Shoutout to Audrey Wilkes, 2014 graduate, for outlining the theorists

Biological

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis.Broca, Wernicke, Kandel, Thompson

Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.Milner and Corkin, Kandel

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis.Milner and Corkin, Kandel

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis.Broca, Wernike - advantage of tragedy, Berger - right to withdraw

Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain.Wernicke, Broca, Sperry

Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behavior.Loewi, Holden

Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behavior.McClintock

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.Cannon and Selye - physiology of stress as having two components: a set of responses which he called the

"general adaptation syndrome", and the development of a pathological state from ongoing, unrelieved stress, Kozorovitskiy and Gould, Fred Gage - new nerve cells in adulthoodExamine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior.

Milner and Corkin, Clive WearingDiscuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior.

Fred Gage and Peter Eriksson, Hanna and Damasio, Hans Berger (EEG)With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior.

Horn et al., Bouchard and McGue http://ibpsychnotes.blogspot.com/2011/09/with-reference-to-relevant-research.htmlExamine one evolutionary explanation of behavior.

Garcia, Atter and Cohin, Darwin, Ramon y CujalDiscuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior.

Harlow and Hanna & Damasio

Cognitive

Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.Loftus and Collins (schema), Simon and Chabris, Atkinson and Shiffrin

Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.Simon and Chabris, Godden and Baddeley, Brewer and Treyens

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.Sperling, Phelps, Talarico and Rubin

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.Eich, Loftus (mall), Talarico and Rubin (recalling unpleasant events) - it’s a stretch

Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

Brewer and Treyens, Loftus and Collins (canary, ostrich), Roediger and McDermottEvaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.

Baddeley and Hitch, Atkinson and Shiffrin, SperlingExplain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.

Thompson, KandelDiscuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process.

Bartlett, Rogoff and Waddel, Simon and Chabris,With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable.

Loftus (mall, bugs bunny), Simon and Chabris, Talarico and Rubin and Neisser and HarschDiscuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.

Hans Berger, SperlingTo what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion.

HM, Alzheimer’sEvaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process.

Sociocultural Level of Analysis

Outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis.Asch, Darley and Latane, Zimbardo (Stanford Prison Experiment)

Explain how principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.Festinger and Carlsmith, Milgram, Asch, Zimbardo

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the sociocultural level of analysis.Festinger and Carlsmith, Morris and Peng, Darley and Latane

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the sociocultural level of analysis.Milgram, Asch, Zimbardo, Festinger and Carlsmith

Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior.Darley and Latane, Festinger and Carlsmith, Aronson and Steele, Zimbardo

Discuss two errors in attributions.Morris and Peng, Lee et. al

Evaluating self-serving theory, making reference to relevant studies.Lee and Nisbett, Wilson

Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior.Aronson and Steele

Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.Bandura...

Discuss the use of compliance techniques.Milgram, Asch

Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.Asch, Zimbardo

Discuss factors influencing conformity.Asch, Zimbardo

Define the terms “culture” and “cultural norms”.Asch, Zimbardo

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior.Darley and Latane, Asch

Using one or more examples, explain “emic” and “etic” concepts.

Developmental Psychology

To what extent do biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors influence human development?Chomsky (biological predisposition), Piaget (cognitive), Ainsworth (attachment)

Evaluate psychological research relevant to developmental psychology.Harlow, Baillargeon, Piaget, Ainsworth

Evaluate theories of cognitive development.Piaget, Vygotsky, Baillargeon

Discuss how social and environmental variables may affect cognitive development.Bandura, Ainsworth

Examine attachment in childhood and its role in the subsequent formation of relationships.Ainsworth, Harlow

Discuss potential effect of deprivation or trauma in childhood on later development.Freud, Adler

Discuss the formation and development of gender roles.Bandura, Erikson

Explain cultural variations in gender roles.Bandura, Erikson, EAGLY

Describe adolescence.Freud, Erikson, Bandura

Discuss the relationship between physical change and development of identity during adolescence.Erikson, adolescents with hormones advance primary and secondary sexual organs.

Examine psychological research into adolescence.Erikson (no research), Piaget, Bandura

Psychology SL Exam Notes

STILL NEED MORE STUDIES!!!!!!!!!!!!

Biological level of analysis

· Broca= studied cortical localization. Treated a series of patients who had great difficulty speaking but could

comprehend written or spoken language. Autopsies revealed brain damage to an area on the lower left frontal

lobe (Broca’s area- plays a crucial role in speech production)

· Wernicke= patients had great difficulty understanding spoken or written communications. They could speak

quickly and easily but their speech sometimes made no sense (meaningless words or nonsense syllables).

Autopsies revealed consistent damage to an area on the left temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area).

Note: discoveries of Broca and Wernicke provided clinical evidence that language and speech functions are

performed primarily by the left cerebral hemisphere; lateralization of function- specific psychological or

cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain; aphasia- the partial or complete inability to

articulate ideas or understand spoken written language because of brain injury or damage (expressive aphasia à

Broca, receptive aphasia à Wernicke) (also cortical localization- the idea that particular areas of the human

brain are associated with particular functions)

· Kandel= Aplysia- sea snail- has a small amount of large neurons. Studied the neuronal changes that occur

when Aplysia forms new memory for a simple classically conditioned response. Study: gave sea snail a squirt

with a WaterPik, followed by a mild electric shock to its tail, the snail reflexively withdraws its gill flap. After

several times, the sea snail acquires anew memory of a classically conditioned response- withdraws its gill when

squirted with the WaterPik alone. ß seems to involve a circuit of just 3 neurons: one that detects the water squirt,

one that detects the tail shock, and one that signals the gill-withdrawal reflex. Changes occur after new memory:

(1) (function:) there is an increase in the amount of neurotransmitters produced by the neurons, (structure:) the

number of interconnecting branches between the neurons increases, as does the number of synapses…these

changes are called long-term potentiation: long lasting increase in synaptic strength. (Ecological validity?)

· Thompson= classically conditioned rabbits to perform a very simple behavior- an eye blink. By repeatedly

pairing a tone with a puff of air administered to the rabbit’s eye, he classically conditioned rabbits to blink

reflexively in response to the tone alone. Discovered that after a rabbit had learned this simple behavior, there

was a change in the brain activity in a small area of the rabbit’s cerebellum (involved in physical movements).

When the tiny area of the cerebellum was removed, the rabbit’s memory of the learned response disappeared. It

no longer blinked at the sound of the tone, but the puff of air still cause it to blink. Concluded that the long-term

memory trace of the classically conditioned eye blink was formed and stored in a very localized region of the

cerebellum à localized memories…but Lashley (rat run maze- includes many senses) concluded that memories

are distributed. Together, concluded that simple memories are localized, while complex are distributed.

· Pert/Snyder= discovered opiate (pain- relieving drugs) receptors in the brains of animals. Removed the

brains of mice, rats, and guinea pigs. Samples of brain tissue were treated with radioactive morphin and naloxone

(blocks morphine’s effects). A device detected whether the morphine and naloxone had attached to receptors in

the brain tissue. Found that the chemicals had bound to specific receptors (opiate). Inferred that the brain must

manufacture its own opiatelike chemicals.

· Loewi= removed the beating heart of a freshly killed frog, along with the portion of the vagus nerve attached

to it, and placed it in a solution of salt water. By electrically stimulating the vagus nerve, he made the heart beat

slower. He put another heart in solution. Though he had not stimulated its vagus nerve, the second heart began to

beat slower. Concluded that stimulation of the vagus nerve of the first heart had released a chemical into the

solution- acetylcholine. (synaptic transmission)

· Sperry= split brain operation- a surgical procedure that involves cutting the corpus callosum (thick band of

axons that connects the 2 hemispheres) - used to stop or reduce recurring seizures in severe cases of epilepsy that

can’t be treated in any other fashion so that the seizures could be contained in just one hemisphere. Study:

participant focuses his attention on the midpoint of the screen. Visual info to the right of the midpoint is

projected to the person’s left hemisphere and vice versa. Sperry projected the image to the left of the midpoint,

so that the image was sent to the right, nonverbal hemisphere. If the participant was asked to verbally identify the

image flashed on the screen, he could not do so and denied that anything appeared on the screen. However, if the

subject was asked to use his left hand to reach under the partition for the object, he would correctly pick up the

hammer, because his left hand was controlled by the same right hemisphere that saw the image of the hammer.

As a result, the conclusion was that for most people, the left hemisphere is superior in language abilities, speech,

reading and writing, while the right hemisphere is involved in nonverbal emotional expression, and visual-spatial

tasks. Also supports cortical localization and lateralization of function?

· Milner and Corkin- H.M. = H.M. had anterograde amnesia- the inability to form new memories. Young

H.M. had a history of severe, untreatable, epileptic seizures. Doctors surgically removed portions of the medial

(inner) temporal lobe on each side of his brain, including the hippocampus. Result- seizures were reduced, but

H.M.’s ability to form new memories of events and info had been destroyed. Revealed the role of the

hippocampus in forming new explicit memories for episodic and semantic info.

· Boeker= recruited ten distance runners and told them that the opiate receptors in their brains were being

studied. There was no mention made of endorphins or the runner’s high. PET scans were performed on each

subject both before and after a two-hour run, and a psychological test was given to assess their mood before and

after the run. The results of the study showed that there was a significant increase in endorphins in the brain after

the run, particularly in the areas of the brain associated with mood regulation: the prefrontal and limbic regions.

(Runner’s high). However, other neurotransmitters are probably also involved in runner’s high. NEED

ANOTHER HOROMONE STUDY

· McClintock= female menstrual cycle (studying the existence of human pheromones)- proved that the more

time women spent together, the more likely their cycles were to be in sync. Smelling an unknown chemical

substance in underarm sweat from female donors synchronized the recipients’ menstrual cycles with the donors’

cycles. Found that exposure to the male or female steroid (naturally produced by the human body and found in

sweat, armpit hair, blood, and semen) helped women maintain a positive mood after spending two hours filling

out a tedious, frustrating questionnaire. PET scans of the women showed that exposure to the steroid increased

activity in several key brain areas involving emotion and attention, including the prefrontal cortex, amygdale,

and cerebellum.

· Jet lag= circadian rythym- a cycle that is roughly 24 hours long; the cyclical daily fluctuations in biological

and psychological processes. When you travel, and either adds or subtracts hours, your circadian rhythm are

drastically out of synchronization with daylight and darkness cues. The psychological and physiological effects

of this disruption in circadian rhythms can be severe- thinking, concentration, and memory get fuzzy, mental

fatigue, depression or irritability, and disrupted sleep. (Melatonin plays a role)

· Selye (482) = rats exposed to prolonged stressors, such as electric shock, extreme heat or cold, or forced

exercise. He found that the adrenal glands became enlarged, stomach ulcers and loss of weight occurred, and

there was a shrinkage of the thymus gland and lymph glands (2 key components of the immune system).

Believed that these physical changes represented the essential effects of stress- the body’s response to any

demand placed on it. General adaptation syndrome: 3 stages- (1) alarm stage- intense arousal occurs as the body

mobilizes internal physical resources to meet the demands of the stress-producing event. (2) resistance stage- the

body actively tries to resist or adjust to the continuing stressful situation, (3) exhaustion stage- symptoms of the

alarm stage reappear, irreversibly à leads to exhaustion, physical disorders, and potentially, death

· Clive Wearing= only has less than 30 seconds of memory, as little as 7 seconds, has anterograde and

retrograde amnesia. MRI scanning of his brain shows damage to the hippocampus and some of the frontal

regions. His episodic and some semantic memory are lost, and cannot transfer new memories into long-term

memory. However, he can still play the piano and conduct the music he knew before his illness à distributed

memory system

· Aserinsky= used his 8-year-old son as a subject, discovered that particular EEG (electroencephalogram- the

graphic record of the brain activity produced by an electroencephalograph) patterns during sleep were often

associated with rapid movements of the sleeper’s eyes. Periods of rapid eye movement were highly correlated

with the subject’s reports of dreaming. Rapid Eye movement sleep (REM)- active sleep

· Gottesman and others (537) = (1) family studies show that schizophrenia tends to cluster in certain families.

(2) Family and twin studies show that the more closely related a person is to someone who has schizophrenia, the

greater the risk that she will be diagnosed with schizophrenia at some point in lifetime. (3) Adoption studies have

shown that if either biological parent of an adopted individual had schizophrenia, the adopted individual is at a

greater risk to develop schizophrenia. (4) by studying families that display a high rate of schizophrenia, find that

the presence of certain genetic variations seems to increase susceptibility to the disorder. Torrey- almost 50%

risk rate for a person whose identical twin has schizophrenia

· Adher and Cohen= mice prone to Lupus are offered a saccharin-flavored drink at the same time they are

injected with a potent immune-supressing drug to treat their Lupus. Once the association is learned, the taste

alone (with no injection at all) reduces inflammation and symptoms of Lupus almost as much as the drug alone.

Helped establish field called psychoneuroimmunology- the scientific study of the connections among

psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system.

· Garcia= taste aversion- a classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops

when an organism becomes ill after eating the food. Study: rats first drank saccharine- flavored water (neutral

stimulus). Hours later, the rats were injected with a drug (unconditioned stimulus) that produced gastrointestinal

distress (the unconditioned response). After the rats recovered from their illness, they refused to drink the

flavored water again. The rats had developed a taste aversion to the saccharin-flavored water (became a

conditioned stimulus)

Cognitive level of analysis

· Bandura= observational learning- learning that occurs through observing the actions of others. Study: 4 year old

children separately watched a short film showing an adult playing aggressively with a Bobo Doll (balloon). All children

saw the adult hit, kick, and punch the Bobo Doll. However, there were 3 different versions of the film: (1) adult was

reinforced with candy/soda/snacks after aggressive behaviors, (2) punished for actions with scolding or spanking, (3)

aggressive adult experienced no consequences. After film, each child was able to play alone in a room with several toys,

including Bobo doll- equipped with one-way window so behavior could be observed. Children who watched punished

film were much less likely to imitate aggressive behavior than children who watched either of the other 2 film endings.

THEN, Bandura asked each child to imitate what the adult did in the fiml and each child was rewarded with

snacks/stickers. Virtually all the children could imitate aggressive behaviors. Conclusion- reinforcement is not essential

for learning to occur. Rather, the expectation of reinforcement affects the performance of what has been learned. 4

cognitive processes involved: (1) pay attention, (2) remember behavior, (3) transform actions that you are capable of

reproducing (motor skills), (4) motivation.

· Miller= “magical number 7 plus or minus 2” Study: 8 rows of numbers. In Row 1= 4 numbers, in row 8= 11

numbers (increase by 1 each row): experimenter reads numbers aloud to research subject, one row at a time; research

subject must repeat them back in same order (1 per second) à limits of short-term memory is about seven items/ bits of

info at one time. New info displaces currently held info if short-term memory is at filled capacity.

· Tolman= although such cognitive processes could not be observed directly, they could still be experimentally

verified and inferred by careful observation of outward behavior. Rats in mazes- rat placed in “start” box. A food reward

would be put in the “goal” box at the end of the maze. After several trials, it would eventually learn to run the maze

quickly and with very few errors. Believed (contrary to other traditional behaviorists) that rats had learned more than

simply the sequence of responses required to get to the food. Believed they built a cognitive map of the maze- a mental

representation of its layout. ALSO, reward or reinforcement is not necessary for learning to take place: study- 3 groups

of rats were put in the same maze once a day for several days. Group 1- food reward awaited the rats at end of maze-

performance steadily improved, # errors and time it took rats to reach “goal” box steadily declined. Group 2 placed in

maze with no food at end of maze- # of errors consistent and showed only slight improvement. Group 3 placed in maze

with no food reward for first 10 days of experiment (made many errors0, but on day 11, a food reward awaited at end of

maze à dramatic improvement in performance from day 11 to 12.

· Thompson= look under biological perspective ^

· Seligman and Maier= dogs arranged in groups of 3. 1st dog received shocks that it could escape by pushing a panel

with its nose. 2nd dog was “yoked” (fastened) to the first and received the same number of shocks. However, nothing the

second dog did could stop the shock- stopped only if the first dog pushed panel. Third dog was control and got no shocks

at all. THEN, dogs transferred to a shuttlebox- the first and third dogs quickly learned to jump over the barrier when the

floor became electrified. The second dog made no effort to jump over barrier- developed a cognitive expectation that its

behavior would have no effect on the environment (become passive). Learned helplessness- exposure to inescapable

and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior.

· Brewer and Treyens= participants briefly waited in the psychology professor’s office and then were taken to another

room and asked the recall details of the office- many participants falsely remembered objects that were not actually in

the office, such as books, a filing cabinet, a telephone, lamp, pens, pencils, coffee cup à objects that they remembered

were consistent with a typical professor’s office. Conclusion: our schemas (organized cluster of info about a particular

topic) can cause memory errors by prompting us to fill in missing detail with schema-consistent info

· Bartlett= “The War of the Ghosts”- 20 English participants read a traditional native American tale- struggled with

meaning (all participants from western society) and significance of some of its aspects. Bartlett used serial reproduction,

meaning that one participant had to hear the story and, after a short period of time, reproduce it to another. Then the

other one had to hear it and reproduce it to the next. After 6 times of reproducing the story from one to another, it had

been reduced from 330 words to 180 (this phenomenon is known as "leveling") . Not only had the participants made the

story shorter, but had also added their own interpretation of certain aspects unimportant or incoherent in a typical

western story. In other words, they made the story more consistent to their cultural expectations (this is known as

"assimilation"). Finally, the participants changed terms and used similar ones that that more familiar to their own cultural

background ("sharpening"). Such examples include the transformation of the word "canoe" to "boat" and "hunting heals"

to "fishing". Memory recall is influenced by our pre-existing knowledge, or our schema, which is influenced by our

cultural background.

· Sperling = flashed images of 12 letters on a screen for 1/20th of a second. The letters were arranged in 4 rows of 3

letters each. Subjects focused attention on screen and immediately after screen went blank, reported as many letters as

they could remember. ON average, subjects report only 4 or 5 of 12 letters. Subjects claimed they had seen all letters but

that complete image had faded from their memory. Study 2- arranged 12 letters in 3 rows of 4 letters each. Then,

immediately after the screen went blank, he sounded a high-pitched- report top row, medium- middle row, or low tone-

bottom row. If the tone followed the letter display in under 1/3 of a second, subjects could accurately report about 3 of 4

letters in whatever row was indicated by tone. However, if the interval between the screen going blank and the sound of

the tone was +1/3 of a second, the accuracy of the reports decreased dramatically. By 1 sec, image of visual sensory

memory had faded beyond recall. Conclusion- visual sensory memory holds a great deal of information very briefly, for

about half a second.

· Lockhart and Craik= suggested that memory was enhanced more by depth of processing than by how long

information was rehearsed. Study- first list of words- asked to remember by using maintenance rehearsal, second group

of words- asked to remember by using elaborative rehearsal (self-reference effect, visual imagery). Remember better

using elaborative rehearsal. (Primacy and recency effect- remember things at beginning and end, but not in

middle) ??????

· Loftus and Palmer= had subjects watch a film of an automobile accident. Subjects asked, “About how fast were the

cars going when they contact each other?” Different subjects were given different versions of that question: hit, bumped,

collided, smashed. Depending on the specific word used in the question, subjects provided very different estimates of the

speed of the cars. *smashed-41, collided-39, bi,[ed-38, hit- 34, contacted-32 (mph)). A week after the film, subjects

asked more questions: “Did you see any broken glass?” No glass in film, but most smashed subjects said yes. à

Misinformation effect- a person’s existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading info. (1)

exposed to simulated event, (2) after delay, receive misinformation, (3) try to remember details of original event

· Simons and Chabris= sensory memory- selective attention test- subjects shown video of people passing a basketball

and asked to count how many times the players wearing white pass the basketball. Then asked, “How many passes did

you count?” Correct answer is 15 passes. However, 50% of participants did not see the dancing gorilla

· Loftus and Pickrell= lost-in-the-mall study- gave each of 24 participants written descriptions of four childhood

events that had been provided by a parent or other older relative. Three of events had really happened, but the fourth was

a pseudoevent- false story about the participant getting lost in a shopping mall. Story: at age 5/6, person got lost for an

extended period of time in a mall, became upset and cried, was rescued by an elderly person, and ultimately was reunited

with family- family members verified that participant had never actually been lost in a shopping mall or department store

as a child. After reading the events, participant wrote down as many details as they could remember about each event.

About 2 weeks later, participants were interviewed and asked to recall as many details as they could about each of the 4

events. 1-2 weeks after that, participants interviewed a second time and asked again what they could remember of the 4

events. By the final review, 6 of the 24 patients had created either full or partial memories of being lost in the shopping

mall. Demonstrated that people can develop beliefs and memories for events that definitely did not happen to them.

· Schachter and Singer (340)= two-factor theory of emotion- emotion is the interaction o fthe physiological arousal

and the cognitive label that we apply to explain the arousal. Study: male volunteers were injected with epinephrine,

which produces sympathetic nervous system arousal: accelerated hearbeat, rapid breathing, trembling, etc. One group

was informed that their symptoms were cause by the injection, but the other group was not given this explanation. One at

a time, the volunteers experienced a situation that was designed to be either irritating or humorous. Result: the subjects

who were not informed tended to report feeling either happier or angrier than the informed subjects. (HAS FLAWS!)

· Talarico and Ruben= had Duke University students complete questionnaires about the terrorist attacks on the US that

had occurred the previous day (9/11). The students were asked questions like: “Where were you when you first heard the

new?” “Were there others present, who?” Also the students described some ordinary, everyday event that had occurred

in their lives at about the same time. Students were randomly assigned to a follow-up session either 1 week, 6 weeks, or

32 weeks later. At the follow-up sessions, they were asked to describe their memories of the ordinary event as well as

their memory of the 9/11 attacks. They were also asked to evaluate the accuracy and vividness of their memories. Then,

the researchers compared these accounts to their reports on September 12, 2001. Results: both the flashbulb and

everyday memories gradually decayed over time: The # of consistent details decreased and the # of inconsistent details

increased. However, when the students rated the memory’s vividness, their ability to recall the memory, and their belief

in the memory’s accuracy, only the ratings for the ordinary memory declined. SO: although flashbulb memories can

seem incredibly vivid, they appear to function just as normal, everyday memories do.

· Eich= state dependent retrieval- Gave some people marijuana while when they learned information. They had to

memorize 48 words from 24 different categories with 2 words in each category. Showed that people who learned with

marijuana recalled better high than when sober. However, the difference between recalling when high and sober for the

initial marijuana participants was rather minimal.

· Godden and Baddeley= context effect- the tendency to recover info more easily when the retrieval occurs in the

same setting as the original learning of the info. Study: 18 participants from a university diving club were asked to learn

a list of 38 unrelated 2 or 3 syllable words. The words were presented either on the beach or 15 feet under the sea. Pps

were randomly allocated to one of four conditions:

1. Learn on dry land and recall on dry land - context-cued condition

2. Learn underwater and recall underwater - context-cued condition

3. Learn on dry land and recall underwater - no context-cue

4. Learn underwater and recall on dry land - no context cue

All P’s experienced all 4 conditions, so it was a repeated measures design – with at least 24 hours between conditions.

Recall was 50% higher when it took place in the same environment as learning. Suggests that the environment can act

as a contextual cue for recall.

·

· Sperling= refer to biological level of analysis

Sociocultural level of analysis

· Darley and Latane= bystander effect- the greater the # of people present, the less likely each individual is to help

someone in distress. Reasons for effect: (1) Diffusion of responsibility- the presence of other people makes it less likely

that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among all the onlookers.

(2) we are motivated to some extent by the desire to behave in a socially acceptable way and to appear correct- rely on

the actions of others to help us guide our response to a situation. Study- Smoked filled room: Columbia University

students were invited to share their views about problems of urban life. Those who expressed an interest in participating

were asked to first report to a waiting room in one of the university buildings where they would find some forms to fill

out before being interviewed. They had no idea that the urban-life study was just a cover story. The real experiment

occurred in the waiting room- smoke began to enter the room through a small vent in the wall. By the end of four

minutes, there was enough smoke to obscure vision and interfere with breathing. In first condition, the students were

alone- they invariably investigated the smoke more closely and then went out into the hallway to tell someone about it.

in second condition, the students were not alone. There were two or three other people in the room, who were secret

confederates of the researchers. They had been instructed to not react to the smoke. If asked about it, they would simply

say, "I dunno." "only one of the ten subjects... reported the smoke. other nine subjects stayed in the waiting room for the

full six minutes while it continued to fill up with smoke,

· Lee et al. = fundamental attribution error- tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal

characteristics, while ignoring the effects of external, situational factors (common in individualistic cultures). Study: set

up game show scenario with college students as participants. Assigned roles- random assignment- game show host,

audience, and participants. Then after show the participants rated the intelligence of each person. People said game show

host was most intelligent. Conclusion: Participants underestimated the situational factors (game show host being allowed

to ask question) and over estimated dispositional factors (host’s intelligence).

· Asch= Line Conformity Study- 5 participants decided which line was same length as original. 4 participants chose

wrong line (confederates). (100 participants total) Participant goes along with subject- 76% of subjects confirmed on at

least 1 of the critical trials. However, partnership causes warm feelings and more correctness. Informational conformity-

desire to be correct, normative social conformity- want to be socially accepted. When you can privately answer à reduces

conformity

· Morris and Peng= looked at newspaper articles reporting the same mass murderer- in English and Chinese- looked at

language: Americans made personal, internal attributions (individualistic society), Chinese claimed more situational

factors contributed to actions (collectivistic society) (within indiv. Society we blame ind., but in collect. society look at

environment and external factors) ß correlation, lack of generalizability, subjective. (EMIC- culturally specific)

· Milgram= shock study: participant (40 total with wide range of backgrounds) believes it is a study of memory. 2

participants and professor- 1 “randomly” gets assigned teacher, the other is the learner and is a confederate. The teacher

given a list of word pairs that learner needs to get right, if not, gets shocks. 26 of the 40 individuals go up to 450 volts. 5

go up to 315 V, 4 to 345 V, and 2 to 360 V. All the authority figure had to repeat was “the experiment requires that you

continue,” or “you have no other choice, you must continue.” While teacher applies shocks, the learner cries out (reads

from standard script- acting)

· Zimbardo= Stanford Prison Study- college students assigned role of guard or prisoner- gave them what to wear, in

basement of Stanford. Intention was to run for 2 weeks, but only happened for 6 days. Conclusion- People will readily

conform to the social roles they are expected to play, especially if the roles are as strongly stereotyped as those of the

prison guards.

· Aronson and Steele= if you activate stereotypes before a test, it’s going to influence the performance on the test.

Mathematically gifted women scored lower on a difficult math test when told that the test was used to produce gender

differences than not. (expectancy set)

· Macrae (450)= like other social categories, stereotypes simplify social info so that we can sort out, process, and

remember info about other people more easily

· Bond and Smith (456) = They carried out a meta-analysis of 133 conformity studies all using the Asch paradigm.

The studies were carried out in the following 17 countries: USA, Canada, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium,

Germany, Portugal, Japan, Hong Kong, Fijiu, Zimbabwe, Congo (Zaire), Ghana, Brazil, Kuwait and Lebanon. The

meta-analysis showed that more conformity was obtained in collectivistic countries like the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong and

Brazil than in individualistic countries like the USA, the UK or France. Bond and Smith’s findings are consistent with

the way the individualism/collectivism dimension was portrayed earlier. Members of collectivistic countries value

conformity because it promotes supportive group relationships and reduces conflicts

· Peng and Kitayama= Show participants a video of a group of fish- one fish left the group. Participants asked to

explain why it left the group. Participants from collectivist culture explained it by saying that the group didn’t like the

individual. Individualist cultures saw it as the individual wanted to be free or didn’t like the group.

· Ekman= Happiness, Surprise, Sadness, Anger, Disgust, and Fear are universal facial expressions. Looked at South

America, Japan, Europe, and North America. Went to a preliterate culture in New Guinea (no contact at that time with

the media). Showed faces to participant and asked them to make up a story of how they got those faces. Showed that

these 6 faces are universal. (ETIC- universal)

· Rizzolatti= placed electrodes in the ventral premotor cortex of the macaque monkey to study neurons specialized for

the control of hand and mouth actions; for example, taking hold of an object and manipulating it. During each

experiment the researchers allowed the monkey to reach for pieces of food and recorded from a single neuron in the

monkey's brain, thus measuring the neuron's response to certain movements. They found that some of the neurons they

recorded from would respond when the monkey saw a person pick up a piece of food as well as when the monkey picked

up the food.

Developmental psychology

· Bandura

· Ainsworth

· Chomsky

· Bem (367)

· Baillageon

· Piaget (368)

· Harlow

· Vandell and Corasaniti (363)

· Genie

· Beal (366)

· Fagat and Hagan (366) Please spell this correctly -Inaya

· Steinberg

· Erikson

Developmental psychology· Bandura= observational learning- learning that occurs through observing the actions of others. Study: 4 year old

children separately watched a short film showing an adult playing aggressively with a Bobo Doll (balloon). All children

saw the adult hit, kick, and punch the Bobo Doll. However, there were 3 different versions of the film: (1) adult was

reinforced with candy/soda/snacks after aggressive behaviors, (2) punished for actions with scolding or spanking, (3)

aggressive adult experienced no consequences. After film, each child was able to play alone in a room with several toys,

including Bobo doll- equipped with one-way window so behavior could be observed. Children who watched punished

film were much less likely to imitate aggressive behavior than children who watched either of the other 2 film endings.

THEN, Bandura asked each child to imitate what the adult did in the fiml and each child was rewarded with

snacks/stickers. Virtually all the children could imitate aggressive behaviors. Conclusion- reinforcement is not essential

for learning to occur. Rather, the expectation of reinforcement affects the performance of what has been learned. 4

cognitive processes involved: (1) pay attention, (2) remember behavior, (3) transform actions that you are capable of

reproducing (motor skills), (4) motivation.

· Ainsworth= strange situation. (100 middle class American families). Baby (between 1 and 2) and mother brought

into an unfamiliar room with a variety of toys. (1) Parent and infant alone. (2) Stranger joins parent and infant. (3)

Parent leaves infant and stranger alone. (4) Parent returns and stranger leaves. (5) Parent leaves; infant left completely

alone. (6) Stranger returns. (7) Parent returns and stranger leaves. (3 minute episodes). Ainsworth concluded that there

were three major styles of attachment: secure attachment (distress, easily soothed when mom is present and easily

explores when mom is present), ambivalent-insecure attachment (seeks and rejects mom), and avoidant-insecure

attachment (very independent of the attachment figure).

· Chomsky= every child is born with a predisposition to learn language- any language. Children posses a “universal

grammar”- a basic understanding of the common principles of language organization. Infants are innately equipped not

only to understand language but also to extract grammatical rules from what they hear. Children are born with a language

acquisition device (LAD), an innate ability to understand the principles of language. Once exposed to language, the LAD

allows children to learn the language at a remarkable pace.

· Bem (367) = developed gender schema theory- theory that gender-role development is influenced by the formation

of schemas or mental representations of masculinity and femininity. Gender schemas influence how people pay attention

to, perceive, interpret, and remember gender-relevant behavior. They also lead children to perceive members of their

own sex more favorably than members of the opposite sex. Study: Bem categorized participants into gender-schematic

persons (masculine males and feminine females, as determined by Bem's test of androgyny [1974]) and gender-

aschematic people (androgynous males and androgynous females). She argued that gender-schematic people are more

likely to engage in gender-schematic processing of information, whereas gender-aschematic people engage in it less. In a

free-recall test of a list of words, gender-schematic people were more likely to cluster the words by gender (e.g., gorilla,

bull, trousers), than gender-aschematic people were. Reaction-time data indicated that gender-schematic people, when

responding "me" or "not me," processed schema-consistent attributes faster than they processed schema-inconsistent

attributes. (criticism à exclusively cognitive)

· Baillageon= believed that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young children. The infant first

watches an expected event, which is consistent with the understanding that is being tested. Then, the infant is shown an

unexpected event. If the unexpected event violates the infant’s understanding of physical properties, he should be

surprised and look longer at the unexpected event than the expected event. Show that infants as young as 2 ½ months

show object permanence- understanding that an object continues to exist even when it can no longer be seen (more than

6 months earlier than the age at which Piaget believed).

· Piaget (368) = believed that children actively try to make sense out of their environment rather than passively

soaking up info about the world. Children progress through 4 cognitive stages: (1) sensorimotor stage- birth-2 yrs:

acquire knowledge through direct experience (through sensory knowledge), expand practical knowledge about motor

actions (what they can do and its effect). At end of stage, child has object permanence. (2) preoperational stage- 2 to 7:

prelogical stage. Symbolic thought- ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world. Egocentrism- lack

ability to consider events from another person’s point of view. Irreversibility- child cannot mentally reverse a sequence

of events of logical operation. Centration- tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation. Lack of conservation- two

equal physical quantities remain equal even if the appearance of one is changed. (3) concrete operational stage- 7 to 11:

true logical thought. Logic tends to be limited to concrete reality- difficulty thinking about hypothetical situations. (4)

formal operational stage- adolescence to adulthood: systematic and logical, think logically when dealing with abstract

ideas, continues to increase as you get older. Piaget understood that hereditary and environmental differences could

influence the rate at which a given child progressed through the stages.

· Harlow= new born monkey was put in a cage with 2 fake monkeys- one wire monkey that could give nourishing

milk, and another mother terry-cloth monkey who could not give nourishing milk. Semi-isolation: no interaction or

social contact with others. Placed deliberately on a cloth mother which has no milk to nourish him. Will the infant

monkey switch his affection towards the wire mother which offers food and life itself? The baby monkey spends up to 22

hours a day with the terry cloth monkey. If exposed early to other young he can grow into a normal, well adjusted adult.

Suggests that we attach to things that are comforting. However, we are not monkeys, we don’t live in cages, and we only

need so much food.

· Vandell and Corasaniti (363) = studied 236 predominantly middle-class 8-year-olds of predominantly white kids.

The sample also consisted of 72% two-parent families and 28% of single-parent mothers. Procedure: a number of

techniques were used to assess the children's cognitive development, for example: retrospective parental recollections;

teacher ratings, academic grades and standardized tests. Findings showed that children with more extensive day care

experiences since infancy were rated as having poorer academic and conduct report card grades and lower standardized

test scores. The researchers therefore concluded that day care has a negative effect on cognitive development.

· Genie= grew up with no human contact for 10 years was kept in her room chained to a child’s toilet (total social

isolation). Made no noises or speak, spit, intent ways she explored the environment, learned to form relationships,

learned to say words. Case supports the idea of a critical period for language development (before puberty). However,

Genie may have suffered from language difficulties before, and not empirical. While Genie was able to learn some

language after puberty, her inability to use grammar (which Chomsky suggests is what separates human language from

animal communication) offers evidence for the critical period hypothesis.

· Beal (366) = boys and girls seem to create separate “social worlds,” each with its own style of interaction. They also

learn particular ways of interacting that work well with peers of the same sex. Girls learn to maintain their close

friendships through compromise, conciliation, and verbal conflict resolution.

· Fagot and Hagan (366) = observed mothers and fathers interacting with their children in their homes. They found

that 18-month-old boys received more positive reactions from their parents for playing with male-typed toys and for

exhibiting aggressive or assertive behavior. In contrast, 18-month-old girls received more positive responses for attempts

to communicate with their parents, while boys received more negative reactions to such attempts.

· Erikson= Psychosocial Stages of Development: Adolescence- Identity vs. role confusion. The adolescent’s path to

successful identity achievement begins with role confusion, which is characterized by little sense of commitment on any

of these issues. Followed by a moratorium period, during which the adolescent experiments with different roles, values,

and beliefs. Gradually, by choosing among the alternatives and making commitments, the adolescent arrives at an

integrated identity. Identity crisis- formed because person does not have a good sense of who he/she is.

· Vygotsky= believed that Piaget underestimated the impact of the social and cultural environment on cognitive

development. Agreed with Piaget that children may be able to reach a particular cognitive level through their own

efforts, but argued that children are able to attain higher levels of cognitive development through the support and

instruction that they receive from other people. Zone of proximal development- the gap between what children can

accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent. Cross-cultural

studies (not by Vygotsky) show that cognitive development is strongly influenced by the skills that are valued and

encouraged in a particular environment. Suggests that Piaget’s stages are not as universal and culture-free as some

researchers had believed.

· Mead= studied 3 tribes in New Guinea. Arapesh tribe- men and women were kind and gentle and therefore displayed

female gender stereotypes and both genders shared chores relating to raising crops and caring for children. Mundugumor

tribe- men and women were arrogant, competitive, and emotionally unresponsive thus displaying male gender

stereotypes. Neither the men nor the women were interested in child rearing and so the children quickly became self

reliant. Tchambuli tribe- traditional gender roles were reversed. The men spent most of their time discussing things like

bodily adornments with other men, while the women were responsible for food production and making tools and clothes.

Suggest that gender roles can vary from culture to culture.

· Golderberg= Gave college women articles to read. Indicated they were written by a male author (“John McKay”) or

a female author (Joan McKay”). Identical articles. But participants rated the ones written by a male to be of higher

quality. This study was replicated and a meta-analysis was conducted. The results were no gender differences.

· Marcia= Identity States- Each state is determined by two factors:

1. Is the adolescent committed to an identity, and

2. Is the individual searching for their true identity?

Identity Foreclosure – means that the adolescent blindly accepts the identity and values that were given in childhood by

families and significant others. The adolescent's identity is foreclosed until they determine for themselves their true

identity. The adolescent in this state is committed to an identity but not as a result of their own searching or crisis.

Identity Moratorium – adolescent has acquired vague or ill-formed ideological and occupational commitments; he/she

is still undergoing the identity search (crisis). They are beginning to commit to an identity but are still developing it.

Diffusion – the state of having no clear idea of one's identity and making no attempt to find that identity. These

adolescents may have struggled to find their identity, but they never resolved it, and they seem to have stopped trying.

There is no commitment and no searching.

Identity Achievement – the state of having developed well-defined personal values and self-concepts. Their identities

may be expanded and further defined in adulthood, but the