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SOCIAL CHANGE

Widespread and pluralistic and frequent but with small results

Research focuses on what causes, predicts, and creates change and effective ways of coping with it

To initiate change one must look for social regularities in roles and power and must understand how

time, culture and power help or hinder change

Sources

Population diversity, declining resources, accountability, new knowledge, socialConflict, dissatisfaction with current services, desire for diverse solutions

Principles

Collaboration, empowerment, long-term commitment, preparation for change,

time and effort to match compleity of problem, multiple solutions, strive to achieve second order

change

Failure

natural resistance, investment in status quo, issue only benefits minority, failure

to include diverse groups, unwelcome tactics

Approaches

change persons or environment

Cooperative- consultation, organi!ational development

"dversarial- community organi!ation, alternative settings

Cycles of Organizing Change"ssessment- community organi!ers meet one on one with citi!ens to define issues and develop

working partnerships to strengthen group

Research- organi!ers meet as a whole to identify most pressing issue for group based on

communication with citi!ens

#ather additional information and identify contradictions between policy and practice

$obili!ation- decide on action plan to target official and address reality of the problem

Reflection- return to citi!ens to evaluate outcomes and learned lessons

Nine Stages of Change

%o awareness, denial, vague awareness, preplanning, preparing strategies, initiating strategies,

establishing changes, improving, maintaining

Community Coalition

&rgani!ation composed of representatives of multiple community groups who bring togetherresources to achieve common goal

Consciousness aising

'ncreasing critical awareness of social conditions and energi!ing involvement in challenging them

Community ea!iness

(ow much a locality recogni!es a problem and takes steps to address or prevent it

'nvolves knowledge of problem and methods to address it, strength of leadership, resources for action

and community climate of attitudes and commitment

Social Action

#rassroots efforts to offset power by identifying and removing obstacles through empowerment

through constructive conflict and non-violent action

$ust identify capacities of activists and opponents and dramati!e situation for change

Community "e#elopment

Process of strengthening relationships among community members to define problems, resources andstrategies and does not rely on conflict but seeks to bring together the resources of a community

Community Coalition

)ring together broad representation of citi!ens to address local problems

"gree on mission then formulate and implement plan

)ring organi!ations together for coordinated action, create and coordinate prevention programs and

engage resources of non-governmental community institutions

*ocuses on bridging conflict more than utili!ing or creating it

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CONS$L%A%ION

Characteristics

'mprove effectiveness of service delivery

'mpact sociali!ation, effective systems improve outcomes

"ssumes that providers are benevolent and want to improve functioning

'ntroduce epert to share information and skills with service

%hree %ypesClient-Centered- target of change is consultee for their client

Consultee-Centered- target of change is consultee themselves

Program-Centered- target of change is the service program

Strengths an! Limitations

Collaboration of mutual interest and epertise

+ffectiveness limited by resistance to change, conflicts of values and goals, consultation information

can be used for oppression, institutional rigidity can limit results

OGANI&A%IONAL "E'ELOP(EN%

Characteristics

*ocus on interaction of environment demands and pressures and individuals within the organi!ation

*ocus on structure and psychological features that impact the organi!ational climate

)est suited for problems of mistrust, alienation, and low moraleRequires recognition of problem and commitment to change and staff motivation with minimal

defensiveness

"ssumes organi!ation is basically benevolent, improved effectiveness achieved by bringing members

under more effective social control


Collaboration of mutual interest and epertise

+ffectiveness limited by resistance to change, conflicts of values and goals, consultation information

can be used for oppression, institutional rigidity can limit results

OGANI&A%IONAL A"'OCAC)

Characteristics

"ims to help less powerful gain effective control over social resources"ssumes people have rights that must be fought for through politics

Corrects weakness of institutions that aggravate personal problems

"ssumes relationship between individual, social, political, legal and economic forces that determine

perception of problem and solutions

"dversarial relationship between persons and organi!ations

&rgani!ations unable or unwilling to meet community needs

Reorder priorities to give needs due consideration


Works alongside the community from the bottom up to empower them

Risks alienating support of maority and may create more conflict than it solves

PAALLEL INS%I%$%IONS

CharacteristicsCreate alternative settings as strategy for changing unresponsive social systems or for testing new

ideas

+volve when eisting institutions views as unwilling or unable to meet specific needs or groups of

community

#oals to address immediate needs of members challenge and change systems through new ideas,

values and methods


ery empowering and possess a lot of energy

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&ffer new alternative treatment and may even be absorbed back into the main treatment

.nder-resourced and risk burn-out from limited support

"$"LE) S%EE%

/uccession- transition from working white class to ethnic emigrants

Contributions of city and private companies to deterioration of community

*ailure to prosecute arson and fraud and failure of city to enforce ordinance against illegal dumping,greed and racism

Power of coming together, role of charismatic leadership, difference of well-intentioned outsiders to

define solutions and community defining own solutions

Collaboration between community and outsiders with combination of small wins and comprehensive

approaches

PE'EN%ION

%eed for services eceeds available resources

Cannot rely solely on individual-focused reconstructive interventions but must prevent new

occurrences in the community

Prevention is more cost-effective than individual treatment by reducing cost of long-term disability

and increasing ta revenues

Therefore, prevention programs can pay for themselves from cost savings#rowing dissatisfaction with availability and access to care

Challenges to Pre#ention

'mplicit acceptable casualties0 society can tolerate

(uman services and education focused on individual prevent and treatment

iew prevention and treatment as competitors

1imited evidence prevention is effective and a lack of formal training in prevention techniques

Prevention efforts may involve political action to effect change

Prevent ultimately predicts a non-event, cannot provide positive evidence of own success

Pre#ention Features

Prevention strategies target contetual factors as contributors to problems

)elief in large-scale proactive interventions using public funds

*ocused on general population, not individuals$odification of the processes that lead to emergence of maladustment and illness in order to stop or

delay onset of problem

Pre#ention Concepts

'ncidence- number of new cases at a specific time

Prevalence- number of cases at specific time

$arker- attributes that indicates disorder

Risk- conditional probability of developing disorder through eposure to condition

Risk *actor- attributes that result in risk for disorder

%ypes of Pre#ention Perio!s

Primary Prevention- reduces incidence by targeting risk factors to prevent development of disorders

.niversal, community, critical and high risk interventions

/econdary Prevention- intervention at early signs and symptoms to prevent further deterioration

Community, critical, high risk and indicated interventionsTertiary Prevention- intervention on complete disorder to prevent disability

Reduces prevalence through early case findings and prompt intervention

(igh risk and indicated interventions

%ypes of Pre#ention Programs

.niversal Prevention- targets all in population regardless of relative risk

ery inefficient and cost-ineffective

/elected Prevention- target subgroups eposed to risk factors

Community-Wide- comprehensive, epensive, potentially great yield

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Risk for stigma is high

Critical Period- target life periods of high stress and high risk

(igh Risk 2 target those that have a high risk for disorder

'ndicated- target those individuals showing early signs of disorder

O*stacles to Pre#ention

+ffective Programs- comprehensive, varied teaching methods, sufficient dosage, theory driven,

positive relationships, appropriately timed, socio-culturally relevant, clarity of goals and obectives,appropriate outcome evaluation, well-trained staff

Prevention Challenges- social problems multiply determined thus interventions must be comple and

multi-dimensional, difficult to determine which aspect of interventions are necessary for success,

outcomes difficult to define and measure

E(PO+E(EN% AN" ESILIENCE

Empo,erment

+mpowerment- prevention efforts well-intended but problem definition and solutions controlled by

eperts where paternalism fosters dependency

$ust allow those affected to be in control

+mpowerment increases likelihood of yielding multiple solutions and prevents dependency by

fostering self-sufficiency

3iffers from betterment which is a top-down approach to improve the community by professionalintervention that is in control of the process

esilience

Resilience- positive adaptation or adustment despite significant adversity

)etter than epected functioning but not etraordinary

.sually evidenced in one domain over other

+nhanced by protective factors 4family, community, personality5

Resilience is relative, circumscribed in terms of time and domain and based on person0s ongoing

interactions with environment

+arly coping or vulnerability effects coping later in life chain

"e#elopmental Assets

Psycho-social protective factors which promote development

Thriving related to positive affect and self esteem not ust coping and resilienceRequires identity-affirming tradition, sense of survival in adversity, strong education, and alternative

ways of thinking

S%ESS

3isorder as product of personal vulnerabilities 4diatheses5, eposure to stressors and resources

/tress does not cause but contributes to disorder

1ife events eert cumulative impact and stressors tend to co-occur

.ncontrollable and unepected events correlated with greater stress

General A!aptation Syn!rome -Selye.

(ow organism responds to stress

Primarily a physiological model, not a psychological one

"larm stage activates sympathetic nervous system

Results in increased heart and respiratory rates+haustion stage results in physical depletion and possibly death

"iathesis Stress (o!el

3iatheses set the threshold of susceptibility to environmental ha!ards that precipitate disorder

4contet, psychosocial, biological5

Predisposing conditions 2 vulnerability develop due to eposure to ha!ardous conditions and6or from

lack of resources7

Compensatory conditions or coping resources can reduce the likelihood that negative outcomes will

occur in the face of adverse events7

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Conditions that enhance risk or resilience are ideal targets for prevention interventions

Takes into account prior eposure and the availability of personal and situational resources which

#"/ does not

Stress/(e!iating (o!el -"ohren,en!.

Psychopathology results from interplays of diatheses or vulnerabilities, eposure to significant

stressors, and multiple psychological and situational factors

/tresses produce transient reactions that can result in either no significant psychological damage,psychological growth or dysfunction7

Which outcome occurs depends on presence of diatheses and on psychological and situational factors

Stress Pre!ictors

Positive &utcome Predictors- lower stress eposure, adequate situational, personal and social

resources

%egative &utcome Predictors- multiple stress eposures, biological dysregulation, limited resources

%argets for Inter#ention

'dentifies opportunities for interventions targeted at specific levels where deficits are identified

'nterventions also target different stages within the stress disorder process

COPING AN" S$PPO%

%ypes of Coping

Problem *ocused Coping- directs attention to stressful situation and involves evaluating possibleresponses and deciding on best course of action

+motion *ocused Coping- directions attention to subective eperience of stress and focuses on

emotional epression and potential benefits

"pproach Coping- facing stress and dealing with it directly

"voidance Coping- distance from stress

/ense of control and optimism correlated with better coping

%ypes of Support

/ocial /upport- helpful interpersonal connections and echanges

Perceived /upport- belief that one is loved and valued by others

+nacted /upport- actual support received

+motional /upport- sense of emotional companionship that provides reassurance and encouragement

and provides opportunity for self-epressionTangible /upport- direct material support and information

Pro*lems of Support

)elief in a ust world or blaming the victim may be problematic for coping responses

$aterial or emotional support may foster eventual dependence

/upport may minimi!e the loss or promote a too quick recovery or be too critical

(ighly visible support may minimi!e sense of self-efficacy and coping

ESEACH

%ypes of esearch

Research in Community- studying community residents 4most common5

Research with Community- community collaboration studies

Research on Community- community level analysis in which the unit of analysis is the community as

a setting and systemesearch Perspecti#es

Positivism- obectivity and value free neutrality, testing hypothesi!ed cause-effect relationships,

control of etraneous variables and generating laws and principles

Constructivism- knowledge occurs in relation of researcher to participant

Critical /cience- scientific knowledge shaped by power relationships created and maintained by social

institutions and beliefs and researchers must recogni!e biases and challenge them

Researchers have variety of values but rely on empirical science

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)ased on personal values, researchers may address problems as obectively as possible or take an

activist stance

'ntellectual honesty is always essential

E0ploitation an! Colla*oration

Community +ploitation Research- research benefits researcher, not community, views community as

areas of eperimentation

Community Collaboration Research- costs and benefits shared by community and researcherPhases of esearch

Participation varies from minimal to maimal depending on setting and issues addressed

+arly phase identifies key stakeholders, gate keepers, community leadership and organi!ations

/econd phase establishes relationships, sponsorships and collaboration

Third phase identifies needs, strengths and resources

Challenges to esearch

*ace challenge of scientific language and culture, conflict of scientific randomi!ed eperimentation

and meeting community needs, challenge of being time consuming, community participants may face

criticism, researchers lack sensitivity and skills to work across cultural and social lines, collaboration

does not guarantee beneficial outcomes, challenge of publishing results

Challenge of studying different levels of analysis and their interaction, must understand how micro

and macro level factors come together

Cultural an! Social Conte0t of esearch1$ust assess cultural identification of group membership

"ssumption of population homogeneity often unappreciated 4age, gender, /+/, tribal affiliation,

nationality, immigration status, level of acculturation5

)etween group comparisons useful but over interpret differences in terms of deficits

Culturally-grounded research takes time interacting with and learning from target group and requires

engaging with community in ways beyond the specific needs of research and hiring and training local

residents to administer study protocol

3ebate about social issues dominated by elites, those affected often go unheard

$ust listen to those affected to understand problem and alternative solutions

8uality and utility of data depends on contet in which it is collected and especially on relationships

between researcher and participant

E%HICS

+thical guidelines for confidentiality, consent, conflicts of interest, role boundaries

)readth of issues and priorities makes difficult to develop consensus on solutions to ethical challenges

facing community psychology

"ttention must be given to individual, interpersonal, organi!ational, community and social contet in

which research and services occur

+thical 3ilemma- value conflicts, goals, processes, informed consent, generation and use of evidence

Ethics an! 'alues

alue neutral versus value advocacy perspectives

%eutrality desirable, personal values invariably influence approaches taken however

Conflicts between interventionist and community are very likely and difficult to resolve

"dvocacy can limit the options available or acceptable to recipient by assuming one knows what is

neededEthics an! Goals

alues, interests and goals influence the outcomes sought for

3ifferences between groups likely to emerge and could constitute ethical dilemma

3ifferent perspectives linked to different levels of analysis 4individual vs community5

Ethics an! Action

Processes in community psychology emphasi!e collaboration, sensitivity, responsiveness to needs,

open interchange and feedback regarding results over course of intervention

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*ocus on anonymity, accountability, empowerment, and dignity with minimali!ing dependency on

professionals for growth, competence and independence

Ethics an! Consent

Purpose of informed consent is to protect rights of participant

'n communities, unclear who should be informed

'nvolves providing information about potential risks and benefits so that a competent voluntary

decision regarding participation can be made without coercionProviding estimates of risks can have iatrogenic effects such as stigma

Ethics an! "ata

'nterventions should be informed by available knowledge

%egative effects of intervention must be anticipated and addressed

Well-intended but poorly designed studies do more harm than good

+ffective interventions need to be modified and disseminated to community

"OHEN"+EN"2S (O"EL

$odel of psychological stress process and reaction to it

Personal and situational characteristics affect disposition towards stress

Respond to stress in accordance with the level of vulnerability

Can result in psychological growth, no substantial change or psychopathology

These reactions are mediated by situational supports and psychological abilities"dditional interventions can be applied at various stages of the process to affect outcome

Political action and education can be applied to situational and personal dispositions respectively

'ndividual skill training and community development can be applied to individual and situational

mediating factors

Crisis intervention can be applied to transient stress reactions and corrective therapy can be applied to

psychopathology

LO"GE POGA(


"ffordable living situation for community of the mentally ill

Residents make own rules and manage own activities

Residents operate business together/taff intervention limited to emergencies and mentoring and advising

Raise social status of members as well as self-esteem

Documents

Psych 175