as Roger Sperry, Carl Wernicke, and Paul Broca. ●

E X A M P E R C E N T A G E S

8-10% of the AP Psychology Exam questions come from content covered in this chapter.

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Eye

Pituitary gland

Pons

Governs sleep and arousal

Hippocampus

Involved in memory

Spinal cord

Amygdala

Involved in fear and the discrimination of objects necessary for organism’s

survival

Cerebral Cortex

Extensive, wrinkled outer layerof the forebrain; governs higher

brain functions, such as thinking,learning, and consciousness

Hypothalamus

Governs eating, drinking, and sex; plays a role in emotion and stress

Cerebellum

Rounded structure involved in motor coordination

Reticular Formation

Di�use collection of neurons involved in arousal and stereotyped patterns, suchas walking

Medulla (green)

Governs breathing andreflexes

ThalamusRelays information between lower and higher brain centers

FIGURE 11 Structure and Regions in the Human Brain To get a feel for where these structures are in your own brain, use the eye (pictured on the left of the figure) as a landmark. Note that structures such as the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, pituitary gland, pons, and reticular formation reside deep within the brain.

The most ancient part of the brain, the brain stem evolved more than 500 million years ago, when organisms needed to breathe out of water (Hagadorn & Seilacher, 2009). Clumps of cells in the brain stem determine alertness and regulate basic survival func-tions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure (Chivers, Constantinescu, & Tench, 2015; Lee & others, 2015). Interestingly, just as musical training can influence other areas of the brain, it relates to differences in the brain stem as well (Weiss & Bidelman, 2015). The cerebellum extends from the rear of the hindbrain. It consists of two rounded structures thought to play important roles in motor coordination (Bosch & others, 2015; Hardwick & others, 2013). The cerebellum coordinates leg and arm movements; for example, when we walk, play golf, and practice the piano, the cerebellum is hard at work. When a wide receiver makes an amazing catch, scraping his toes in bounds, or an out-fielder grasps a tricky pop fly, the cerebellum of each deserves credit. If another portion of the brain commands us to send a quick text message to a friend, it is the cerebellum that integrates the muscular activities required to do so. Damage to the cerebellum impairs the performance of coordinated movements. When this damage occurs, people’s movements become awkward and jerky. Extensive damage to the cerebellum makes it impossible to stand up.

MIDBRAIN

The midbrain, located between the hindbrain and forebrain, is an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain (Watabe-Uchita & others, 2012). In particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears. The ability to attend to an object visually, for example, is linked to one bundle of neurons in the midbrain.

Structures of the Brain and Their Funct ions 79

midbrain Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears.

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C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

1 Types of LearningVI. Learning

2 Classical ConditioningVI.A. Classical Conditioning

3 Operant ConditioningVI.B. Operant Conditioning

4 Observational LearningVI.E. Social Learning

5 Cognitive Factors in LearningVI.C. Cognitive Processes

6 Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning

VI.D. Biological Factors

7 Learning and Health and WellnessVI.D. Biological Factors

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 What is Psychology?

CHAPTER 2 Psychology’s Scientific Method

CHAPTER 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior

CHAPTER 4 Sensation and Perception

CHAPTER 5 States of Consciousness

CHAPTER 6 Learning

CHAPTER 7 Memory

CHAPTER 8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

CHAPTER 9 Human Development

CHAPTER 10 Motivation and Emotion

CHAPTER 11 Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

CHAPTER 12 Personality

CHAPTER 13 Social Psychology

CHAPTER 14 Industrial and Organizational Psychology

CHAPTER 15 Psychological Disorders

CHAPTER 16 Therapies

CHAPTER 17 Health Psychology

AP® Psychology

NEW

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