Psychology 12 · 2012. 5. 23. · Psychology before you can set up in practice. Therefore, in Australia it takes 6 years of study and training to become a registered psychologist

12

After completing this chapter students should be able to:

• outlinewhypsychologyisascienceinitsownright

• describetheconceptofemotionandthedifferencebetweenaprimaryandsecondaryemotion

• explainintelligenceandhowitcanbeunderstoodasseparatetypesofintelligence

• outlinehowattachmentearlyinlifemayhaveanimpact on future relationships

• explainhowthesolutionstosomequestionsandproblemsrequireconsiderationofsocial,cultural,economicormoralaspectsratherthanoraswellasscientificinvestigation

• identifyanyethicalconsiderationsthatmayapplytoaninvestigation

• identifyandexplainthedifferencebetweencontrolled,dependentandindependentvariables.

Have you ever wondered …• whypsychologyisascience?

• whatguidelinesscientistsfollowwhendesigningandcarryingoutexperiments?

• whyachildcrieswhenseparatedfromtheirparent?

• whyyoufindsome subjects hard but others reallyeasy?

Psychology

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Wilhelm Wundt is known as the ‘father of psychology’ as he was one of its earliest researchers.

Figure 12.1.1

Once you are qualified, you can choose to specialise in

psychiatry. This requires more study—another 5 years

of university postgraduate training. So, in Australia it

takes a total of 12 years of study and training to become a

registered psychiatrist.

Another difference between a psychiatrist and psychologist

is that a psychiatrist is able to prescribe medication and

perform medical procedures because they are a qualified

medical practitioner. So for someone suffering from

anxiety, a psychiatrist could write a prescription for the

appropriate medication, whereas a psychologist would

have to refer them to a general practitioner, who could then

prescribe the medication.

Sometimes psychologists and psychiatrists work together.

For example, a patient who is seeking assistance for

an intense phobia (fear) may need the help of both

professionals. The psychiatrist could prescribe and

monitor appropriate medication to ease the effects

of the anxiety, and the psychologist could work on

behaviour management techniques, such as relaxation

and meditation, that the individual can use to assist in

managing their anxiety.

HistoryofpsychologyPsychology’s history is relatively short as it was not considered

a separate field of science until the late 1800s. Before this

time, psychology was linked to the ideas of philosophy,

which uses methods such as observation and logic to draw

conclusions about human thought and behaviour.

Many significant individuals contributed to psychology

becoming an independent science. Wilhelm Wundt was

Differencesbetweenpsychology andpsychiatryMany people confuse the job titles of psychologist and

psychiatrist, thinking they are the same profession. This

may be because both fields can involve working with

patients who suffer from mental health disorders. However,

psychiatry and psychology are not the same.

Psychology is a branch of science that focuses on the

study of behaviour and the mind. To become a qualified

psychologist, you must complete 4 years of full-time

undergraduate and postgraduate study in psychology. Once

the degree is completed, you must complete a Masters in

Psychology before you can set up in practice. Therefore, in

Australia it takes 6 years of study and training to become a

registered psychologist.

Psychiatry is a branch of science that focuses on medicine

and is concerned with the prevention, cause, diagnosis

and treatment of mental disorders. To become a registered

psychiatrist, you must first become a registered doctor

by completing a 6-year bachelor of medicine. Then you

have to do a 12-month internship at a hospital before you

can be fully registered as a medical practitioner (doctor).

DefiningpsychologyPsychology is a relatively new study. It developed from

the scientific fields of philosophy and physiology and now

focuses on mental processes, behaviour and understanding

the role that the brain plays in our actions.

The term psychology originates from two Greek words:

psyche, meaning the mind, and logos, meaning study or

knowledge. Therefore, psychology is often defined as the

scientific or systematic study of mental processes (thoughts

and feelings) and behaviour (actions).

PsychologyandpsychiatryThe fields of psychology and psychiatry are two separate

but inter-related disciplines. Both focus on the psychological

wellbeing of an individual, but they differ in their approach.

Psychologists focus on behaviour change as a key treatment

whereas psychiatrists use medication as a treatment tool.

Sigmund Freud was a very influential researcher in the field

of psychology. He once stated ‘Being entirely honest with

oneself is a good exercise.’ Therefore, psychologists and

psychiatrists are united in their aim to provide an individual

with reflection and insight into who they are.

Psychologyandscience12.1

Table12.1.1Someimportanttheoristsinthehistoryofpsychology

Keytheorist Summarypoints

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)

• Conductedgroundbreakingresearchintomemoryandforgetting• Developedtheforgettingcurve,whichoutlinedthatmostforgettingoccurswithinthefirstfewhoursanddaysofsomethingbeinglearnt

• Foundthatmeaningfulinformationwaseasiertomemorise

WilliamJames (1842–1910)

• Broadenedpsychologytoincludeanimalbehaviour,religiousexperienceandabnormalbehaviour• Believedhumanconsciousnesswaslikeanever-changingstreamorflowoffeelingsandsensationsthatneverstopped

JohnB.Watson(1878–1958)

• Stronglydisagreedwiththestudyofthemindorconsciousnessashebelieveditwasunscientific• Encouragedthestudyofobservablebehaviourandthefactorsthatcontributedtothatbehaviour

SigmundFreud(1856–1939)

• Believedthatmentallifeislikeaniceberg—onlyasmallpartisexposedtoview• Theorisedthathumanbehaviourisdeeplyinfluencedbyunconsciousthoughts,impulsesanddesires• Believedthatmanyunconsciousthoughtsarethreateningandthereforearerepressed(ordeliberatelyblockedfrommemory),butcansometimesshowthemselvesthroughdreams,emotionsorslipsofthetongue

• Believedthatallthoughts,emotionsandactionsarepredetermined• Wasoneofthefirsttheoriststoplacegreatemphasisonearlychildhoodexperiencesandtheirimpactonadultpersonality

• Createdpsychoanalysis,amethodthathelpsexploreunconsciousconflictsandemotionalproblems

you may have wondered what it is that makes you unique; whether it was because you were born that way or because you were raised in a particular way. Psychologists also want to know such things and are engaged in a constant search to understand human behaviour and development. Psychology is a relatively new study – it did not become an independent science until the late 1800s. determined to understand the reasons behind human behaviour and thoughts, psychologists follow the scientific method to collect and analyse data in an objective, unbiased way.

probably the first really influential researcher (Figure

12.1.1). In 1879, Wundt set up the first psychological

laboratory to study consciousness; he looked at how

sensations, images and feelings are formed and combine

to make up personal experiences. In doing this research,

he emphasised the need to use careful observation and

measurement, avoiding any use of personal opinion.

From this time onwards, the field of psychology continued

to grow and develop. Other key historical theorists are

shown in Table 12.1.1.

PsychologyPEARSON science2 3

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Step 1: IdentifytheresearchproblemCarryoutaliteraturesearchtofindbackgroundinformationonyourareaofinterest.

Step 2: FormulateahypothesisDevelopatestablepredictionorhypothesisaboutwhatyouthinkwillhappeninyourstudy.

Step 4: Collect the dataUndertaketheresearchandcollectthedatafromyourparticipants,usingthechosendata-collectiontechnique.

Step 5: AnalysethedataAnalysethedatathathasbeencollectedbyorganising,summarisingandrepresentingitinacoherentform.

Step 6: Interpret the resultsFormconclusionsaboutwhetheryourhypothesiswassupportedornot,andwhetheritshouldthereforebeacceptedorrejected.

Step 7: Report the findingsThedatathathasbeengainedfromyourresearchmustbecommunicatedtoothers.Thisisusuallydoneasareportandisthensubmittedtoajournalorperiodicalforpublication.

Step 3: Design the methodDecide:• howtoselectparticipants• howmanyparticipantstoselect• whatdatacollectionmethodtouse.

Hypothesis Apredictionbytheresearcherregardingthelikelyresults

oftheexperiment

ConclusionAdecisionorjudgementaboutthemeaningfulnessofa

study’sresults

Independent variable (IV) Anyfactorthattheexperimentercan

manipulateorchangeinsomewaytoshowitseffect

onanotherfactor

Experimental group Thegroupofparticipantswhoareexposedtothetreatment,thatistheindependentvariable

Random sampling Whereeverymemberofthepopulationhasanequal

chanceofbeingselectedforthesamplegroup

Dependent variable (DV) Theconditioninan

experimentthatisaffectedbytheIV,andthatisusedasameasureoftheIV’seffectonbehaviour

Control group Thegroupofparticipantswhoarenotexposedtotheindependentvariable.Theirmainpurposeistoprovideacomparisonwiththeexperimentalgroup

Non-random (convenience) sampling Whereparticipantsarechosentobepartofthesamplegroupbasedoneaseofaccessibility.Thisthereforeeliminatesthepossibilityofarandom

sample

Aim Ageneralstatementaboutwhatyouwanttoinvestigate

EmpiricalresearchactivitiesAn empirical research activity (ERA) is the term used in

psychology for an investigation that collects evidence to

test a hypothesis. Investigating and reporting the findings

of a research study are crucial skills in understanding

behaviour from a psychological

point of view. When carrying

out any form of research, it is

essential that the seven steps

of the scientific method are

carefully followed. This

helps to make sure that

results collected from the

research are as accurate

as possible, which means

they are more likely to

be applied to the broader

population of people.

Pseudo-sciencesPsychology is classified as a science because the

researchers use scientific procedures to look for ways to

improve their knowledge and understanding. Some other

theories claim to be scientific when they simply are not.

These theories, known as pseudo-sciences, fail to use

any form of scientific testing and do not acknowledge

any evidence that contradicts their beliefs. Some

pseudo-sciences are outlined below.

• Astrology: the belief that the positions of the

stars and planets at the time of one’s birth

determine personality and affect behaviour

• Graphology: the belief that personality traits

are revealed by handwriting

• Numerology: the belief that significant

numbers in an individual’s life (such as birth

date) affect behaviour and personality

• Palmistry: the belief that the lines on the hand

reveal personality and predict the future

• Phrenology: the belief that personality

traits are revealed by the shape of the skull

(Figure 12.1.5)

• Psychic phenomena: the belief that

one can see or predict the

future (Figure 12.1.6)

KeytermsinresearchThe scientific method involves testing a hypothesis

(an educated guess) through careful measurement and

controlled observation. By following specific procedures to

collect, analyse and interpret information, psychologists

increase the likelihood of their findings being relevant

to the behaviour being studied. This also allows other

researchers to re-test or replicate the study to make sure

the results are consistent and accurate at explaining the

behaviour being studied. Figure 12.1.3 shows the key terms

used in research.PsychologyasascienceMany areas, such as history, law and art, share

psychology’s interest in human behaviour. However,

psychology is different from these fields in one important

way. Psychology aims to provide unbiased answers to

questions about human behaviour and follows what

is known as the scientific method (Figure 12.1.2). One

way psychologists try to understand human behaviour

and thinking is by studying participants’ answers to

questionnaires (Figure 12.1.4).

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A psychic claims to be able to see the future by looking into a crystal ball.

A psychologist collecting verbal responses from a participant

Figure 12.1.6

Figure 12.1.4

According to the pseudo-science phrenology, the bumps on the head indicate personality characteristics.

Figure 12.1.5

The main steps in the scientific methodFigure 12.1.2

The key terms that must be used when completing and analysing any form of research in psychology

Figure 12.1.3

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Oedipus and Electra complexesSigmund Freud believed that between the ages of three and six, the genitals are the focus of attention and the primary source of pleasure. He believed boys develop the Oedipus complex and girls develop the Electra complex. Both involve an unconscious attraction to the parent of the opposite sex, resulting in feelings of anger towards the same-sex parent.

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PracticalactivitiesUnitreview 12.1

Purpose

To investigate the effect

of sugar on heart rate and

to learn some of the key

skills involved in writing an

empirical research activity

(ERA).

Materials

• jellybabies(enoughfor10 per student)

• stopwatch

Procedure

1 Predict whether or not you think the jelly babies will

affect your heart rate. (Note: This hypothesis should

start with ‘That …’ as it is a statement of what you

think will happen.)

2 Find your pulse.

3 Time and record your pulse rate for 1 minute.

4 Eat 10 jelly babies in a row.

5 Find your pulse again.

6 Time and record your pulse for 1 minute.

Results

Graph your pulse rate for before and after eating the jelly

babies.

Discussion

1 Identify the independent variable (IV) and

dependent variable (DV) in this study.

2 Explain your results.

3 Draw a conclusion based on your findings.

4 Identify any limitations and discuss how these may

have impacted on the results.

5 Recommend any improvements for replication of

this study.

1 Thejellybabyexperiment

12.1Evaluation 11 Justify the importance of following the steps in an ERA

in the correct order.

12 Justify why psychology is considered a science.

13 Justify why a pseudo-science such as numerology is

not classified as a science.

14 Select one of the key psychological theorists and state

what appeals to you most about their theory.

Creating 15 Design an experiment (using the seven

steps of the scientific method) that aims to

investigate the accuracy of astrology. Look

up today’s edition of the newspaper for daily

astrology horoscopes.

Inquiring 1 Undertake further research into Ebbinghaus’ theory

of memory and forgetting. Construct a graph of

his forgetting curve, labelling both the percentage

forgotten and the time in which the forgetting is taking

place.

2 Search the internet for information on a pseudo-

science. Create an informative poster on this

pseudo-science, using key facts and pictures that are

appropriate.

3 Choose one pseudo-science, such as

palmistry, and design an investigation

to examine the accuracy of the pseudo-

science. Make sure you follow the seven

steps of the scientific method.

4 Choose one key psychological theorist, such as Wundt,

and construct a timeline of their life. Make sure you

highlight key personal facts such as date of birth and

death if applicable, where the individual was educated,

as well as their key contributions to the field of

psychology.

Remembering 1 List the seven steps involved in conducting research

using a scientific method.

2 State why a researcher uses a hypothesis.

3 State one reason why a researcher may choose to

replicate another person’s study.

Understanding 4 Define the term hypothesis.

5 Explain why research must be free from bias.

Applying 6 Examine Sigmund Freud’s theory. Demonstrate your

understanding of how his theory was unique for the

time.

7 Use the following table to match each theorist with

their correct key idea.

Theorist Idea

Ebbinghaus Comparedconsciousnesstoastream,asthoughts,feelingsandsensationsareconstantlyflowingthroughthemind

James Examinedbehaviour,particularlyobservablebehaviour

Watson Thoughtthatmentallifecouldbelikenedtoanicebergasonlyasmallpartisexposedtoview

Freud Examinedmemoryandforgettingandfoundthatmeaningfulinformationwaseasiertomemorise

Analysing 8 Contrast the use of an experimental group and the

use of a control group in an experiment. Explain why a

researcher needs to use both groups when conducting

a study.

9 Compare the independent variable and the dependent

variable as a component of an experiment.

10 Compare psychologists and psychiatrists by listing

their key differences.

SAFETYwash hands before eating any jelly babies. do not eat in a science laboratory.

Will eating jelly babies increase your heart rate?Figure 12.1.7

Psychology 7PEARSON science6

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The Stanford prison experiment resulted in many ‘prisoners’ experiencing feelings of isolation, rejection and depression.

Figure 12.2.1

EthicsEthics are moral principles and rules that guide individual

decision-making about the difference between right

and wrong. When conducting counselling or research,

a psychologist in Australia must follow a set of ethical

standards outlined by the Australian Psychological

Society. These guidelines must be followed in order to

protect the participant involved in the research

study. The guidelines are shown in Table 12.2.1.

Case studiesA psychological experiment can be completed in many

different ways. Researchers may choose to conduct a

survey, watch participants in their natural surroundings

(called naturalistic observation) or research using a

case study.

Like most other countries, australia has a very strict system of ethical guidelines that control how psychologists conduct research. Such guidelines are developed to protect the rights of both animals and humans during research. In addition, they help to make sure psychologists act professionally at all times.

12.2 Ethics Table12.2.1Ethicalprinciplesinpsychologicalresearch

Ethical consideration Description

Beneficence Theresearcherwillonlybegrantedpermissiontocompleteastudyifthestudywillbenefitsocietyinsomeway.Aresearchercannotconductresearchsimplyforthesakeofdoingresearch.

Respect Theparticipantsmustbetreatedfairlyandinaprofessionalmanneratalltimes.

Justice Allparticipantsmustbetreatedequally.

Confidentiality Theresearchermustmakesurethatallparticipantdetailsandresultsarekeptprivate.Whenresearchfindingsarediscussed,theparticipantsmustremainanonymous.

Voluntaryparticipation Theindividualmustagreetoparticipateinthestudywithoutbeingpressuredorforcedintobecomingamemberoftheresearchgroup.

Informed consent Beforeaparticipantcantakepartinaresearchstudy,theymustbefullyinformedofthenatureoftheexperimentandsignaconsentform.Iftheparticipantisundertheageof18,aparentorguardianmustsignontheirbehalf.

Deception Sometimesitisnecessaryfortheexperimentertowaituntilafterthestudyiscompletetoinformtheparticipantaboutthestudybecauseotherwiseitmayaltertheresults.

Debriefing Oncethestudyiscomplete,theresearchermustexplaintheproceduresandfindingsfromtheexperimenttotheparticipant.

Professional conduct Theresearchermustmakesuretheyactinaprofessionalandappropriatemanneratalltimes,asstatedbytheAustralianPsychologicalSociety.

Withdrawalrights Aparticipanthastherighttopulloutofthestudyatanytime,includingbeforeandthroughoutthestudy.Theydonotneedtoprovideareason.

Participants’ rights Theparticipantsmustexperiencenophysicalorpsychologicalharmthroughoutorasaresultoftheresearchstudy.

A case study is a detailed research report that focuses on

one individual or group. The information is personal and

applicable only to the person(s) of interest. Data may be

collected through a number of different ways, including

interview, direct observation and psychological testing. A

case study as a way of collecting data has both advantages

and disadvantages. You can see these in Table 12.2.2.

Table12.2.2Advantagesanddisadvantagesof case studies in research design

Advantages Disadvantages

• Casestudiesareverydetailedandthereforeprovidealotofinformationabouttheonetopic,whichotherstudiesmaynotallowtheopportunityfor.

• Theinformationispersonal.

• Therecanbeariskofexperimenterbiasiftheexperimenterhasanexpectationofwhatthestudywillshowandlooksforthosefindings.

• Itisverydifficulttomakegeneralisationsfromthecasestudythatapplytotherestofthepopulationbecauseacaseisuniquetotheindividualorgroupthatisbeingexamined.

• Acasestudyoftenreliesheavilyonintervieworself-reportbytheindividualbeingexamined,whichisnotalwaysanaccuraterepresentationoftheinformation.

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Ethics and the Stanford prison experimentIn 1971, a famous experiment examining role expectations and behaviour was conducted at Stanford University in the USA. Planned for a period of 2 weeks, the experiment was ended early after only 6 days as the male participants were becoming psychologically traumatised (Figure 12.2.1). These findings highlighted to researchers the need to follow the ethical principle of participants’ rights.


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Unitreview12.2Creating 9 Design a modern-day experiment (using

the seven steps of the scientific method)

that aims to replicate the baby Albert case

study, following all ethical principles.

Inquiring 1 Use the internet to look up YouTube and watch the

original footage of Watson and Rayner testing baby

Albert.

2 Research five of the branches of psychology that a

psychologist may choose to specialise in, such as sport

psychology and clinical psychology.

3 Research the differences between a psychologist and a

psychiatrist.

4 Research the Stanford prison experiment. Prepare a

report or presentation that includes:

• whoconductedtheexperiment

• thepurposeoftheexperiment

• howtheexperimentwasconducted

• theoutcomesoftheexperiment.

Remembering 1 State why a researcher would choose to use a case

study research design.

Understanding 2 Explain one reason why ethics are a requirement in the

area of psychological research.

3 Define the ethical principal of informed consent.

Explain why it is important that a researcher follows

this procedure when using children as participants.

Applying 4 Examine the baby Albert case study. Outline the

physical and psychological effects that he may have

suffered.

Analysing 5 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using a

case study for research.

Evaluation 6 a Define the term beneficence.

b Justify how this ethical consideration relates to

animals being used in research.

7 Justify a research situation that would require the use

of a case study over other experimental designs.

8 After reading the baby Albert case study, propose three

recommendations that Watson could have followed in

order for the study to be considered more ethical.

In1920,WatsonandRaynerdecidedtotesthowlearningisdevelopedinhumans.Theychosetofocusontheemotionoffearandinvestigatewhetheraninfantchildcouldbetaughttobescaredofananimalthatispairedwithaloudsound.Astheyselectedonlyoneinfanttostudy,thisresearchiscalledacasestudy.WatsonandRaynerchoseaninfantnamedAlbertB.,whotheydescribedas‘healthy,stolidandunemotional’.Albert’smotherworkedinadifferentdepartmentinthesamebuildingasWatsonandRaynerandusuallyleftAlbertinchildcarefortheday.Therefore,hewaseasilyaccessible.

Atthetimeofthetesting,Albertwasapproximately9monthsofage.Whenhewasexposedtoanumberofliveanimalssuchasarat,rabbit,dogandmonkey,heshowednofearresponse.Healsodisplayednofearwhenshownvariousobjectssuchascottonwoolandascaryhumanmask.However,Albertdisplayedfearwheneveralongsteelbarwasunexpectedlyhitwithahammerbehindhim,resultinginaloudnoise(Figure12.2.2).

OnceWatsonandRaynerestablishedwhichobjectscausedAlberttoexperienceafearresponse,theytriedtocondition(teach)himtofearawhiterat.TheydidthisbyshowingAlbertthewhiterat,andthenmakingaloud

soundbyhittingthesteelbarwiththehammerwheneverhetouchedtherat.Afterseveraltimes,Albertcriedwhentheratwasshown,evenwithouttheloudnoise.Thissuggestedthathehadlearnttoassociatetheratwiththeloudnoise.Therefore,WatsonandRaynerconcludedtheyhadsuccessfullytaughtAlberttofearawhiterat.

AlthoughWatsonandRayner’sresearchwithbabyAlbertwasbothgroundbreakingandexcitingforthetime,therewasonemajorconcernwithhowtheexperimentswereconducted.Albert’smotherwasneveraskedpermissionforAlberttoparticipateinthestudy.Shewasveryupsetwhenshefoundoutaboutthetesting,especiallyconsideringthepsychologicaltraumathatyoungAlbertwasexposedto.Asaresult,sheimmediatelyresignedfromherjobandAlbertandhismotherwereneverseenagain.Unfortunately,thismeantthatWatsonandRaynerdidnotgetachancetoreversethefearsthattheyhadestablishedinAlbert.

Thisstudyremainsoneofpsychology’smostcontroversialhumanexperimentsdue toitslackofethicaltreatmentofthe infantparticipant.

John B. Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner were two key researchers in the field of behaviourism. They were interested in understanding how learning (conditioning) is developed in humans.

Use and influence of science

The baby Albert case study

A young baby displaying the emotional distress experienced by baby Albert

Figure 12.2.2

12.412.3Baby Albert pictured in 1920.

Figure 12.2.3

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The four lobes of the human brain are responsible for the abilities that allow you to function every day.

Figure 12.3.1

Practicalactivities 12.3

The brainEmotions provide many important functions as they

influence our everyday interactions with others. Emotions

also help us to form close and meaningful relationships

with others. They also provide us with the skills to react

and cope in a new or challenging situation. The brain, or

‘master organ’, plays a vital role in many of these decisions

and emotional reactions. The brain also plays a crucial role

in an individual’s development and level of intelligence.

Emotions,intelligenceandpersonality12.2

Purpose

To investigate differences in character between adult

males and females.

4 Explain the purpose of the investigation and request

their permission to participate.

5 Hand each participant a copy of the character test

and request that they complete it.

Results

1 Score the responses according to the marking

schedule and determine which character type each

participant is.

2 Collate your results with the class. Your teacher will

record on the board the character types (A–D) of each

male and female participant for you to copy.

3 Graph the class results, comparing character types of

males and females.

Discussion

1 Explain whether this experiment was a case study or

not.




4 Draw a conclusion based on the findings.


have affected the results.

6 Recommend any improvements that you could

suggest for future replication of this study.

7 Discuss any ethical considerations that needed to be

followed when conducting this research.

1 Personalitytesting

Materials

• 2copiesofthepersonalitytestfromPearsonReader

• pen

Procedure

1 Predict whether or not there will be a difference

between the female and male responses. (Note:

This hypothesis should start with ‘That …’ as it is a

prediction of what you think will happen.)

2 Collect two copies of the personality test.

3 Find two participants over the age of 18 years, one

male and one female. Frontal lobe: cognitive skills, personality, emotions, voluntary bodily movements and speech

Parietal lobe: conscious sensations

Occipital lobe: visual information

Temporal lobe: auditory information (hearing)

Cerebellum

Have you or a friend ever got the giggles at an inappropriate time and it seemed almost impossible to stop? The ability to function effectively within their environment largely relies on a person’s emotional state and their control over that emotional state.Identifyingemotions

Collect this …• magazines• newspapersorpicturesfromtheinternet• scissors• glue

Do this …1 Findfiveorsixpicturesthatrepresenteachofthe

emotionsconfusion,anger,nervousness,terror,sadness,love,shynessandshock.

2 Usethepicturestocreateanemotionscollageinyourworkbookthatyouwillpresenttotheclass.YourpicturesmustcoveranentireA4page.

Yes No

science fun

The brain is divided into four lobes. Figure 12.3.1 shows

the different areas of the cortex that are allocated to each

lobe. Each of the four lobes are specialised in particular

functions.


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No matter where you come from, a smile represents the universal emotion of happiness.

Figure 12.3.2

A young child may experience the emotion of jealousy when parents give attention to another sibling.

Figure 12.3.3

In an argument, people often experience anger. However, how they express this anger may differ.

Figure 12.3.4

Primary emotions, such as anger (Figure 12.3.4), are

thought to be learnt first. Secondary emotions are not

learnt until later because they are more complex. Primary

emotions are thought to emerge from birth. Secondary

emotions are often not demonstrated until the second

or third year of age; some children may require help

from an adult to learn when it is appropriate to feel and

demonstrate some emotions. Table 12.3.2 shows the

distinction between primary and secondary emotions.

Table12.3.2Primaryandsecondaryemotions

Primaryemotions Secondaryemotions

Disgust Jealousy

Sadness Hope

Anger Pride

Fear Shame

Joy Embarrassment

Pain Guilt

The function of emotionsLearning what emotions are and how to appropriately

express them allows you to function effectively in society.

It takes many years of life experience to understand and

control your emotions.

From infancy, an individual quickly learns to communicate

with others using inborn emotions that may result in crying

and smiling. As the infant further develops, they begin to

understand their emotions and how language can assist

them in communicating in a social situation.

The functions of emotions can be examined in three

different areas of an individual’s life—cognition, social and

health, as seen in Table 12.3.1.

Table12.3.1Functionsofemotions

Domain Effect of emotion

Cognition • Leadstolearningthatisessentialforsurvival• Cannegativelyimpactonlearning

Social • Affectsbehaviourofothers• Controlsownbehaviour

Health • Influenceswellbeingandgrowth• Canresultinstress-relateddisease

• Thefrontal lobe is the most highly developed part of the

brain and it specialises in cognitive skills, personality

and emotions. It is also linked to voluntary bodily

movements and the production of clear and fluent

speech.

• Theparietal lobe specialises in receiving and processing

bodily sensations and sensory information.

• Theoccipital lobe specialises in receiving and

processing visual information.

• Thetemporal lobe specialises in receiving and

processing auditory information (hearing) as well as

memory and language comprehension and assists with

face recognition.

Therefore the brain, in particular the frontal lobe, plays

an active role in interpreting and controlling

emotions. A chemical imbalance in the brain

can have an extreme effect on someone’s

emotions.

EmotionsEvery second of human life involves feelings of emotion,

from doing private study through to socialising at a

party with friends. As you grow from infancy through to

childhood, you learn to interpret and express emotions. As

a child, you learn hints that assist you in communicating

with others, such as interpreting a person’s smile as a

happy reaction and tears as a sad reaction. You learn how

to recognise and express your own emotions, such as the

feeling of tears welling in your eyes when you receive a

poor grade. You also learn how to regulate and control your

emotions, such as stopping yourself from crying in front of

other students.

An emotion is experienced as a feeling that motivates,

organises and guides a person’s thoughts and behaviours.

Emotions guide your state of mind; they can encourage

you to act or stop you from acting. In addition, emotions

influence how an individual views and understands the

world. For example, when you receive a good grade you

may be happy and that will influence the rest of your day

(Figure 12.3.2). When you receive a bad grade,

you may become sad, and the rest of your day is

affected by your poor mood.

TypesofemotionsEmotions can be categorised into two types—primary and

secondary. Primary emotions are basic emotions that are

understood universally and are shown in both humans and

animals. Secondary emotions are more complex emotions

that are believed to only be experienced by humans, such

as the feeling of jealousy (Figure 12.3.3).

TheemotionswheelCollect this …• colouredpencilsandpapertocolour

yourresponses

Do this …1 Copytheemotions

wheelandthencolourineachsectioninashadethatrepresentsthatemotiontoyou.

2 Thinkofatimeinyourlifewhenyouhaveexperiencedoneoftheseemotions.Writeareflectiveparagraphabouthowyoufeltatthetimeandhowthisinfluencedthepersonyouaretoday.

angerlove

excitedness sadness

happinessembarrassment

jealousyfear

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Although we possess many differences, males and females may have common characteristics.

Figure 12.3.5

According to the psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen,

these three brain types account for 95% of the human

population. However, it is still possible for a male or female

to experience any of the three different brain types. Neither

the male nor female brain is better or worse than the other.

Society needs both types to function effectively.

PersonalityThe term personality can be defined as a group of relatively

unchanging personal characteristics that are unique to

an individual. These characteristics help to determine

their thoughts, feelings and behaviour in a wide range of

situations. Personality is made up of the special blend of

talents, attitudes, values, hopes, loves, hates and habits

that each person has and has gained throughout their life

experiences. Consequently, there are no two people in the

entire world who share the exact same personality.

PersonalitytypesA personality type refers to people who have several traits

in common. This is an overly simplistic way of viewing

personality, but it does have some value. It provides

a general idea of what characteristics or traits can be

expected from a particular type of individual.

One theory that attempts to explain common personality

types among humans was proposed by American heart

specialists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. This

theory identifies two main personality types—type A and

type B. Each personality type is distinct in their separate

characteristics or traits as outlined in Table 12.3.3.

Furthermore, personality traits can be shown through the

use of words and body language.

Table12.3.3CharacteristicsofpersonalitytypesAandB

TypeA TypeB

• Impatient• Time-conscious• Concernedabouttheirstatus

• Highlycompetitiveandmotivated

• Ambitious• Aggressive• Hasdifficultyrelaxing• Alwaysrushing• Multitasker• Unhappyaboutdelayofdeadlines

• Patient• Relaxed• Easy-going• Lacksanysenseofurgency• Calm• Non-competitive• Copeswellwithstress

Psychologists have now identified a third personality

type, type C. Type C personalities have a tendency to

be introverted, passive, respectful, eager to

please, conforming and compliant. However,

it may also be true that individuals possess

characteristics from all the types.

EmpathyandgenderdifferencesPeople often say that males and females experience

feelings and emotions in different ways (Figure 12.3.5).

Several research studies suggest that women tend to report

higher levels of empathy than men do. Empathy refers to

the emotional reaction experienced after understanding

another’s emotional state. For example, if you see another

person crying, this can make you feel sad too. Empathising

is the desire to identify another person’s emotions and

thoughts and to respond to them in the most appropriate

way, such as giving someone a hug to comfort them. In

contrast, systemising is the desire to analyse, explore and

construct a system of dealing with a situation, such as

trying to work out why someone may be upset.

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Table12.3.4Theoriesofpersonality

Theory Keytheorist/s Keybeliefs

Psychoanalytic SigmundFreud • Trytolearnwhatdrives,conflictsandenergiesunderliepersonality.• Emphasisesunconsciousforcesandinternalconflictsascontributingtobehaviour.• Personalityisbelievedtobearesultofthreementalstructures(theid,egoandsuperego).• Behaviouroftenexpressesunconsciousorhiddenforces.• Personalityispredominantlyformedbytheageof6yearsthroughaseriesofpsychosexualstages(oral,anal,phallic,latencyandgenital).

• Peopledevelopdefencemechanismsthatoperateunconsciouslytoavoid,denyordistortanysourceofthreatoranxietytoouridealisedself-image.

Type WilliamSheldonAlfredAdlerMeyerFriedmanandRayRosenman

• Arelationshipexistsbetweenbodyshapeandpersonality.• Therearethreebodytypes: – Endomorphsarerelaxed,sociable,peaceful. – Mesomorphsareassertive,vigorous,combative,courageous. – Ectomorphsarerestrained,introverted,artistic,intense.

• Birthorderaffectspersonalitydevelopment.• TherearethreemainpersonalitytypesA,BandC.

Trait GordonAllport,RaymondCattellandHansEysenck

• Thisisanattempttodescribewhattraitsorcharacteristicsmakeuppersonalityandhowtheyrelatetobehaviour.

• Thebasistopersonalitydevelopmentinvolvesanindividual’sgenetics,physiologyandenvironment.

Humanistic CarlRogers • Personalitydevelopmentislargelyaresultofthechoicespeoplemakeandthefeedbackreceivedfromthoseintheenvironment.

• Tounderstandaperson’sbehaviour,itisimportanttogainaninsightintothewaythatpersonviewstheworld.

• Allpeoplestrivethroughouttheirlifetoreachtheirself-actualisation(theirfullpotential).

Learning B.F.Skinner • Childrenhavethepotentialtolearnthingssuchaskindnessandgenerosity.• Behaviourisshapedandmaintainedbyitsconsequences.• Rewardsorpositivereinforcershaveaparticularimpactonbehaviour.• Behaviourissolelydeterminedbyourreactionstosomethingthatoccursintheexternalenvironment.

• Personalityissimplyacollectionoflearnedbehaviourpatternsthatareinfluencedbypreviouslearning.

Some researchers have proposed this gender difference

is due to the fact that women are raised to be nurturers

and caregivers. Other researchers have suggested that

the female brain is mostly ‘hard-wired’ for empathy and

the male brain is mostly ‘hard-wired’ for understanding

and building systems (systemising). Both are important

processes that are needed in our daily interactions with

others. Studies have found that both males and females

have systemising and empathising abilities and these

abilities use a different area of the brain. Research has

concluded that there are three different brain types:

• individualsinwhomempathisingisstrongerthan

systemising (female brain)

• individualsinwhomsystemisingisstrongerthan

empathising (male brain)

• individualsinwhomsystemisingandempathisingare

equally strong (the balanced brain).

PersonalitydevelopmentanditsinfluencesTheorists have different views on the age at which

personality is established, but most agree that the person

you are at age 30 is likely to be similar to the

person you will be at age 60. Any changes are

usually associated with dramatic life events or

personal tragedies.

There are several theories that propose how personality

forms and what influences its development. These

personality theories provide a system of concepts,

assumptions, ideas and principles to explain personality.

Some of them are outlined in Table 12.3.4.

Although each theory provides a different explanation

into the factors that contribute to the development

of an individual’s personality, each theory adds to our

understanding of what makes people the way they are.

Makeyourownpersonalityinkblot testCollect this …• pieceofA3paper• newspapersheets• varietyofdifferentcolouredpaints• paintbrush

Do this …1 Layoutsomesheetsofnewspaperacrossaflat

surfacesuchasthekitchentable.

2 OnonesideofyourA3pieceofpaper,carefullyplacesomepaintdropsrandomlyacrossthepage.(Itmayhelptodothisusingapaintbrushtohelpcontrolthepaintflow.)Useafewcolours.

3 Foldthepaperinhalf,pressingdowntoensureitmarkstheotherhalfofthepaper.

4 Openthefoldedsheetofpaperandplaceitsomewheretodry.Oncedried,pastethisinkblotintoyourworkbook.Underneathyourinkblot,notedownanyobjectsthatyoucanidentify.Shareyourinterpretationwithaclassmemberastheymayprovideaninsightintoyourpersonalitycharacteristics.

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Intelligence typesTheuseofanIQscoreastheonlyindicatorofintelligencehasbeenrejectedbypsychologistsforanumberofyears.Psychologistsnowbelievethatavarietyofdifferentareasofstrengthmakeupintelligentbehaviour.ThisperspectivewasfirstproposedbypsychologistHowardGardner(1943–).Gardnerclaimsthatpeoplepossesseightintelligences,andnotwoindividualshaveexactlythesamecombinationofstrengthsandweaknesses.YoucanseeGardner’sclassificationofintelligenceinFigure12.3.7.

Intelligence development and its influencesNotallpeoplehavethesamestrengthsandweaknessesintheirtypesofintelligence.Eachindividualisinfluencedbyarangeoffactorsthatmaydifferfromonepersontoanother.However,therearecontributingfactors

thatarebelievedtodetermineourintelligenceandourunderstandingofit.

Onecontributingfactorisgender.Traditionally,womenhaveperformedbetterontasksthatrequireverbalabilityandrote(repetitive)learning,whereasmenwerebetterattasksthatneededspatialabilityandmathematicalreasoning.Inmoderntimes,suchgenderdifferenceshavealmostdisappeared,withthoseremainingbeingbelievedtobearesultofteachersandparentsencouragingmalesandfemalestoundertakeparticularsubjectsatschool.

Anothercontributingfactorisgeneticinfluences.Researchhasshownthatintelligenceseemstoruninfamilies.Themorecloselyrelatedyouaretosomeone,themorealikeyourintelligence.

Someresearchsuggeststhatintelligenceisalsoinfluencedbytheenvironmentinwhichanindividualisraised.Adoptedchildrenseemtohavesimilarintelligencelevelstotheirnewparentsandareaffectedbytheirnewsocialstatus.

Mostpsychologistswouldprobablyagreethatintelligencecanbebroadlydefinedastheabilitytoactpurposefully,thinkrationallyanddealeffectivelywiththeenvironment.Therefore,whenapersonengagesinsomeformofrational,deliberateandgoal-directedaction,theyaredisplayingaformofintelligentbehaviour.

Theuseofaquantifiablescoresuchasintelligencequotient(IQ)isonewaytotrymeasureintelligence.However,notallareasofintelligencecanbemeasuredinthiswayanditisoftenarguedthattheuseofa

numericalscoreisnotthemostaccuratemethodofgaininganinsightintotheoverallintelligenceofaperson.Instead,IQshouldonlybeusedasageneralindicatorofacademicintelligence.

IntelligencetestingwasfirstdevelopedbyFrenchmanAlfredBinetin1904(Figure12.3.6).Itcameaboutfromaneedtoseparatestudentswhocouldcopewithanormalschoolprogramandthosewhowouldbenefitfromanalternativeformofinstruction.

Indevelopinganappropriatetestingtooltoassessintelligence,Binetandhiscolleagueidentifiedtwoimportantconcepts—mentalageandchronologicalage.Mental age(MA)referstotheaveragementalorintellectualabilitydisplayedbypeopleofacertainage.Chronological age(CA)referstoaperson’sageinyears.BoththeseconceptswereincludedintheformulathatBinetandhiscolleaguedevelopedtoassessintelligence.Thisformula(shownbelow)createdanIQscoreanditwasthisscorethatwasusedasanindicatorofaperson’sintelligence.

IQ=100xMACA

It is difficult to develop one definition of intelligence because intelligence cannot be directly seen; it must be assumed through observable behaviour.

Use and influence of science

Intelligence

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Idiot savantsIdiot savant is a term used to describe a person who has a significant mental impairment or disability, while at the same time demonstrating some extraordinary skills, which are unusual for most people, such as having a photographic memory.

Figure 12.3.6

Alfred Binet was the first psychologist to develop an IQ test.

Howard Gardner’s

8 multiple intelligences

Musical intelligenceSkillinperformanceandappreciationofmusic

Intrapersonal intelligence

Possessestheabilitytounderstandoneself

Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence

Abilitytouseone’sbodyandphysicalskills

Interpersonal intelligence

Capacitytounderstandandinteractwithothers

Naturalist intelligenceTheabilitytoworkandinteractwithnature

Logical/mathematical intelligence

Understandsproblemslogicallyandsequentially

Linguistic intelligenceHighcapacitytolearnand

uselanguage

Visual/spatial intelligence

Abilitytouseandmanipulatespaceandtheir

environment

Howard Gardner’s eight intelligencesFigure 12.3.7

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PracticalactivitiesUnitreview 12.312.3

Purpose

To investigate whether emotions are easily

communicated through body language.

Materials

• pen

• emotionslist(allocatedbyyourteacher)

Procedure

1 Predict whether you will be able to identify the

emotion being acted out. (Note: This hypothesis

should start with ‘That …’ as it is a statement of what

you think will happen.)

2 After your teacher confidentially allocates each

student an emotion, take turns in trying to act out the

emotion to the class.

3 Try to identify the emotion each student is trying to

convey.

Results

1 Record in a table how many guesses it takes for each

emotion to be accurately identified.

2 Graph the data collected.

Discussion

1 Explain whether you found it easy or difficult to

identify the emotion of your classmates.

2 Justify whether you believe body language is a

powerful form of communication.




5 Draw a conclusion based on the findings.


have impacted upon the results.

7 Recommend any improvements that you could

suggest for future replication of this study.

8 State the ethical considerations needed to be

followed when conducting this research.

1 Bodylanguage

Purpose

To investigate what type of personality you are, introvert

(quiet or shy) or extrovert (outgoing and confident).

Materials

• penandpapertointerpretyourresponse

Procedure

Read the following quiz and answer the questions.

1 Do you enjoy being alone for a lot of time?

Yes (1) No (2)

2 Do you love working in teams?

Yes (2) No (1)

3 How well do you know your classmates?

I know most of their names. (1)

I talk to them all often. (2)

4 On holiday, which would you prefer to do?

Read my novel at home. (1)

Go out with friends. (2)

5 How many people do you usually party with?

2–3 people (1) A group of 6–8 people (2)

6 Do you like to be in the spotlight?

Yes, I love it. (2) No, I dread it. (1)

7 If you had to choose, how you would like to watch an

AFL game?

At home (1) Live at the ground (2)

8 How often are you at home?

Rarely (2) Most of the time (1)

9 How much do you like to talk?

Not much (1) All of the time (2)

10 How many good friends do you have?

I can count them on one hand. (1)

I can count them on both hands. (2)

Results

Add up your score. If you scored 15–20, you are an

extrovert. If you scored 10–14, you are an introvert.

Discussion

Explain if you think this test was a true indicator of your

personality type.

2 Personalitytypes

Evaluation 10 Evaluate why the functions of emotion are applicable

to three different areas of an individual’s life: cognition,

social and health. Provide an example to support your

answer.

11 A child often learns to regulate their emotions from

their primary caregiver. Recommend how a parent can

teach their child to regulate the primary emotion of

fear.

Creating 12 Construct a flow diagram (using the seven steps of

the scientific method) that aims to investigate how

one male and one female express their emotions. You

may like to develop a list of 10 emotionally charged

statements (for example, ‘War is necessary.’) to help

you. Note the participants’ response to each question

and compare any gender differences.

Inquiring 1 Investigate what parts of the brain other than the

frontal lobe play a role in emotions.

2 Research the famous case study of Phineas Gage. In

particular, identify what his accident taught scientists

about the function of the frontal lobe.

3 Using your knowledge of experiments and

your research from Question 2, design an

investigation using the case study research

method that you could use to test for

emotional and personality changes in Phineas Gage

after his accident.

a State the aim of the study.

b Outline the hypothesis.

c Identify the independent variable (IV) and

dependent variable (DV) for the study.

d What ethical principles would you need to consider

for this research?

Remembering 1 List the different ways that an emotion can be

expressed.

2 State why humans need emotions to assist

communication with others.

Understanding 3 Define the term emotion.

4 Explain what the key function of an emotion is for a

newborn child. Use an example of an emotion in your

explanation.

Applying 5 Examine the three domains of functions of emotions

and explain how each relates to your own life.

6 Examine Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and

explain how these intelligence types apply to your own

life (what your strengths and weaknesses are).

Analysing 7 Compare the psychoanalytic theory and the type

theory of personality.

8 Examine the following list of emotions, and classify

each into the correct category of primary or secondary

emotions: sadness, jealousy, disgust, fear, joy, pride, pain.

9 Hero fell off his bike while trying to perform a trick at

the local skate park. He was not wearing a helmet and

hit his forehead quite hard. Over the next few days,

his moods were irregular and his mother noticed that

his emotions were quite unstable. Discuss why his

emotions may have changed since the bike accident.

Figure 12.3.8

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This theory proposes that from their experiences during

these four phases, children form a lasting emotional bond

with their caregiver. This bond allows them to

use the attachment figure as a secure base for

exploring the world around them and building

meaningful relationships with others.

CriminalbehaviourThe development of a healthy relationship between an

infant and its caregivers is extremely important in the

growth of a well-adjusted individual. Research suggests

that when provided with opportunities to establish close

and loving bonds with others, children possess the skills

required to exist and cope in an ever-changing world.

However, when such opportunities are not provided for

an infant (neglect), emotional disturbance may result.

Emotional disturbance results in an inability to build or

maintain relationships or in inappropriate expression of

feelings (Figure 12.4.2). Findings indicate that:

• emotionalneglectmayresultintheinabilitytodevelopa

healthy conscience

• emotionalneglectmayinfluencetheabilityto

experience feelings of empathy for others

• emotionalneglectmayresultinlowself-esteem

• emotionalneglectmayreducetheabilitytoformclose

bonds with others

• lackofrolemodellingreducesachild’sabilitytolearn

and display socially appropriate feelings and behaviours

• emotionalneglectmaypotentiallyisolateachildfrom

any form of meaningful support network (Figure 12.4.3)

• emotionalneglectislinkedtoanincreaseinmental

health problems.

12.4

• providesuswithfeelingsofpleasureandjoywhenwe

interact with those we are most closely bonded to

• providescomfortandsecurityduringtimesofstressor

uncertainty

• assistswiththeabilitytoformtrustingrelationships

throughout one’s life

• providestheindividualwithconfidencetoexplorean

unfamiliar situation (Figure 12.4.1).

There are several theories that explain why individuals

need to form attachments. If these attachments do not

occur, dysfunction may result. Each theory emphasises a

slightly different reason or purpose for attachment with

others, but they all tend to highlight the potential for a

long-lasting impact on relationships in later life. For this

reason, it is important to understand the factors that can

affect the development of quality attachment.

DevelopmentofattachmentOne of the most widely accepted theories of attachment

was proposed by John Bowlby (1907–90). Bowlby was a

psychoanalyst who studied the workings of the mind,

especially unconscious thoughts, feelings and desires. He

proposed that the quality of attachment to the caregiver

has significant effects on the child’s feelings of security

and their ability to develop trusting relationships in the

future. In his theory of attachment, Bowlby identified four

common phases. These are outlined in Table 12.4.1.

AttachmentHumans are social beings. From birth, we begin a journey

of interaction, relationship building and attachment with

those around us. Attachment can be defined as the strong,

affectionate tie we feel for special people in our lives.

Psychologists have concluded that attachment:

• enablesustodevelopresilienceandbebetterequipped

to cope with the challenges that life presents

Attachment

The attachment a child forms with their primary caregiver assists their confidence and self-esteem to develop.

Figure 12.4.1

Emotional disturbance is a common characteristic shared by criminals.

Figure 12.4.2

A child who has experienced emotional neglect may encounter difficulties forming meaningful relationships with peers.

Figure 12.4.3

Table12.4.1Bowlby’sfourphasesofattachment

Phase Age Summary

Pre-attachment Birthto6weeks • Numerousbuilt-insignals(suchasgraspingandcrying)helptobringthenewbornintoclosecontactwithothers.

• Infantscanrecognisetheirmother’svoiceandsmellbuttheyarenotyetattachedtoherastheyshowlittlesignofdistresswhenleftwithanunfamiliaradult.

• Thisisalsocalledthe‘attachmentinthemaking’phase.

‘Attachmentinthemaking’ 6weeksto 6–8months

• Infantsstarttoresponddifferentlytoafamiliarcaregiverthantoastranger.

• Infantsbegintolearnthattheirownbehaviourinfluencesthatofothers.

• Infantsbegintodevelopasenseoftrust.

• Infantsdonotprotestatbeingseparatedfromtheirparentsorcaregiver.

‘Clear-cut’attachment 6–8monthsto 18months–2years

• Attachmenttothefamiliarcaregiverisclearlyshown.

• Atapproximately6monthsofageinfantsdisplayseparationanxietywhentheircaregiverleaves.

• Infantsbegintodisplaymoredeliberatebehaviours(suchasclimbingontheircaregiver)thataimtomakesurethecaregiverremainswiththem.

Formationofareciprocalrelationship

18months–2yearsandonwards

• Separationanxietydecreasesasthetoddlerdevelopsanunderstandingofthereasonswhyaparentmayneedtoleaveandlaterreturn.

The early attachment an infant forms with a significant caregiver affects their later life, especially the bonds they form with others. This can range from minor interruptions in social relationships through to a severe inability to empathise or feel any form of emotion for another.

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Unitreview12.4Evaluation 12 Justify why emotional disturbance may occur in those

who have not received emotional attachment.

13 Select three things that a childcare facility can do to

encourage the development of secure attachment.

Creating 14 Design an advertisement for a government health

campaign that outlines the importance of self-esteem.

Create a slogan and use key terms to support your

advertisement.

Inquiring 1 Use the internet to research a particular criminal

psychopath. Construct a profile of this individual,

including:

a biographical information (name, where born,

family members)

b what crime they committed

c definition of a psychopath

d why they are classified as a psychopath

e treatment they receive

f any relevant pictures

g any other interesting facts.

2 Search the internet for videos on Bowlby’s research

with Rhesus monkeys and write a paragraph describing

your opinions of his work.

3 Investigate a childcare service that is used

by many families. Design an investigation

that could examine the issue of attachment

and childcare. Make sure you follow the seven steps of

the scientific method.

Remembering 1 Recall four of the purposes of attachment.

2 State when an infant will start to demonstrate

separation anxiety.

Understanding 3 Summarise a key accomplishment from each of

Bowlby’s stages in his attachment theory.

4 Explain in detail what separation anxiety is.

5 Define the term attachment.

6 Explain why humans must form attachments.

7 Outline what John Bowlby proposed with his theory of

attachment.

Applying 8 Examine the four purposes of attachment that you

listed in Question 1. From these, identify the purpose

most important to you and provide reasons.

9 Examine the following table. Using your knowledge of

Bowlby’s theory, match the appropriate stage with the

corresponding age range.

Stage Age range

Pre-attachment 6weeksto6–8months

‘Attachmentinthemaking’ 18monthsto2yearsonwards

‘Clear-cut’attachment 6–8monthsto 18months–2years

Formationofareciprocalrelationship

Birthto6weeks

Analysing 10 Using an example, discuss an experience with

attachment in your life and how this attachment has

had an impact on you.

11 Contrast primary and secondary attachment.

SelfandsocialunderstandingThe ability to form meaningful and secure attachments

with others throughout infancy provides the basis for

relationships in later life. Part of this process is the child’s

development of an understanding about their inner

mental world. That is, they begin to think more seriously

about themselves and their abilities, attitudes and values.

Essentially, this self-reflection marks the beginning of the

development of an individual’s self-concept. Within this

idea of self-concept is an individual’s self-esteem.

Self-esteem can be defined as the judgements we make

about our own worth and the feelings associated with those

judgements. Self-esteem ranks among one of the most

important aspects of self-development and it

can affect a person’s emotional experiences,

future behaviours, long-term psychological

adjustments and emotional expressions.

Self-esteem is usually classified into academic, social

and physical. Experiences within each of these settings

combine to form an overall sense of your self-worth and

therefore are very important influences throughout your

life. Self-esteem tends to increase when you experience

success and is enhanced by praise from others. This serves

as a valuable reminder that the importance of meaningful

and loving relationships with caregivers cannot be

underestimated.

ChildcareAttachments can be categorised as primary or secondary.

A primary attachment refers to the lifelong emotional

bond a child develops with the person they most want to

be with when they are frightened or hurt, usually but not

necessarily their birth mother.

A secondary attachment refers to the close relationship a

child develops with a few special people in their life. This

may be siblings, grandparents, childminders and especially

fathers. Such attachments can help to increase a child’s

resilience, the ability to cope and adapt to a situation.

It has always been common practice for infants to have

more than one caregiver. Traditionally, caregivers other

than the mother tended to be a grandmother, family

member or neighbour. Today, there is an increasing

amount of care being given by childcare facilities. The

environment in these childcare facilities can affect the

development of attachments of children. A high-quality

childcare facility can assist the development of secure

attachments in children by:

• ensuringparentsareinformedofhowtheycanexpect

their child to behave while the child is becoming familiar

with the childcare environment

• supportingtheparents,especiallyindifficultsituations

such as saying goodbye to their child in the morning

(Figure 12.4.4)

• encouragingchildrentomaintainalovingand

meaningful bond with key caregivers

• assigningasmallnumberofstaffmemberstocarefora

specific group of children to help maintain consistency

and familiarity

• encouragingchildrentouseacuddlytoyor‘blankie’asa

means of comfort.

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Attachment and criminal behaviourMartin John Bryant murdered 35 people and injured 21 others in a shooting spree in Port Arthur, Tasmania, in 1996. He is currently serving 35 life sentences plus 1035 years without parole in a psychiatric wing of a Tasmanian jail. His rampage ranks among the deadliest of the 20th century. In a review of Bryant’s mental state prior to the deadly rampage. Psychiatrists may suggest that a better attachment bond with his parents may have prevented significant deterioration in his behaviour and mental functioning.

Children in childcare may often experience feelings of sadness and distress as they part with their parents or primary caregiver.

Figure 12.4.4

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12ChapterreviewPracticalactivities12.4Analysing 5 Distinguish between the key psychological terms aim,

hypothesis and conclusion.

Evaluation 6 Justify why the work of a psychologist is extremely

important for the future of our country.

Creating 7 Design an experiment (using the seven

steps in the scientific method) that aims

to investigate the impact of temporal lobe

brain damage on behaviour and mental

processes.

8 Use the following ten terms to construct a visual

chapter summary of the information presented in this

chapter.

emotions

self-esteem

personality

attachment

emotional disturbance

emotional expression

intelligence

idiot savant

psychologist

psychiatrist

Remembering 1 Record as many of the historical psychologists as you

can. For each, brainstorm any summary points that you

can remember.

Understanding 2 Discuss why a researcher may choose to use the

ethical principle of deception while conducting an

experiment.

3 Outline two key functions of each of the four lobes of

the brain.

Applying 4 Examine one day of your school life. Take note of each

type of activity undertaken in your lessons. Classify

these according to Gardner’s eight intelligences.

Results

1 Record the time (in seconds) that each student is able

to last without smiling.

2 Calculate a mean score for each group.

3 Graph your results.

Discussion




3 Draw a conclusion based on your findings.

4 Identify the experimental and control group.

5 State whether there are any differences in the mean

scores between groups 1 and 2.

6 Identify any limitations and discuss how these have

impacted upon the results.

7 Recommend any improvements you could suggest

for replication of this study.

8 Construct an empirical research activity (ERA) which

includes your answers to Question 1 to 7 above.

1 Make them smile

Purpose

To apply some of the key skills in writing an empirical

research activity (ERA).

Materials

• pen

• stopwatch

Procedure

1 Predict whether or not you will be able to last

30 seconds without laughing. (Note: this hypothesis

should start with ‘That …’ as it is a statement of what

you think will happen.)

2 Your teacher will divide the class evenly into two

groups.

3 Students in group 1 take it in turns to come up in

front of the class and see if they can last one minute

without smiling when classmates try and make each

person laugh.

4 Students in group 2 take it in turns to come up in

front of the class and see if they can last one minute

without smiling when classmates do not try and

make them laugh.

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A day at school includes many different activities.Figure 12.4.5


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GlossaryThinkingscientifically

Psychology:the scientific or systematic study of mental processes (thoughts and feelings) and behaviour (actions)

Random sampling: where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample group

Scientificmethod: systematic steps that must be followed when conducting any form of psychological research

Unit12.2Beneficence: an ethical principle that states a study cannot be

conducted unless there is a benefit or gain to society

Casestudy: a detailed research report that focuses on one individual or group

Confidentiality:an ethical principle that states the researcher must make sure that all research findings keep the participants’ details private

Debriefing: an ethical principle that outlines to researchers how they must explain the procedures and findings to the participants at the conclusion of their experiment

Deception: an ethical principle that states that in some situations, researchers may withhold the true nature of the experiment to the participant (as it may influence the research findings); however, at the conclusion of the experiment, debriefing must take place

Ethics: moral principles and rules that guide individual decision-making to know the difference between right and wrong

Informed consent: an ethical principle that ensures a participant is fully informed of the true nature of an experiment and signs a consent form before they take part in that experiment

Justice: an ethical principle that states all participants must be treated equally in an experiment

Participants’ rights: an ethical principle that states no physical or psychological harm can come to participants

Professional conduct: an ethical principle that outlines the researcher must make sure they act in a professional and appropriate manner at all times

Respect: an ethical principle that outlines that participants must be treated fairly and in a professional manner at all times

Voluntaryparticipation: an ethical principle that states all participants must volunteer to be a part of an experiment of their own free will, with no pressure or coercion to do so

Withdrawalrights: an ethical principle that outlines participants must be free to leave an experiment at any time

Unit12.1Aim: a general, non-directional statement about what you

want to investigate

Astrology:the belief that the positions of the stars and planets at the time of one’s birth determine personality and affect behaviour

Conclusion: a decision or judgement about the meaningfulness of a study’s results

Control group: the group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable; provides a comparison to the experimental group

Dependentvariable: the condition in an experiment that is affected by the independent variable, and that is used as a measure of the independent variable’s effect on behaviour

Electracomplex: when little girls develop an unconscious attraction to their father, resulting in feelings of rivalry with the mother

Experimentalgroup: the group of participants who are exposed to the treatment; the independent variable

Hypothesis:an educated guess or prediction about what the researcher thinks the results of the experiment will be

Graphology:the belief that personality traits are revealed by handwriting

Independentvariable: any factor that the experimenter can manipulate or change in some way to gauge its effect on another factor

Non-random(convenience)sampling: participants are chosen to be part of the sample group based on ease of accessibility; eliminates the possibility of a random sample

Numerology:the belief that significant numbers in an individual’s life impact on behaviour and personality

Oedipuscomplex: when little boys develop an unconscious attraction to their mother, resulting in feelings of rivalry with the father

Palmistry:the belief that the lines on the hand reveal personality and predict the future

Phrenology:the belief that one’s personality traits are revealed by the shape of the skull

Pseudo-science: a fake or false science that claims to be scientific but is not

Psychiatry:a branch of science that focuses on medicine and is concerned with the prevention, cause, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

Q4 Identifythecorrectethicalconsiderationfromthefollowingdescription.

Theresearchermustmakesurethatallparticipants’detailsandresultsarekeptprivate.Whenresearchfindingsarereleased,theparticipantsmustremainanonymous.

A Beneficence

B Participants’rights

C Confidentiality

D Informedconsent

Q5 Matthewlovescompletingcrosswords,readingandwriting.BasedonyourknowledgeofHowardGardner’smultipleintelligences,identifywhattypeofintelligenceMatthewisstrongestin.

A Interpersonal

B Humanistic

C Musical

D Linguistic

Q6 Cassieis15yearsoldbuthasthementalageofa 20yearold.UsetheformulatocalculateCassie’sIQ.

IQ=MACA

× 100

A 133

B 125

C 75

D 127

Q1 Bettyhassustaineddamagetoaportionofherleftfrontallobe.Whichofthefollowingshowsthemostlikelydamagetohaveoccurred?

A Shemaybeunabletoproduceclearspeech.

B Shemaybeunabletoseeclearly.

C Shemaybeunabletoreceiveandprocesssensoryinformation.

D Shemaybeunabletohear.

Q2 Thescientificmethodismadeupofsevensteps.Whichofthefollowinganswersshowsthecorrectorder?

A Identifytheresearchproblem,formulateahypothesis,designthemethod,collectthedata,analysethedata,interprettheresults,reportthefindings

B Reportthefindings,formulateahypothesis,designthemethod,collectthedata,analysethedata,interprettheresults,identifytheresearchproblem

C Identifytheresearchproblem,formulateahypothesis,collectthedata,designthemethod,analysethedata,interprettheresults,reportthefindings

D Identifytheresearchproblem,formulateahypothesis,designthemethod,collectthedata,interpretthefindings,analysethedata,reportthefindings

Q3 Choosetheappropriatewordstocompletethefollowingsentence. Thebeliefthatconsciousnessislikeastreamwasfirstproposedby ,whereas

comparedthemindtoaniceberg.

A Freud,Watson

B James,Ebbinghaus

C Ebbinghaus,Wundt

D James,Freud

Astrology

Phrenology


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Glossary

Traittheory: a personality theory that is interested in identifying and understanding the origins of traits and their influence on personality development

Typetheory: a personality theory that proposes people can be classified into common categories or types to explain their behaviour and personality

Unit12.4Attachment: strong, affectional tie we

feel for special people in our lives

Emotional disturbance: an inability to build or maintain relationships, or an inappropriate expression of feelings

Emotionalexpression: learning when, where and how to express appropriate emotions

Primaryattachment: the lifelong emotional bond a child develops with the person with whom they most want to be with, especially when they are frightened or hurt

Secondaryattachment: the close bond a child develops with a few special people in their life

Self-concept:the collection of beliefs, ideas and feelings about one’s own identity

Self-esteema personal judgement we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with that judgement

Unit12.3Brain: often referred to as the ‘master organ’, it plays a role in

nearly all decisions and actions

Chronological age: a person’s age in years

Emotion: a feeling that motivates, organises and guides perception, thought and action

Frontal lobe: the biggest of the four lobes of the brain; specialises in cognitive skills, personality, emotions, voluntary bodily movement and speech production

Humanistictheory: a personality theory that believes all people are driven to be good and to reach their full potential

Intelligence: the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment

Introvert:someone who is energised by being alone and who can find the company of others draining

Learningtheory: a personality theory that identifies the influences environmental factors play in the development of an individual’s personality

Mental age: the average mental/intellectual ability displayed by people of a certain age

Occipital lobe: part of the brain that specialises in receiving and processing visual information

Parietal lobe: part of the brain that specialises in receiving and processing bodily sensations and sensory information

Personality:a group of relatively unchanging personal characteristics that are unique to an individual and help to determine their thoughts, feelings and behaviour in a wide range of situations

Personalitytheory: a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas and principles to explain personality

Personalitytype: classification of people who have several traits or characteristics in common

Primaryemotions: basic emotions that are understood universally and are displayed in both humans and animals

Psychoanalytictheory: a personality theory that emphasises the role unconscious forces and internal conflicts play in human behaviour

Secondaryemotions: complex emotions that are only experienced by humans

Temporal lobe: part of the brain that specialises in auditory information (hearing) as well as memory and language comprehension and assists with face recognition

Attachment

Intelligence

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Psychology 12 · 2012. 5. 23. · Psychology before you can set up in practice. Therefore, in Australia it takes 6 years of study and training to become a registered psychologist